‘Books by Eli Aronson 1, Handi f Sait Payday ith C Linda) 20 Read ‘Ma Aon Wesley, 196861903 2. Theo Cpmtoe Coste (ith R. Abelson et), Chico: end MeN, 1968 3 eof Maen Ply. Reading Mate: Adinon Wes, 1969 14 The Sal dina New Yoke W-HL reemae, 1972, 197,198, 196,188, 1982, 1995, 5. Readings bot The Sail ial New York W.H, Fema, 1972, 1976, 180,984 198, 19921995, (6 Sea htt ith R. Heli), New York Van Nosran, 1973. 4, Reach Maton Sol Pyle (ith Caoith 8 Flower) Reading, Mass -Addon- Wet, 1978. 8 Theft Crm Beverly Hie, Cal: Suge 1978 9, Barat From Tet Peoal Groh A Pies 8D. Ka [New Yor ae Pree 198, 1. Enrgy Use The Human Dimension wits PC Str] New Yrs WH Treeman, 198, 11. To Hanaoka Pacey with. Linday), Sede, New ‘York Randa Hore, 185. 12 Gaur Broa ith Ais). New York: Fre Pr, 198 13. Masada Rohn Sil Py with Ewer, Caenih 8c onal, New York Random Howe 10. Ye dgeofPpopende ith AR. Patan) New York W.#.Feenan, 1998 15, Socal Pehl: ama, 2, 0 (with AR Peta), London ipa L992 eS Poco: The Heart andthe Mind (tT Wilton Be RiAker)- New Yorks Harperaling, 194 17, Sul Pyle: A Introduction with Wibog 8-R. Aker) New You Longman, 19. Eighth Edition The Social Animal Elliot Aronson ny of ana St rat WORTH PUBLISHERS /W.H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY4 Social Cognition* Io hie maerpice PublicOpinion the dinguthed pollen [yu Wales Lippnaa? coun te sory oft young i, ough {pineal ting tw who one day went om chelate cep ep of gk Te oe that a gs of wind ad sudely Cachet kitchen windowpare, The young wat icone ‘hd epokeincompheny fer bas When sew ily able 0 {peak eatonly she explained tat a broken pane of gat me Joe naive fad ced She was there mouraing er oa he wa conn had ur passed vray. The Young ie ‘mse dscns wt ays Inter © tdepa eied veri. that her Bher wal very mac lve The pl had const mpl ton burdon simple eterna et (boken window, Sipiton (ken window tei death), es, apd lve fr her fateDusig he Mile Age in Buope, it ma common pice to npr chamber otters seed aay spy of ine td ecrmeny towing cnt othe nde tthe Steet Below The tne snd casement fen reine) ie the ‘et—eeding persons tnd ssa ey in wed i twoy? To ormoden minh ths tcarorenspiebe Sas and dawnsgh pi speci when oe veer a door pling wi deeoed cena befor by ie Rea ow id the caer pot some nto bigs Dusing te Mile Age + Set rere ator oly warn inl Ue att weed body was ajc ost by onl out ar cul ae bly arm, Bec of that ble tc Roan pace af ly bang ‘rt sindoned and ec y sone erat Grey Indoor plumbing fe Rone fl te pl nd socio ‘he plumbing ened sini ndor tae: Te homes pot was bor feces Iwan onus that yp the 5 fee wari your aden toy based es steceia! The point ofthe wore abot the young gi andthe eda chamber pti ne to epore the nner wolinge of the nora ‘mind, nor sit an attempt o show modem ances in health aad Ingle se vera pete ie nae auesian:To what exten might we reemble the young Bet fom the mining town td the wir ofthe medial charset po? Flow sight our fictons guide our Bbavor and seo? Te would not Surprise me if the wits of «socal pycology tectbook inthe tment second century ban er chapter on seal eogiton ot ‘ith a story about chamber poy, but with tl of pene runt? ode dc tothe AIDS i The sory night go somchng During the eweneth end tent Sue cette los died of Samine—oot fom lick of fod, but beau thie food had been Doned by yeas of ehemseal runt gad bung up i Se food inn’ A great many knowledgeable people pete hs was Ippeing but usecaantaky idea noting wa one prevent 1 aon oe nde nd fy ilo pope ded ofthe [AIDS irs because they were ewig oe eons Te mode cen reads may be wondering ow sear that cul place men nd women onthe moon and cat let of dangerous ewes {ald bene fatty Welt sete fan hoe ys many feopl spare teed ht lng fan about the pean sal parte wa if an old eset bar Pa eam te ar othe ey fit cer, ost parents of tages lang the pinfve bb hat dating condos in gh ‘Shoe would fren serel omic spe of he ft that ‘rfl exec demonstrated hat hw ao theese Sty ning am rer eho pit et tow pended people ere inthe twentet a wen Frcentrtn tte atte Ramer orton: lw mach welt hoe heflee AIDS wine ote farmer wo wed peed exe How we make ss fou ei wold ae fee Andee saps me see ft wollte of s+ Seeker! we ent one prn wef npn Shay ete ners pei ra dnt se ao ‘ed nds br ech a unre of cs ve a ent ‘Sebewnhh ila tow meee Gc we eed Spear sou our and wea nk koh rt Sxa‘Yowr ner taut tye we er fob ene 5a dy we mae de" hve lanh wth, ee daa rt ren wnat ohh mon ewer Soot noes toione: Oscaonaly ob conse erinpers Who ote hat ti wht ple Sere Elo nck sca ply to spor wich eon eater Orel hae He we ke beth a "aZaponnt Scone pendent ho we cmc and 2 af os wel How Do We Make Sense of the World? Homan beings ove wonderful braine—powerfel and efficient ‘Bu as wondefl your brane ao hey are far from perfect. One consequence ofthis imperfection that most of us end up “know ing lt of things tht simply ae 80 wue- Let us ake a common ‘rumple: Many people harbor the belief chat relatively infecilecouple who adopt a baby ave subsequenly mae likly to conceive 2 child oftheir owa than relatively infer couples who do not ‘dope. The vetoning gos something ike thie: Aer the adoption, the pees ie off, now that the coupe i rlaxed, thie somchow makes conception easier But according to Tom Civic this be- lik while widespread, ix simply not tue tlatvly infethe couples vino adopts baby arene more likly to conceive than relatively in Fesile couples who donot adopt. Why do more people believe ii 0"Teo easton (1) Itech x charming ea that we wand to be true; @) we tend to Foss out attention on those few instances tvhen adoptie parents conceived baby oftheir own and met om ‘hoe instancre when they failed to conceive o when nonadoptve parens conceived baby Thus, because of selective ateation and elective memory, it suse sams tobe tue Indeed, x8 many of You nay have notice, thore wh know things that ply aze aot ue a very hard o perwoade other. "Are we cational animale or not? We surety tobe, One com= son vew of ran cognition i tha its completely rational; exch individual attempt 0 do his or herbert to be sight and to bold ‘outect opinions and belief. One ofthe primary proponeats ofthis ‘iow of human thought was the eightenth-cntury oitran pil= ‘ioperJeemty Bentham. According to Benth, we engage ia Placa oc happines calculation, to determine what good find what i bd Totake a mundane example, uppote I wanted to prchare a new car In determining the make and model to buy, ‘would add up de pleasures each brand would bring—sporty de= ign, comfortable interion, powerfal engine—and. subteat the pain the monthly payment that will mortgage my future, the car {hat not capable of gong past a gat sation without »Fll-up. then selec the ext that ringe me the most persue and the last, pain, For Benham, i wat the role of govenments and economic Fsteme to enurethe greatest happiness forthe grextex umber” (thers agree, for Benthamis concept of Feiiic calculus became 2 fundamental ssunption underlying modern captalizm. ‘Move recently the social paychologiet Harold Kelley bas ad vanced slightly more complex view of de rationality of human thought: People attempt to function as noe ens Tp order to sive a the bet explanation fora given event or phenomenon, nits look for covariation i thei dta—that i they attempt 10 Find cases where "K came before Y and always vated with Y and tonly with ¥ to conclade that X caused.” Similarly in explaining sri others do thing, people look for thee pieces of information: {the constancy ofthe actor action (Dees he she always bhave in ‘this manner in other stations and a other time?) cnsensus (De bthets behave in the ame way i the sme station?) and the dis~ fincenesr ofthe action (she or ahe the only ne to behave in his ‘manne or eampe, sppose Beth Kissed Scot and someone asked you wy, According to Kelley, before you could give 2 reasonable Answer to that question, you wold want to know 2 bit more about the situation: Doct Bet go around hsing almost everone atthe trop of ha? If, then you would probably conclude that thea Som'Beth kissed Scot is thas Beth isa very affectionate person. Suppose you found out that alos eerybady ses Scot. Then sot nigh argue thatthe reason Beth Kissed Scots chat Scots a ‘ery attractive person who wel iked by all Finally if Bet Kses nly Scott and a0 one elie kisses Scot, then you would probably Conelad that this behavior is due to rome special zlaonship ber ‘peeen Beth and Seote-—they ae in love ‘But do we humane figure things out as rationally as Bentham and Kelley suggest we do? These ili argument that we d on Tome ocatons. Benjamin Franklin routinely performed a feliific Calclation by writing down the prot and cons fr major decisions. ‘There ae timer when many of wx behave inthe same way—as ‘when purchasing a new cro deciding which university co attend ‘The ease with which you could generate the conclusions about Beth and Seott wen given the appropiate covariation information indicates that iris a least possible to think ke a naive sient. Hlojevet ational thought requires tha at least cwo conditions hold (the thinker has aces to acre urea information nd (@) che thinker hs ualnied resources with which to process ies ‘St Ts eh, these conditions alenost never hold everyday i. "We do nae poses 1 "Godley view ofthe world —a perspec tive that i allowing and fre from bis. Consider something as Simple as my car purchase I probably do aot know all the facts in the ene Becaute isa new model longterm repair data simply doot exist. Furthermore, my vew ofthe cris bounded by my own limited perspective hear about the car primary from adverse, win are motivated to exaggerate its positive fates, have limited ‘xpeience with the cars 10-minse daler-uperveed test drive as opposed to long-term driving in al kind ofhaardous road and ‘weather conditions. somethings common at new-cat purchase an be fraught with ising snd misleading infoceao, imagine the dificalty when it comes to taking more unosval decane sich ar when to go © wa whom to mast how fo spend tax ‘money. "Bu, even ifthe data were availble, simply do not posses the leisure time or the resources to devote to 4 fll-sae anlyis of very problem I encounter Suppose I go ahead and make feicfc Calealition on which er to purchise, tnd ie ikes abou § hours of research and weighing of akernaties, In the meantime, » dozen ‘other deisons need to be made: What shall I do fr lunch? Hlow should I revise my lecture notes? Which ob candidate i best to hire? Does my daughter sally seed those expensive Braces on her tee what wrong with an overbiteanway)? ‘Aun Ito spend reveral precious hour iting the pros and cont on each of these decisions while dozens of upcoming decisions ace postponed? We live in a mescge-dense, deision-tich environ ‘ent The average American wil ee over million advertisements in his or bee hfetime and will need eo make countes decisions every day—some important, some trivial, some seemingly evil but with imporant consequences Ie is imposible wo think deeply about each and every pee of information that comes ou way ad Shout each and every decison that must be made "What then do we do? Ar you might guesy we try to take short- cuts whenever we can. According to Susan Fake ard Shelley Tay log we human beings are cognitive misery is, wear forever tying to conserve our cognitive energy? Given out limited capac ity to proces information, we awemptto adopt srategie that si ‘ply complex problems. We accomplish this by ignoring some ia- Teamation to reduce our coitive loud or we “overuse” other information to keep fom having ta seach for more; or we may be willing to accept a less thn perfect alternative becase i's almost food enough. The sateier ofthe cognitive miser may be ef cient—making fly good wse of our limited cogitvecapaciy to process a neal infiite word of information-—but these ratgies Ean alo lead to serious exors and bares, especialy when we select the wiong simple stategy on our rsh to move on, we ignore 2 vital piece of formation ‘Some readers may be disheartened to find tht they ae not a rational ota thorough in their thinking a they might have sop- posed tis exiting to believe that che hamsan mind bas walimted Power or that we havea pectoal pipeline othe agate. At the Fie tine {woul agus ha itis dangerous to fl realize shat tur shoreats can produce Bars and pecudies tha are fr from the abolute Unlese we recognize our cognitive imitations, we will beendave by them, Fo example, if we fail to realize chat we offen jjdge others on the bss of tereotypes or thatthe specific manner Ia which a piece of information is presented can deeply ae our judgment, we wil Be unable to take testo correct ou rors. And ‘what wore, if we fl fo understand the consequences of being ogritive misrs, we may come eo believe thee cur peetonl p= Spectve isthe ony perspetivethece i and ivi therefore synony~ ‘ous with Tesh. As history demonstrates, it becomes ease fr people to commie ace of hatred and croelyto the extent tha hey re eran they ae sbslutel right "The fat that we ae cognitive mites dots not mean that we sre doomed distor. Indeed, once we kaow some of the Limitations fd common biases ofthe human mind, we ean begin ro think a Tied beter and make smarter decisions I is my porpose in this thaptr to do more than ist some of there imitations of our think= Sng. Rather by exploring dese imitation, hope dat we ean learn torthink alte more clearly. The Efeets of Context on Social Judgment Lets begin by looking at how the sca context—the way things sre presented and dereribed-—affecs our gol judgment. We wll, {ake in turn, Four diferent aspects ofthe socal context: the com= paticon of atsnatives, the thoughts primed bya situation, how 3decision i framed or pose, and the way information ie presented ‘As we do o,a base principle of soil thinking should emerge: All jwigment is relative; how we think about a pron or thing is de- eadeat ont surrounding context fre ned Cra es. A. be spe beer of woe thn it i depending onthe geaty of obec compar tl sepa ha al ered kaon py ‘Slvand ie pemonenn Sone act on bee ae ‘Shingo et ping wih eal get fe ct Yours te get es you ene ober ou might hod ‘tous Thee ap iy tw Powe seg on talk be The hung cot ef ue ene ia {Earn heEnlu ine Kee busing he Be a ‘ape wo he mr eto ea an need Simao hae spy yor ie When tear heya he ng rosy sunnel You aim olen The a hc mck EX ice We bed eng yn mehr a Gary ct ou uo pry ne sac da Ba bw So spon on Gat Spc hue mg dene oar ions ethos Takbt atte apd nec tre dey —and de coyscn canines ota our fgets hear SM pos we ded en Spine: Any Prk nd sae e ctoen eoel Conn, sen eed wo mas eer Sos ‘Below Which wold yo se (cor) 4 Nur burger «burger made from tf and other vegetables ‘hats rated very good on nuttin but ony average oa tate, Tut-burgerahamborger that i rated very good on tate bot only average on nutrition, So fu, o good. The decison i ler one: If, for you, taste i the more important consideration, you will go fr the Tas burger iftuttion is the more immporeant consideration you wl go for the Nacri-buree. And in this experiment, roughly halo the students selected the Tast-burgr and bl elected the Nuticburges Bu suppose we were woking forthe maker of Tast-burget, Hoe might we ineease your tendency to buy our product? We might inset» desay. A decoy isan altro that is clear infe Sort ater electonr—but eres ch pron of mang ‘ne ofthe other look good by comparison Inthe Prathanis expe mental ofthe students were given the following choice: Which would you prefer (bor? Nutr burger burger made fom tof and other vegerbles that rated very good on auton but onl average on ste (exactly at described in dhe contol condition). Ta brgrabanburger thats ted ery god on ase bet Say arcge on mation (cy denied a he onto condition) Bummer burgers hamburger thai ated only good on taste fe only average on asriton No eaonabe pron would slct dhe Burmer-burges ii ot be outa at the Nuwi-bunger and nt favor the [Tare burger Although no sevonable parca chore the Bune imer-brge di hve nef In hs condo, the Tas-burger sr choten with Sgucanty greater fequeny than the Nut tergee "How did this ‘elatively worthless decoy change students clice?The unser nutes the conta effec fa conte {othe Bummer bugs te Tasiburgs looked gent When 2 Shi conse ith omen ui bt a rot ‘Siero ot all pric jet judged tobe betes, read ler chan woul normaly be he ce. For example ipa of socal high (2 3 fet Inc) si he company of sellget he seems ey ta i hes member of rotesionl bs el ee sce wry sore. Some of ou may recall 2 young tran wh lged basket fr he Boron Celts sever ear ago sumed “finy" Achibl, Would ie supe you t learn that “nyt stood 6 fect 1 inc eal? In Jonathan Swit csie novel Gultrs Tray heer, aman of normal height was considered1 giant when taeing among the residents of ip and dr orhentveling among the residents of Beobdingag. Ths i te ‘ona fect soso 38 fst example of he cont fice mas pr lucl in an eypesiment by Dales Kenick and Sara Gosense > ‘ho ale al legs Fs ue Be aac oa ote ind date blr or fe: wating an epnde oe pop, Shar elevton show “Chases Angels (As ou wl el hee 8" wee exrnordnay aractve young women) The sas ‘ated thei lind date a fee tractive ais they tw the tone than before Preunably the "tage provided « seigent comnee Staiger aot nen ald rb cot Conta ef can cer mand can have power ce Asa deer may pe oh cro be ogee the sppearnc” of th autos nitions vy A preven, tal candidate may weet ce presdentl unning ato eae sate oeahanee the pose prep of his or her os oe desl quls (Whatever cme of Dan Quay} And aed pide hous the er showed you? You'l norerbey st a ‘ste wosld make all he oie hoes you ae shown spear ore saci and ikea eater bupun than thoy normaly eeu have The lon tobe leeped fom teach ow ents thatthe acecton of comparons males» difeence, Depending onthe context, objec a alters can be ade tec tete wore. Often we doa pay mach atemin othe ifueesof contest, much less question the ality ofthe aerastves res ‘enced, This grey enhances the power of ontext make? nihoe Folica, avery ora tnd ser agents, The cootnt they st can influence our perception td jgments, ling ot int decors that we might not otherwise make Priming and Construct Asibiliy, One of the standard comedic devices on television sitcom is the deble send A ‘ypical double catendre goes ike thie Earl inthe show the young. teanage daughter elt everyone but her father tht she mae the ‘schools coed softball team atthe starting catcher On the othe ‘hand, her father finds out about 3 big pty sponsored by sme of his daughter’ classmates that promzes to have “ome wid goings: ont an jst happens tobe scheduled on the sme night a the soft game, Te eimace sen involves the father vehensing s"tanccnt daughter ling her fend show a pitcher: hoy 1 can hay wt or tonight—T ar so exited. Te never ply with Tey before Iles ehniqu I ets, Tow Teva eal he way Tomy be onde sf" The fer tuvage end torn ot of the howe wo nerep his young augh= ‘Thee eerie ote hy he wt ening be hin degre abou ex when he aly dicing fal The double enene ofthe stom ilseates an import unto ofucal opis How we ime sosal ventory Sipe tne ce ing st ral ht rsd emegoca we ely ue o make see of hing The eGodesce oe inept word cn nyt he ni SERae people ver te worl though roresloed ses tsa cies eit in el or epee ter Our erent enc lo depend on wnt happens toe prominent in the si SERA prominenc ca bendaces tog eign eshte ad othe ston tnt es hat have been cen Ebuncred or equny acted ave more Bly 0 come C2 ind and ths willed ninerpcting claves “kay by Tey Higgins, Wise Re, and Cer ons is ese be of ming ih the fomaton 3 ipesins ost Stet eo" nh xen, ac wee ur gin "erent ech pect ooe on peti Be an tcding comptehenion The fs experiment ered £2 ut eat ceors ome of he jeer hed ma eee er pte tt wars (fenton nee Sine and ony whee te ter were a ores sepuve ue wer Gs sited ab and eben, Fie sits arpar ofthe seadngcompeceron dy objects Tend nguous pnppibout feos penn named Donal "Tac pangmph deste » mb bhai permed by ‘Donal at Souk inerpreted either adventures Cen), se eonfn conetal (egy beer aisshies), independent or aloof (eg, dacs rly om anyone), and penistent or stubborn (eg, doesnt change hit mind often) The bec then described Donald in their own words and rated how desirable they considered hie to be, The rele showed that ow they were primed influenced ther impressions of Donald, When negative trait categories had been prised, they characterized Dow din negative terms and vw him a ese desable than when po tive catories had been primed ‘The effects of priming on socal judgment are aot limited to ‘clevision sitcoms and abortory demonstrations. Priming can and does have x major impact onthe atiudes and behavior Of may people—even of seasoned profesional in life-and-death situationy in the real world For example consider experienced physicians vino work with AIDS patient, One might imagine tht they would ave a cles, solid idea about this own risk of infection Lindt Heath and her colleagues found tha this not neces the case, They asked several hunded physicians about their per ‘ved risk of contracting HIV on the job. For one group of pis ‘ans, Heath primed thei thoughts sbout the danger by geting ‘hem to imagine their being exposed tothe views while doing thee work. The assessment of rik ofthese physicians war deeply af fected bythe priming. Specialy, chose physician who wer structed to imagine themselves being expored to HIV on the job tubsequenly fet eae there wat significantly higher ik of thei being infected than did those who were not primed. This was true regress ofthe extent of the physician’ actual expeviences with IV afected patents Let us lok a priming in the maze modi. Several studies have shown that there i fink berween which stots the media covers sand what viewers consider tobe the most inpetan sues of the ‘424 other words, dhe mas media take cern ses and con cepts realy accessible and thereby se the pli pliea! and so- Gil agendss To tae one example,in a pioneering study of en eee tion in North Carlin, Marwell McCombs and Doral Shaw? found thatthe sues woerscamet consider tobe mot important ia ‘he campaign esincided precisely withthe amount of coverage a ‘ose sues inthe local media. Ina imile vein, vet nunbes of het ‘rosea ist became deply eoocemed about the dangers of AIDS ncn gc lar cre sh ee ere a rete date iW ees seeks cneeatnatpoy ct gan cet ta srt taal mis on at at Oa Eine ager We SCARE perormane on toa of fow he aed he tps poem and were more posite dpsed ewe cand Seubert ke i my not be scent mich of the tein ling Fern in be i ingly scene ning. len cert ab The wo willskilact & isdn fxd 7 ret pope depending 0 thea that “! (Boece and pater te pape hey ra. ery onc ina wile, we come scot asking excepsiont0 thse re Some eet ae entering tine eee craran Forms = tite Fee de mld of mana eda eling ene co ‘ect President Clinton alleged smal encounters with a young, SWte Hoan intern. Early om cher wat wall-to-wall coverage the legen, th handed of pore italy wpnng ot themes and one notes to epor every suo ad innvendoften withou bothering to check the relblity ofthe source. Ac ‘cording to the Cente for Media and Public Affe, ducing the st ‘week ofthe sean alone, there were 12 stories about his sse on netwotk evening news. Ia zeent yeas thi was exceeded only by the coverage of the Oklahoma City bombing Poll taken ofthe ‘American public 1 week, 2 week, and weeks after the begining ofthe news onslaughe indicaed that many people were watching and listening-—bot the overwhelming majcty did pot regard the ‘tory as important. Indeed, the majority of respondents indicated ‘that they were appalled by dhe behavior ofthe aews medie—yet ‘most contaued to watch and read about it, ppacenly in appalled fascination. Thos, although what onthe news wna determines it perceived importace, that is nt alway the cae Framing the Deion. Anotber fcr infuencing how we consrctot oil worlds econ faming--hthtaprebion or decion petted ns uch aya appean co epee the etl ors eo oa gn To tee pe eho fang les iagine ot Jou ne te preset of be ‘United Sates nthe coty sain el ote aut of seven pei expe ol 600 people Your op ar eve pepe woe rogram combat the dene ad hve ered othe bs of he abt se ely concqence of aging cach progan + IF Program Ais adopted, 200 people wil be saved, +f Progam Bi adopted theres on-tied probably dat 60 peop wil be veda sod rb ano peop wile aed rans Ms oc Me Preset, which progeam do you fir? Pease ‘hin abou this carly ad snoer before you ead on you alike mos ofthe subjc in an experiment performed boy Dasiel Kahneman nd Aro Tey you would ee Program (72 percent oftheir jet seleted this epson) You right tha © ergy A pe 30 pr wie faved and Progra B gules the ves ofthese peoples only « in chance tat we cold save renee on 8 But suppose your advisors bad asked for your judgment in a ifezene mane Suppose they presented the problem tis way + 1fProgram A in adopted, 400 people wl de. += Program B is adopted, there it a one-thied probability tat ‘nobody wilde and a tro-thieds probability that 600 people will de Which peogram would you fiver? Please tink bout this are- fay and answer the question before eading moc. "The two options are functionally ideal. In both versions, rogram A means that 200 people wil ve and 400 wil i; Pro- igrm' vests in» one-third chance that noone will ie and 600 People wl ive anda two-thirds chance that no one wil be saved re €09 people wilde. But for most people their thinkog about ‘he epidemics quite diferent. Tey think, “IFT go with Programs ‘R400 people wll surely die Tight as well gamble on B” Wren ‘thed s dis second mannes, 78 percent of Kabneman and Tver Ys subjects favored Progam B! 9 Yi al such soopc wowing ofthe opson produce such sa deastie switch fn answer? Kahoewman and Tverky have soted {har people dle losses and seek to avoid them. eis mor pinfl to gure up 820 than it 3 plarurble to gain $20. Your advice feuted the fst policy dion so dar Program B looked ike the bags loss in the second version, your advisors famed io that ‘rogram A looked ie sure le. Flow the question i famed is of ‘enormous importance ‘Bat cis jst an imaginary even. Tis a hypothetical itos- son. Suey such a imple fewording ofa request cannot influence real behavior Dost bet on ela an experiment did in ellabor.- ‘Ton with two of my students, Mari Goal and Mark Costanzo, swe showed that framing can play « major role in determining iether or not people ae wiling fo commit vreral hundsed dle Tar to insulete ther homer in order to conserve energy Ta one Condition, afer examining cach bome, energy experts gave cach omeowner + deailed, individualized desrpion of how much ‘money they could see cach year on beating bills. Inthe other con- ‘ion, auditors were tained t0 Fame the description i terms ofpen eas potent eek ewt ctr ieee oe ee TEES ep ts Beane Se ga testo eth oe Soot ee Sorat nane eet Seater mers ered er eee aly ta eye Sonne intros Reis nse ea irae acre geet Sarena ecient: epee seen ee ee Sensi apace eet nts eras Scent ee Sane aera eee eae ee ee eae reais reesei eae ee fe Spats eee Te erence esas The Ontrig of formation. Ao ft ning te wey epi ca hyn tl wel te sae ‘il omafon anol sd but Lett ak ts Re i ry tons pret a tcl wa come fd) ost ‘of information given. ee {Primary Ec ond Impreion Formation. Inte precedig hayes, we dsosed the order of prsetstion for persuasive Seimei Use enon de vhs tore eect ate onc argusnent ft (rnmey ecg) oc st (cen effet). When comes to fing inpeeons of othe people, howeves, there is not much of a contest: With few Exceptions, the old sw "Put your bee foe forward” urns ou tobe Steuate; the things we lei fst about a person have a decisive impact on our judgment of that peron. Ia pionering exper- tment, Solomon Asch demonstrted the power ofthe primacy eet In impression formation** In Achy study, subjects recived fleseripve sentences such asthe following and then mere asked to tate the pesion described in each sentence 4. Seeve is ineliget industrious, impale erica, ubborn, nd evius b. Store is envious stubboen, cia, impultve, industrious, nd intaigent. [Note tha the two vntences contain exacslythe same informa- tion aboot ‘Steve; however, Sentence a pts the pose traits iat, wheres Sentence b puts them nse. Auch found that Steve was Ted more postely when he was described by Sentence 2com= puted to Sentence ba primacy effet. “Ase original finding bas been epeated many times in many sways For ample in experiments hy Edward Jones and his cal Teagues, research partcpants observed anther individual perform Tnfonsreries of 30 inelgence-test items In cach csethe per to anmered 15 ofthe 30 question correctly However, sometimes the person started out "hot™tha i answering t lee of questions oct the beginning snd then declined in performance; a ‘ther times, the person sated out slow, anawering few questions once at Bt tnd then ivihed with «bang, answering most of the fina items, Who was preived as most iatligent? As one might expect based on what we know about the primacy elect, the lv! who started out hot" was seen at moe intligent than the “ate bloomer” despite the face thee both answered the same ‘numberof questions corel. "ha interesting exception to tit rule was discovered in an cx periment by Joshus Aronson and Edward Jones who motivated Sei abject to ty to improve the performance of x target prion (Coheis student) ona set of anagrams, Halo the subjects were n= feevted simply to ty to rane their student score; the remaining objects wet instructed o try to ipove the eit of thee stdent to slve anagrams, Within each of these conditions, afer tranig the deny al ebjecteeseved information sot het student performance. This performance information war eal Tike tht inthe Jones epetnns ced bore That by some fe ceived information tat the eae performance of this vent ‘wa very good andthe ater pefonace was ot vo poo. ohn reed maton tat te ely perrmnce ft nod ad the later perormance was very god. The sun total as den Sg re itr me “ hose subjects who were matted to improve the pf mance of thei sents ated them ne more inligent when thee tiny performance was good, Ts te primaty elec They ‘tind thi sadent to do wel sc afer ftw tl, one lode tha the waders were intligent—repudee of thet ater performance. But thom nije whe wee tng fo improve the ‘iy of thir sade salve anagram aed ee nelligent those who started poody but ced op doing wl Tn ober wes, they were moeimpesed with inrentrnptfxmaace than with ¢ fat sare Abily something that develope Thun, eke Yo sce our sadetsinprore it mean thy have el ability. ‘Although the rele of the Aromon and Jones experiment demons the compet ofthe phenomenon ia ireing ‘ception to the general rule. And with very ew exceptions, forming inpreions of peopl prima predominates ‘Why does the primacy fect in impression formation occu? Researches have fund evidence for two explnatione ier of which canbe tue, depending onthe Gases, According 0 tn atentin devemetexnaton the tre nit eee Jes atenion athe bere re sad their minds stat wander, thus dae tems hae ls impact on judgment, coring the inerprtoe a exlenton the is ten cee to este aia Jmpresion ha then x td ro neat sequent nfrmaion, sither through the cacunting of ncengrocn nC. Steves inte wy ou he be evi) by sub hangs i he ‘meaning ofthe words farther down the lit ie, being eal ose abut f Stee is ntligent bu negative ei ee Stabbor) Regards ofthe explanation, he pac effet haa important impact. on scl jadgment. Moreover we ually have ltd conte over the ode i wich we sec inormaon whether that information i fom a tevision news show or fom Durcveryay observations offends and neighbors. Therefore iis {mportune realize the existence af these elects so that we cay to correct oe them inant of Inprmaton When podsig + dik decon Atorngn da fen Ret Tony ad oe Se nttoogh having aeons may soneins erate cn alo change how an sje poceed and ree urate te aon fee tenn SMES ler infront woken» jdgest ot (een. Conair ts emp fom an experiment by eesti Wish sce hr he higher gre pet «Tim spends about 31 houre studying ouside of cas nan erage week. «To spends about 31 ours studying ouside of cas in an a rage vec "Tom as one brother and to str. He visits his fpanparents about once every 3 mosths. He once went ona find Gate and shoot ool about once every 2 months. 1 jou ae similar othe aden in Zeki’ stad, you would ‘ater dha Fins smarter than Tom. Zakir found th netading ielovant aod nondiagostic information (sch as information on ‘Sing amily vit and dating hablo) that has nothing to do Seat nse at hand ean dlste—that is, make les potent—the Trapt of revan information (hat both Tim and Tom spend lt feame etdyinp ‘The dlton effect has obvious practice ave fr person erated in managing impressions, sch those sales pit, ‘Riverere nove tt anding we or ielevant cli can r= AST impact of estong alt appeal. A diliked politician can Stdace the impacto his nope nage y including erent in {Eematon a nory about hr or er childhood or dextpdon of the amily ouse~in campuign advertisment Butwhy des the dion effet occur? Afi ly it kes ile sens pay atenton to nondagosti afrmaton in making 4judgment. Why should information on dating habits make vom: ‘ne appear tobe les nellgent or a storyabout the birthplace of politician lesen the imputof his ox her aegtive image? One an ‘bre is that ilevan information about» person makes that per- Son seam more similar to others, and ths more average and lke tveryoe elie. An average person sles likely to have an extremely igh grade-point average orto be tesbly negative. Judgmental Heuristics (One wy that we eke see of the busing, booming try Fin formation tat comes or way i through the ue of judgmental Iara. Ajdmentl ear mental shore itt Ble often oniy approximate, rule oe vstepy for sling prob Kens Some apes includes nan and 4 woman ae wing down a set the man walls onthe outside." prin food item i found ina health 00d ret must be ood fer you" pesion fom arr town in Aras, he ose mut be nell Tully baclorad” Hurts eee very hte Dought—jurt the ‘clin ofthe ale ich ay sot be the correct one tout) ands ‘esightfrwardsppicston to the ie a hand. Te can be con traed with more sytematic thinking in which we sy lok na problem fom s numberof angles ascble ad eralate a mach ‘Revant information a pose and workout in dt the np ‘ation of vasou oktons,Letslock mt two of the mot comonon clases of judgmental heuiti—the representative sd the a tude herinien, ‘Tee Reproentative Hewritic. According to Daniel Kahnesan ‘nd Amos ers? when we ut the representative heuristic, we focus on the similarity of one objec to another 1 infer thatthe fiat object ace Iike the sevond one. For example, we know that high-quality produce a expensive; therfore, if something it cexpenaive, we might infer chat ii of high quay. Thus, fT be ‘evo bots of wine onthe sheFand one hata higher rice sp the conclusion that i isthe better wine. T sles the one Feature (price from among the many others hat might have focused on sch a ype of gape, vntas vintage, wine growing regon—and | tse that to male my decision, But, ar mort smart consumers Row, igh price doesnot always mean high quali. Lees look im more deni a the implications ofthe use ofthe epresenative heuristic by eaverdroping on + conversation beeween ther an child in the aisle of local upermacke, Picture the scene Seven-yesr-old Rachel spots he favorite ce- real Locky Charms ake a bow of the shel and quiet deliver it to the shopping cat Her mom looks atthe bor in digurt ei bright red A lepreshasn ie aprnklng shining ear (mast be supa) ‘over pink and purple marshmallow bits. On the back of the ba, her mom finds a message infooming ber that an encloredepeial pao lass ae tobe used to find hidden leprechauns ‘Mom sterly announce, "Rachel, put tat junk back on the shelf Tes loaded with agar td nothing but emp cali” ‘Rachel eli “But Mom, itastes good” [Beng a smart mom, she offer Rachel another choice and a it~ tle inducement "Why no thi one? Ie’ cal 1008 Natal Tei 00d for you. Eat hi and youl row upto bea biggie” ache! look a the box. Te ir small bat heavy. The picture on ‘the font features «bow of light brown cevel se aguost = wood iin background aod » coupe of tal of uaprocered gain. On {the bacofthe bor alot of small har-to-end writing Rachel exclaims, “Valo! T dont want tobe big gi.” How would you raolve he great breakit cereal standof?? ‘Would you side with the mother and op for nusion eventhough Rachel may not like i Or would you fel that Rachel eve a hs tender age should be making her own decisions, rearlew of the consequences? My recommendation may suprise you The fights for fmught Tell Rah! and her enor o buy the Lucky Charms beaut, in acta ie more auton than the “natal cecal IF Rachels ‘mom had bothered to read the ie pent and conducted a systematic comparison beeween Lucky Charms and 100% Natural she would hve discovered that Licky Charmi lower alore and saturated, fats than 100% NatraL® Whale i also igh higher n sug he dlerence is negible and of ee diary importance. Indeed, in 1981 Consemer Report a highly sespeced source of consumer infor mation, conde tert of ree cerels Ther researches fadyoung ras, which have mutitional quirements remarkably simile to those of humans, det composed exclusively of water and one of 432 brand of beak cereal fra period of 14 eo 8 weeks. They ‘ound thatthe rts grow and remained healthy ona diet of Lcky (Charms: On the other hand + dist of Quakers 10036 Natural r= tarded thee growth. ‘What cased the disagreement berwcea Racha and her mom? Tein clea tha they ured the cere! pekage (not the cereal) a ep resentative heurati In this case the problem fr Mom wa === lect a mutitous cereal; for Rachel the peoblem was to get a cereal tha wes fan and tasty. The box of Lucky Charms resembles 2 hil toy bright colors, catton character, glistening raga. We infer tha this eral ics" and since children eatjunk Food ot carfilly supervised, this erel mute be janke On the other hand, the 100% Natural box has the earth tones anda picture of unprocessed grains ie resembles nate isl. An, of course, the brand nae consents tis "ounura” and in our minds, the na tli equated with de good the wholesove, The cereal cnt Be "The representative hearitic can be wed in ples other than the supermarket” Aa analyas of folk remedies and ely Western ‘medicine shows tha common sumption ie thatthe ce should resemble the ctuse of the disease, For example, in one culture epilepsy is treated witha drug made from a monkey whose move- iments appear epileptic. Sil, in Western cute, cewpapes inital dialed Walter Reed's suggestion that yellow fever wat Cared bya mosqut, since ther i ite resemblance beoween the sure (mosquitoce) and the result (malaria). The representative heurstie is wsed to identify prychological causes a well For exa~ ple inthe 1960s and 1970s, many conservative alt clang to the ‘elf thatthe pliealradialsm exhibited by theelloge students of that em was caused by permisive child-rearing practices. Ia ‘aly prychonnalyietheoctng, an oeaie-compalsr: persoral- ity was kaown a8 anal-etetive and was believed to be the dice resule of early and eevee tilet-esning praccer. In the over ‘wheling majority of Amesian presidental elections, the taer of ‘the two major candidates ha emerged vctoiour—suggesting the possibilty that some Americans may implicitly believe that height ‘ay have something to do withthe bility to lead. ‘The cepresenttve hears i often used to form impresions and to make judgments about other perons. The Est information that we pick up about a perron—information abou geode, race, physial stractivens and voil arur—ie uray associated with Simple cles that guide thoughe and behavior. Gender and etic Stereotypes tell utjust ow men and women differ" and “what 2 patcule member ofan ethni group i like.” Much research hat Eeinonstrated that mow people leapt the coclsion thet besut- fl people. are more sucessful sensve, warmes, and of better ‘haritr than lee tractive people: Persons of high socal statue, tften inferred by dee and manneriems,ae respected end held in high esteem, litany wonder hat "get ahead” self-help books often dere how to take sdventage of these heuristics by urging thee readers to "ree for sucess” that i, to wear the Kinds of dothes that wl eae the image of succes pereon? This isthe ep ‘eotative heii ia aco, ‘The Awiltilty Hearatic. Suppose you go ta restaurant with some fiends. You frend Neal oder steak with onion sings, but ‘he waiter isaleny brings his steak with es instexd."Oh wel, bn ays. "No big dealt ke fies almost ax much a onion rings.” “This opene« dscition at to whether he shoul have sent back his corde; Marlene acces Neal of being unasertve, He turns ro you nd sks, “Do you tink Tim an unaserive person How would you anower this question? Ifyou know Neal well and have sles formed a pice of how assertive hei, you can recite your answer easly and quick. Sup pow, howove that youve neve relly thought about how assertive ‘Neal fn tis ind of tution, ost of us wil sey on how cuickly tnd ealy an example might come to mind. Fs easy to think of tne vivid oration when Ned acted arersvely (eg tht time he Stopped someone fiom crashing in ine io font of him atthe novi"), you wll conchae that Neal sa prety asetve gy. Ife taser to think of an ecetion when Neal acted unaservel (€§ “that me he Ie a phone solar talk him into buying 2 Veg-O- Mati fo 829.997), you wil coche tat he prety unset “This mena le of tui led the aeilabiity heuristic, shih eftes to judgment based on how ear tit fr us to bringspecific examples to mind. There are many situations in which the salabiicy ease wil prove accurate and wef Specially i {you can exily bring oid several examples of Neal sting op for fishes, he probably isan assertive person fyou can easly bring to rind several examples of Nea ling people push hen around, be probably i not, The main problem with employing the avulbiity Aur eat sometimes what iscsi eo bing t0 mind not ‘ypiel ofthe overall pcre. This willed ws to fy conclusions. Let ey something: Do yoshi more people in the United ‘States de from share attacks or fom fling aiplane pct? Do you think more people die rom fie or from drowning? Think about i fora minute ‘When atked those questions, the overwhelming majority of people report that dens fiom shark attacks are mare common han those from fling airplane pare and that deat from fie re ‘more common than thove fom dcowaing, Infact, both answers re wrong, Why do mose people believe chese things? As Scot Plous oggets it probably ener to bring to mind examples of dathe fom shark and fies because these evens are more likely t0 be covered in a vv manner on the 640 news (oc shown in oven such a ous) and thus ae more avaabein people memories. Simi, ifyou ask people to estimate the number of vileat rier committed each year inthe United States, you wll get very ilfeent answers, depending on how much prime-time television they watch, as we learned in chapter 3, those who watch «great ea of television and, hence, sea great deal of Ftonaized vo~ lence—vatly overeat the amount of eal rene that aces ia The Atitade Heart, An aticude is special type of belief that includes emotional and evaluative components ima sent an siting is stored evaluation good or bad of an abject, Ac Cording to Anthony Peahanis and Anthony Greenwald people tend to use the attitude heuristic a a way of making decisions and solving problems Acsiudes can be used to asign objects 10 4 favorable class (or which strategies of fioring, approaching, iting, cheahing, and protecting ae appropriate) ort an 0 Eavocahe category (lor which sttepies oF distvoring,soiding, blaming, agpessng, and harming are wed). For eeample, Sam disies forme President Ronald Reagen, then, when Sum thinks bout the current federal defi, he is apt to abut its ease to the charge car" economic policies Reagan employed inthe 1980s, ‘Much revcarch has shown that atta canbe aed to make sense of ous social world, For example, 2 ody by Anthony Pratkse tis found tata persons tide play + major role in deermining hat he or she “know” tobe true In thi way college studs tree ake to ldentify which of two posible statements—such 25 the flowing —was tue 1: Ronald Reagan maintained an A werage a Eareka College »b, Ronald Reagan never achieved above aC average a Buel College ‘What did Pratkaie find? Very few people actualy know what Reagasclloge grader were; their answer depended on thei a= tude toward him, Students who liked Reagan were more likly to believe Statement a students who diaiked him were mote Likely to believe Statement b, What is more, he more exteme the acitude toward Reagan, the more confidence the stadens had in thei judgments In other word, the tudes in this seudy sed their t= Tiades a heriti o discern what is trv and then believed hat ‘what they determined war coret. For those of you who ae ti bus Statement i corect Reagan never achieved above aC aer~ agin colle (L hasten to ad hat this am actual fat and has Aothing wo do with my personal atiude toward Me Reagan!) “The use of an atitude heuristic can influence out logic and ability to reuon, For example, in the late 19405, Donal Thisle- trite aed sespondents to tate whether syllogime such asthe Eilowing were vad” Promite 1/1 production isienportant, then pacefil industrial ‘eatons ae desirable. Premise 2:Ufprduetion important, then ite a mistake to have [Negroes orforemen and leaders over Whites, Therefore If peace indi lations are desieable thea tis intake to have Negroes for foremen and leaders over White,‘A moments refltion shows thet the allo, a8 sated, futacous, the condusion doer not lgily follow fiom the remics. But Thislemaie found tat pe udiced indie (who fave wrth the conchon are fr more hkely to india (incor ‘ety that the loge ir aid compte to ls pein peopl "Another denon ofthe athe thehal eect, & ener bis in which favre or unfeorbe gener impresion Fa peti utr ou inferences ad Ree expeeocons owt hat fence, Fx eanploifyou realy ite BU Coton then ou wile ty to dseunt or ex any any Behavior oo his pst that tight be coded neg whl eragerting the goodoes of spose sion your min, iraneet rhe ix wearing an nls tl. Sray a dak edad anuned Yo poset ‘ngs tity, with thc pefonmuncesbsequenly deaied I ne expenmeny Richard Sein and Cael emer demon Stated that calle eden ge 1 alo (both postive and nega tie) to women, depending upon the Kade of fod they at: All ther thinge beng alone they found oot ht «woman te ‘rath food, they sated ee ws noe feminine, mote philly at tentve and more lb than junk food ete ‘Sell another dimension ofthe aude hea isthe fle conser tet Amor l of us have tendency to eens the percentage of people who agree with ws om any ice ET ele ‘ercing, the Tw leap othe concn tht mst other peo pic fea he sme wy. For example n oe ees, Lac Rone tha hs colleagues tated cle saat if they were wing to wat age sued the campus tat ed “Ext at Jock" Thowe who {seed to eat the sign thought thst most oer people woud 0 thie who deded alot wating the gn etinsed that ev ‘other seat would wea in other wordy we offen nak the {aot neces tue) aumption that others he whet we ke and Ao what we poe tod When Do We Use Heariis? Of conte, deisions dont have to be based on heute, Rachels mother aight have caeflly read the ingredients on the cecal bax, subscribed to a consumer ragasine, or consulted nutrition textbooks, Similarly, we could Careflly reason ebost an inne or stdy the record and accom- plishment of poltiian, this would make ut ee kel to use our antinudes a simple way to make venge of the world. And, osea- Fiona, most of ws do go through the dedsin-making proces ina ‘ational manner "This ree an important question: What conditions are most kel to lead fo heuristic employment rather than tional decison making? Research has identified a last five soch conditions As you might expect from ovr exter discussion of humans a cogs ‘re misers, heuristic are mot Likely to be used when we dost have time to think careflly about an sme oe when we aes ovsloaded ‘vith information that it becomes impossible o proces the infor~ Tnaton fll, oc when the sues at stake ae 90 ery important, 0 {that we donot caret think about it Hearst ze alo sed when se have il poled Knowledge or inforaation to use in making « Ussinion "A moment’ thooght will eval thatthe persuasion lndseipe faced by Rachel and er mother contains many of the featres that lead to heurtie decison raking. If she i like most Americas, Rachels mother is feling increasingly Ginespreseed vince her Ieaae time has eroded coosiderabiyia te ast 10 yeas. As con umes, she faces a mestagedene environment complet with # hole of ever 300 diferent brands of eral curently onthe mae~ fee She pebably has had lie consumer education or ening, At the same ime she ha been the rexipient of milion of advertie- rent, each epeting and repeating a brand image, otha ths i= ge wil quickly come to mind i the ailer ofthe local sopermar- 1S Given this tte of i tina wonder tha al decisions arene sade heuristically Categorization and Social Stereotypes ‘Before the Persian Gulf Wat of 1991, the US. Congress held fies of debates on the positive and nega consequences of going owar-Those who supported the war erebed Saddam Hlstein a the saew Hite’ hey ecnphained the pulls between Saddam's iuing ofthe Kurds and Hitlers gassing of the Jews, Irs inva ‘Bon of Kuwait and Germany’ invasion of Poland and the Baltics, tnd Sedans and Hitlers buildup of armaments. Those who op posed the wa saw the station in Tag a paralleling tat of Vier~‘am;they saw both incident at civil wart—a fight between North tnd South Vietnam and between vaios Aza factions; they wor fied about the US. military abi to igh in freiga tain of ssrampr and deere they characterized the war efforts a 4 war in ssppor of “big business” and "big ll” In sense the debate over whether or not to go twat with Jag was realy a debate over whose categorization of ambiguous ‘vents was correct. And with good reson, For once it detided Ihow an event or person should be categorized, it becomes clear what course of action shouldbe taken. If Saddam i truly 4 new Fle" then the pliy of economic ancions (which some consid ceed s form of appesement) wl only bring additonal threats t0 peace and ultimately a much worse war Iraqi another Vietnam, then inerveation would lead tos long and divisive wan becoming ‘mired ina qoagmire with no clear victors and losers" ‘We ebate over how to categorize persons and events un- dreds of times a week, and alehough we often do not go to wat over the results, the consequences oF how we interpret and define evens tan besignifiant For example, know a socal paychoogist whom consider one of the best reseacher of his generation. Fei ako + ‘houghefl and considerate oman being and leading contibtor to theory X However, he is rarely desribed asa leding light in the Red who cares about peaple” or “s major proponent of theory 2X nstead, he ie primarily described a "very talented black ois ppochologis.” Whar ae the consequences fe this penton tbe re ‘erred to constantly as black a opposed ro anyone ofa aumber of other equally applicable atbuter? Later in this book, we wil ook in deta te aaare and consequences of prejudice. For ow, let ts locke at how we extogorize evens and pesvoms and with what fect, Suratypie Knowledge and Expectation One of the most important consequences of catgoraation i that it can invoke specie data or sereryps that then guide ovr expectations. Foe ample, each ofthe folowing word probably invokes tome very specific meanings: yup, olee profesor, party gl rai and ‘al demu. Once We eategorize a person oe an even sing one of ‘these terms (as opposed to others), we base our expectations about frre interactions on the accompanying stereotypes. Suppose 1 io into acfe that» fiend of mine has eatgoriaed as 2 "bar" at opposed to ane dining extabihment* I will probably think of the plce i different terme and atin a iflerent way—and f the ‘utegoszation is exoncous, my behavior might be foolish and Ing even get me int rerioar rouble ‘An interesting sudyby John Darley and Paget Gros demon. strates the power of expectation to inflence dhe way we think and ‘make judgments, In their experiment, hey tld fou diferent sto- Fie about Hannal'—a fourth-grade vchoolge. Aer hearing one ofthe four stories, Princeton college students were asked to et- tnate Hannats academic ability, In the fit to stores, subjects ‘merely suw a videotape of Hannah playing in ether a high-class feighborhood or a poor, run-down neighborhood, This was de Signed to create aereaypic expectations about Hannah back- (pound. In the second wo stores, subjects saw one ofthese vdeo- {pes of Hannah paying an, in addition, viewed a film of Hannah, Completing 25 acievement-tet problems. Hanna’ performance ‘on thes ets war ambiguous, she sometimes answered tough quer ‘None and missed cay ones, ‘Darley and Grocs found that when mibjet saw jase on of he two videotapes of Hannah plying, they eted her ably as average; Hlaonah wa ort like eveyone ele in her cas. In other wor, subjects who saw these videos did not invoke their stezcotypes tout ich hide and poor kid in making thei jdgmens. However, ‘when subject also watched the fm of Hana solving achieve {ent-teet problems the effec ofthe stereotypes became apparent Subjected Hannah as having lee ability when she came frm the low as oppesed 10 the high socioeconomic background; they tho interpreted her ambiguous performance at consistent with thei adgments—eralonting the fst as easier and estimating that lanoah solved fewer probleme when se came fm 2 poor back- ‘round. Two leston can be learned about stereotypes from this = (periment. Fis most people sem t have rome undereanding of Stereotype effects and seem eo have the ability to contol chem, Second, despite this undertanding, our steeorypes sail inflvence cur perceptions and judgments when there x addtional informa tion that endef snge of retionality to dhe judgment. Seeing Relationship Where There Ave Nene: The sory Co teaton. Sill another effect of categorization i eat we fequently petceie a elation between two eater that week shouldbe relited-but, i fact they are not. Soci paychologete have dubbed tis theilusory correlation, Let me ilstate what I mean by describing an experiment by David Hamilton and hit col leagues In this experiment, subjects read 24 statement that de- scrlbed different persons by their mame, ther oceupation, and ewe prominent character trite, For cxample, subjects read statements uch ar "Tom, the salesman, i talkative and boring” or “Bil the ‘ccountnt is timid and courteous” Occasionally, by chance, the {rit words happened tobe consistent with the common seeofype most people have of that ocepaton, that Sythe salesman wat occasionally described as enthusiastic and talkative or the 20 ‘ovntant a8 perfectionist and timid The data clearly showed that subjects overestimated the fequency with which tersooypi words were used to describe each occupation In other words, they succeeded in creating an ilusry coneation between tt and ‘The ilusory corclation is shown quite often in social judg ments, Consider these two examples: In infor tueveys, people consistently overestimate the extent to which lesbians ae fey to contract the AIDS vir Infact, lesbians have the lowes cat of HIV infection compared to male homoveral and male and fe smal hetroseuals: However, the knowledge that male homoseni- als ave high ates of FIV infection coupled with the categoria tion of woman as homosenal leads tothe mitaken judgment ‘hat lesbians are likely to have AIDS. Inclinial judgments cstego- ting an individu ino a ceria diagnentic catgory (ch as fchiaophveni or mani-deprstive) can lead to the perception of Febtionship even when none exists) between the individual and Uehavie consistent with that diagnosis Regaedes ofthe sting the illusory coeeation does much to confirm ou original treo” types and beet; our stereotype lender tee a celatonthip that then seems to provide evident that the orginal stereotype i re. In-Group/Out-Growp Effics. One ofthe most common ways of categorizing people eto divide chem into two group: those in “in group and the “ot” group. For example, we often divide the sword ine us versus them, my School versus Yous, my sports team ‘eur the opponent, Amerians versus foreigners my ethnic group, ‘essus your, or thse wh stat my lunch able vers he re of you. When we divide che world into two suc reais researchers have found considerable evidence for atleast ewo consequences which can be termed the homogeneity effet (shore people all Inok like to me) snd in-group favoritism. Tn genera we tend fo see member of out-groups as more sinilarto each other tha the members of ove ew roup—the ia {group Fer example, Beradere Pak and Myroa Rothbart asked embers ofthe diferent sororities to indicate how simi mem= bere of exch sororigy were to cach other They found that the ‘women persved more similarity of members i other sororities Compared to their own, One explanation for this effects that when ‘he subjects thought of members in their owe group, they thought of thea a individuals, each witha unique personality and lies ‘When they thought of out-group amber they considered them interme of the group label and stereotype and thos saw thers each ss similar to tit group identi Tn-group avockiem refers to the tendency to ste one's own troup a: beter on any numberof cimeasons and to alleate r- ‘ward o one} own group In-group fave bas been extensively rode ong what hau come tobe known asthe minimam group paradigm. In tis procedure, originated by the Bash social py- hologie Hene Tel complete stvanger are formed into groupe ting the mort evi inconaequentalenteria imaginable. For ex Ample, in one sud, subject watched Tafel ip coin dat ean- Alomlyaigned them to eter “Geoup % or*Group W." In another study Tafel aked subjects to expres thei opinions about arise they had never heard of before and then candomy asigned then thet fo 4 group that appreciated "Kle™ or ane that appreciated "Kandi ostensbly based on thee ald pietue preferences. "What makes Taf research interesting i hat ignite sults are often obtsined on the basis of group identiiation that means very Bite, Tht i the subjects are total strangers prior to the study and never interact with each oe, and thee ations are Completely anonymous. Yet they behave af hore who shar thee ‘neaningles label ac thee good friend or cle Kn. Subjects indi ate that they ike those who share theilabel. The rate others who hate dei Ibe a key to havea me pleasant personality ad to hve produced better output than the people who are signed 2 Aiferent label. Mout stikingy wibecealloste more monty and ‘ea to those who share thei abel. As we wllse in Chapter 7, ‘hoe tendencies a forn the bai of rail and ethnic prejudice,Re-constructive Memory (Our memory play an important ole in all our socal interactions. Because of this, itis vital rasp this one thing about memory Human memory i re-conrtructive in nature, By this I mean that ‘wecanact tp ino a eral earlation of pat erent Tei nt like lhying back a tape recorder or a VCR; instead, we se-reate our memories fom bits and pieces of acual events filtered though td modified by our notions of what might have been and what Should have been. Our memories areal profoundly influenced by what people might have told us about the specific events— Jong after they occurred, As Anthony Greeswald® has noted, if Listorang cvned and distorted history to the same een that we do in eying to reall evens from our own live, they’ love thie jobs! OF course, most of us woud ik to belive that oue memo Fier contain only the truth about te past" To most people, the idea that their memery i faible is somewhat fightening, But ‘onsdes how fghtening it was to Timothy Hens, who amost lost his life because the members of is jury belived that memory is infalibte, Let me explain On July 4, 1986, Hennis was convicted ofthe tiple murder of Kacheyn, Ka, and Bria Eastbuen and the cape (of Kathryn Eastbuen The evime was a particulsly grisly one ‘Apparently an intruder had broken into the Eartborn home, held 1 fife to Kathryn Eastburn, eaped bet, and then slit her throat tnd stabbed her 15 times, Thres-year-old Erin and S-yearold Kara were cach stabbed almost « doven tines. The police fol- lowed «quick lead Bales in the week, Timothy Heanis had an- sored the Eartburns newspaper 2d requertingcomeone o adopt their black Labrador eevee, Hennis had taken the dog on a tel bas Dring the trial, two eyewtneses paced Henn tthe scene of the esme, Chuck Barrett testified that he had seen Timothy “Henn walking in the ses at 3:30 A.M, on the moaing ofthe rurders, Sandra Barnes teed that she had seen + man who [eoked ike Henna uring bank card that police had identified ea eras one stolen fom the Earturn residence But Hennis had an surtight alibi for his wheeabouts on che ght of the marder. More~ ove, here was ao physi evidence (Rngeprint, clothing ibe, Footprints blodstins hit) tink him tothe scene. Nevertheless the jury found the eyewitness tetimony cavincing and eoavicted ‘eana-sentecig him to death by lethal injection. "Henn spent $45 days ating his execution on death row ‘before jug om the cour of appeals ordered a ew wil onthe ‘bass of procedure technicality weit wo the eyewitness et= mony. Hennss lawyers Knew that if Henais had any chance of ‘returning his convistion, they would ned to attack the eyowit= fess textimony placing hiss atthe scene of dhe ee, On cose erutny, earned ou tobe very weak evidece. Chock Baretta ‘vga told police 2 day afte the ders chat the man he saw ‘had brown har (Henne blond) and was 6 fet eal (Hlennis i tmuch tall). Furthermore, when asked to idensly Hens in a photo lineup, Baer wat uncertain of his judgment When Sandra Benes was fret contacted hy police 2 few weeks afer the crime, he tld ther fey and erpaialy that she ad not seen any fone athe bank machine thar ry Why then at che eal had oth of these witneses so confidently placed Hennis a the scene ofthe tame? Were they both lint? No, they were jast ordinary people Hike you and I thei memory of the events had been leeled and tharpened--constucted, shaped, and ve-consructed-—by over & questioning by police apd lawyers. "Biabeth Loft ited cognitive payebologi, served as an exper witness at the second Henao ta. Loftus had previously ondgced a fscinaing program of research on re-consrutve rmernory—investigatiag ow such suggestive” questioning can in~ ‘uence memory and subsequent eyewitness esienoay®' In one of her experiment, Loftus showed abject Si depicting multi pve acide, After the film, some of the subjects were asked, bout how fst were the cats ping when they stashed int each other" Orr subject were arked the sare question, but the word resded was replaced bythe word iz. Subjects who were asked ‘Sout smashing eas a8 Opposed to hitting eu, estimated that the aes wee going significantly faster; moreover, 2 week afer seeing the fl, hey mere more Likely to sate eroncouly) that here wat broken gl tthe acident scene ‘Leading questions cannot only induence the judgment offs (asin the eae above), but als can aft ee memory of what has happened. none of he eaty des, Laftas showed subjects 3e-ris of aids depicting an auto-pedestrian accident Ina critical lide green car drove pase the accident Immediately after viewing the sides, hal of the Subjects were asked, Did the Alu cr that drove past he accident have a ski rack onthe roof?" Te remain subjects were asked this same question but with the word blue ‘eleted.Thove subject who were asked about the "be” car were tote likely to clas income that they had seen a blue ar A ‘imple quero had changed their memory. Tn her reimony at Hennirsrecond tial, Lofts dissed the rani ofre-construcive memory andthe way that an interoge- tion can lad an oberver to conttuet an imaginary scenario and then believe that it really happened. Consider the earlier testimony of Sandra Barnes. At it, she could not reall the presence ofan fone atthe bank eller machine. Howeve, afte listening t9 months of television coverage and reading years worth of newspaper so~ fies about the crime, coupled withthe pressure stemming from the fact chat she wat the only one who might bave acca the tal mu ders, Barnes re-consteucted a memory of he sit othe bank ma ‘hin that included someone who looked like Heani~in a man- ‘ec similar to the way the sadenterealed hive rather than = igeen car inthe Loftus expeiment. By rehearsing this ew coo Etruction repeatedly for lawyer and judges, Barnes came to accept ite fact. eis important to note that Sands Barnes wat not inten~ tonal fing She wat simply ce-constuctng the event. She cme to believe what she was saying. Chuck Barrett’ testimony wat tained in euch the same way. Subsequent the man he sa the morning ofthe marder was coaclisivelyideatiid as another sn ‘ahs way to workomnot Hens Forse for Henn his tory didnot end on death row On ‘April 20,1989, a second juy declared Timothy Henais tobe inno cent of the crimes, noting that there wa no physical erence link ing him tothe scene and that che eyewitness testimony was weak The fit ta, Hennis had been victimized by mistaken identifi cation coupled withthe jury implicit assumpaon chat memory is posed area ‘Although the cae cemains unclved, off the ror, the local police have indicated that they sow have good reason to believe fhat the crimes were actually commited by another person: A strikingly simile rape and murder were commited in neighbor ing town while Hennis wat on death row. Shortly after these times, both Hanis and the police recived a convincing sedis of Ahonytnou eters thanking Henrie for taking dhe rap forthe Bast- brn ren, Autobiographical Memory Tes der that memory can be re-enter (gck naphotlie ene uch ying co eal he del on SMtomobie scien, But what shot ssmething more ending, Soch wth eal of our ov personal story? Hise gan in fort ore tat we Soe eater Ou past rt at {el ie Sle. Ie sini no gre weber eying that ha ee happened oie Sern reons tod Impontant trons oc ove! time. Ar you might gine, thee fevsione of sutcbiogaphical memory ae ot random athe we haved og tency to organi ou penal history {ner of wh Hal Marks rf tassel schemar cor Irene memories, ling od bl sou ours that ang o- he and form an negted whole Tour memos gt Si feed in such 2 wy tat hye he gnc ewe ve of cuncies For samp i we have» general pre of our Cai feed shaving bc up, and aor paren shaving been cold td dan ny eves ton co cod that tt geet fice wl be moe Giftco recall than erent tat spp Thuy ove the yu, our memories Become ieresngy eben tds cart et nano oc one we ewe cut persona hinoriea It that we we Bigshot ou pet i tat ae ot smeitering accor, I Oa sos, we shaping ‘Aeimple lite xpernent by Miche Ross, Cathy MeFund ad Gar Fche shes condenble ight on how ths ight tome bout" thei espetiment allege sede seed «pe Sono menage aig the amprsnt eqn oth brah inp Alte aching the mest they changed hi ste o- dred oth brahng, Nees to sth not sueing But ere what ensuring Tat ene ay the ent wee ke,“How many snes has you brhed your teeth in the pat 2 wrecks? Those who reseed the msg eae hat they bused thee teeth fr more fequety than did students inthe consol Condition, The students were aot stenting to deceive te re searcher thee was no rear fr them oi Phy mere Spy os ing tat new wien a» aie to -conset the pt Rony Tnasense, they noded to beheve ht they had alvage behaved rs sensible and resonable munncr—even though they ha jst sow AEsconered what atest beavor might be. Elinbeth Lofts has cared thi line of research a step far thee he sen planing le menor of hdd txperienes in the minds of young adults by spy ining + bre veto ak about tee fren a ht or enone young mans ole site uid 0 im, Remember the tne when Jou were ve yar old and you got lot fr sever hour atthe Universy Cieshopping mall? And you wentintopatict0d an cllsh man wed to hep you? When we dcovered ou, you were holding the old man had ned were ying” ‘Within ew day fea ch soy st pepe wl have a= onported that placed meme into thir own Bry wl ve mboidered with details ob yeah he old men who helped ne sri wesrng lnm! shi), and wil be aba cert tht sly apne nc it Th sen ale flac memory syadeome Tie Recrwered Memory Phenomenon, Loftus research on the planting of fuse childhood memories bas jeder and many ther fonitve scientists to take close and sheptcl look at recent ‘societal phenomenon: the recavered memory phenomenon. During the 1980s and 1990, thournde of adult seemed to remember Domifng childhood evens tht hd been previously unavailable to them, Many of there memories were about having been sexaly ‘molested, ove period of moathe or years, by thls father oF seme ther family member Some memerier even included (as part of the abuse) vivid account of having been forced to pariciate in cab orate satanic rituals ivalving such inate and gruesome acvise at "he bling and devouring of infin.” There memoces were woly areas et coed goer egg eens ne a ae Ate pe ecbrnaer ie eed Seapete arenes eee er red aay op ee pea ale Ferns es Pec ee een ee ane pierre teriasecti cts race ietomhatae eet SE cbc peter reel sel wa oni aed doe et egy Sees cea es aes ee Sahat ieee ee a erie ea 5 Oe ee aren oege: Se ae ee bear na weg hme meee share Seas Sal, ‘memory ocarchers have. ee ‘self-help in, er epee aeshes gol nde a ate he poner of wgeion and vat Seay lp tw marr ne ett wera tke pla! Fo cpl ote bere sling sl help Bost es Src peop wpe ne ng re ce hol wry and gcron et veer puss dea ete aie. Hee apart in sired ihe Thee are common haat th ein fae where abuse takes place. You may oot hi 7 ot Have expescgced al of ham bt os obit expetiened rer “ + “Taleashamed of my fay + “Thee were things Tous ak abou” + "There were slays aot fetes fly” * ‘Along with head eng thece watt of godin fay" + ‘Atieaone of sy pre took dag or dake” + “Twas fen hunted and pt down.” "Alot of my basi needs wre ken cu of + “Things were chaotic snd unpredictable in ry household” ‘There mee tof broken promises” + ‘Ti not sre iff was sbused bu when [ear about ease ands ects, al sounde rey ad amis As you ca st, some of the items on thi Kit would ‘most of us—whether or janyhing mscebiog not we experienced anything een sta ie Farrer Rilo a cen ed out thai no scent evdenc 2 speci Hk beraeey cid ‘el abe td any often fcc ter What ewe to make of station where thousands of adul set thar the ‘were sexually abused as children, repressed the memory of a {nd now after eading ths book, seco rmember te soe? Ot the oe band, we have desire to take each of hee incidents eeseicanch teing did tke place, fs indeed wag and our ay ea tothe pope who had uch tua experece. Hee Bethe menary fase! I the ssence of ay cooborat Re Tench he pron cont and prove the arsed pe eeteshe? Thouand of people have done jos that—and a ies hay been om apart by seve accusations As you eae ee when people ae acsed of uch atone sone 30 rae etn aloged at, it ly impor for them fo Jove thes ianacene= Trt tout saying that hit hasbeen a highly consonesi see emcmparary pycology. Some profesional pychologist TR fect tore these necunts at fice vale, But most verses statins, bse on their research on memory bebe Soe Cane of any consborting evidence EES abuse Bee Jbeimang to acme the spc fy seme of having wwetited tin aus cme Inadition othe seni eeach cor toned, researcher point to even from ereyay TP etic tha ray of these recovered "memories of burt a nde ean, ura out to be ether Bt-ot WONG OF rae cr llly For example in some istancs seve siblings Seeeng the same ro where the events allegedly ocsred ‘ein oy never oo pas occvinal the acid ere, aoe eds of ues away (serving in the ete) TREE sers of eens lege scued Ss many insane ices ae ach memes in tery bare come to elize Fo Te pers ty hatte eves never aaly ocesed oe ot seauniona® Sosntins, whe there sould be artnet in enmpesose by i absence, Fer examples a en ree ee ome people have covered the vd "emery ree een fed opiate ina eis of ean tals in inc yd and ac babies and brid thei sensns, Some of see memati re pecs aboe where the bees wee buried. Res sug tema searches yw eaforcement offices have aa during upa single skeetnand 0 concing cane paee rere report het wuld have spores the vecty of thre crows! ‘ot aventons main usanewesed, For eth mos atc ing ee hat in forthe ci? 18 one eng c aly‘emember something relatively til, lke having been los jn shopping mall a chil, bu secovering 2 memory af having been seualy abused would entails lot of pain. I these events did in fac, ake place, why would anyone be wilingto belive they di? T do not have a definitive answer to that question 1 do have ne ease history that mayor may nat be typical. This inwaves aloe frend of mine 2 very bright, highly sophisticated mile-aged women T will ell" Madelane” Here is what she woot was at very low oii Lat fing thy unhappy and Snnecue: My mariage al vce fale pare. Ima bang ot of ‘wublerelingto men. My poetional ie had ten ew ere hits My selPateem war tan allielow had the song eng that ie was out conta and not what shoud be Whe picked up «slap book and began to ed aout dpfintona Fimlie-and, moreso set carci of people who Ine ben sruly sured cle and characteris of Ea les wher sera sate kes pce waa ath al went tn sore srange wa Uactuly elt wscne of eet as felingof "Oh, so ha explain why {ano rae” The book told me that if aid emenber spect roably enn I es ‘spring horible memories If ike a detective. The mre Ibe {amo think about my ldbod, he mre things began tl into lace For several wee, Ivacilaed berween al ind fenton, tras fing anger a yf, bumilaon, itn slo ese fei Tow ce hate reli une om the at haf could bzne my tnappines on something teil that was done fo me sen Iwas iy thea T wou have fo ake eponiliyf ny ‘en iors an a ade acy dst ever onion my prety because Teme tore iae thatthe memories probably weer slab seed to ave ‘tw memories in wish the dete of events wee diferent. Beth {ee of memories coud have been srr Ale came elie the event “emembered™ olde porly have happened, f= ne host fearon. Ir was nce hard giving op tee that ‘here waa len deta aso fr my lysine and ust 1 ws very vlaerale and messed whe ea that book I cold ive done untold damage oy uy to mall had rer mide pble ry memorir “el el ey angry nots ‘By parentat that laa bock How Conservative Is Human Cognition? ag tn yo ain uk om king pot in- twain teed hats impose to ieniy wht dete Ste ta rep ou ut fa chy ci Pe ale gus nae ya bored Ac 2 Cc paepeedin yy lie eS ee fhe ae Bu more ae! by ee et Raped tee wut ey al sak Peter ro” AC fn mg cul, ou Wee erm oa dg Fer EAS G We Nec nen ugh you eld sa gO Lefcponas vite gaa aa eS peu ofthe ines ee ee Hoch The wl of i ape a aa a enrmaon bare enon) ae caroline sic, Whe te a agree potas xt Ce i ne fam cone tng ee We ks sedan ig tote es A tte ay Ca ay tore pu Fs red wine te confeatin si sesh hp xin an Ma ot Wan Senn ee ee SO penn ty we hut me ‘rn ging a Se oan ere e- Sec aed iy np fae Ee cya Ingo sec epceht te conan thei original hypotheses. Subjects who eee eee ot mri oko nt de hyn rch Wha odo feta ce ee cna os mo Fe a nner we ily ak qo aa on doen wh you cl me gpg ne dati bul pre Noes a sed Whe do wc he nbc yp estthe person is likely to be conimed. Thats, peron whois ciher ‘ertowerted nor inverted wil look entovered when he of she answers he fist set of questions and introverted when he or she n= ‘wer the second set of gestions, "Not only do we tend to confirm our hypotheses, bt we ae often suite confident that they are tue. This canbe lured by what Baruch Fschof teamed the hindsight bas, or the “T-knew tall along” effet! As you may sell rom our diction in Chapter 1, ‘once we know the outome ofan evert, we have aston tendency to believe that we could have predicted it in advance In the Fschatt periments, subjects were given atest asesing thie knowledge of storia evens. The subject task wast indicate theikelnood that four posible outcomes of che event could have actualy crured, Some of ce subject were told that one ofthe four poosiltes had scully happened but were asked to make the emacs that they ‘would have mae had hey not ft bean tld the ight” newer. The results showed thet subjects could not ignore this infomation they substantially overestimated the priorkncwledge of correct answer nother words eve though sbjects ely dda know the anowe's the tes once they were tld an anne they believed hat they Knew it allalong and tha their memes bad aot changed ‘The confirmation and hindsight bases provide suppor for the proposition tae bumem cognition tends tobe conservative, Tha ‘we try to preserve that which is already estblshed-—to miata four preexisting knowledge, beliefs, acitudes, nd bypothees Throughout this bok we have seen numerous tamplet of cog tive conservatism: The ist information received i limos alway ‘he most influential; easily accesible categories are overused in forming judgments) repretentatve and attitude heuristics ae somerines misused; stereotypes datrt information processing to Confirm the apparent useflnes ofthe serotype and memory i ‘ecoastrute to it with curtentpespestver. Tin provocative aril, Anthony Greenwald has argued that cogitive conservatism has a least one benefit: It allows pe seive the social world ar «coherent and stable place, For eval, ‘uppose that everytime che brary received some new books that Aidit fits previous cataloging ster, x Ubrtian resusnbered and reeataloged all he books inthe lbeuy. The “HIM (weal py ‘chology books) were changed suddenly to“APS7s" andthe "BEC" (pnycholoy) were now divided into the “BAY” and the “DBs” It ond psy hat ira es ecto he Boks ‘When fou tow upto do your term paper on sia xpiton, you vronid Fit aay imposrile oloete the hook nd artieles you Toca tray weld be plc futerconfsion To keep the any oper and coset, it makes sense to tmadify nly ghey the cut cauloging tem and fi he sew book nto ‘Be old sem: Sry to xp out nds operating and coer ces pat erat cote enero rudy only sigh oor coaative aegis. ‘wens swe have sen thoughout tis chapter, cogiie const bs cons The sure of appropiate categories ‘ayes pon odor et omy pre nore av. The muappLeaton sf «hearse ca lead f poor decison Thing The fae to update our conception of the word inthe {hee of new and dszepant formation can eel n'a mistaken ture of rea The consequences ae ot jut mental but ca Noth fc oil probleme that we al cy, c,d jn pin pid inking “Wat can we do towel the negative conseqpenes of ogni Give conserva? Here se for rae of thu tha might ep Fv be wary of those who ate to create your eategoris and nbs ofthe tuaone There ae many wa to defi and a= feta prone event Ask oul“ Why this puta Ibe be~ tee ndagee™ Second, to ve more than one way categorie 225 ea pron en By sei peso v8 ‘Rnb of deen may we donot ely om sng eter hat then nsemploy beading and wing dhe data thatthe it hercoesned notion. Thin, yt think of person and important ‘So rangi thy eee of pers ‘Soy Gaya gen race o pends) they ae ao embers of many Sie catgries td have tet own unique ateibtes. nvidia lon cantly prevent the verte of iver seeogype or hewritic aly whe ing pein can epost a might be mistake tat you ave ale tim to one oF ore Eth Loge bases dese in thn chapter I the next chap {econ sel jifcaon, we wil onini to explore cognitive con ‘Shim and lok ational ways o protect ourselves fom the These consequences ofdsorted inkingHow Do Attitudes and Belieft Guide Behavior? In he ast few sections we have loked a how ou belief aati ‘ues inuenc the way we think about the socal word. A reason le question to ask i: Wht isthe slationship between our at ter and ou behavior? Can we use ou attitude to predict how we will behave? For example, suppose [like vail ice cream, but ou dik it: Would you and 1 behave differently toward van ce eam? Our intuition says "yes" Most people would expect that I ‘would purchase alot of vanilla ie eeaon choosing it ever other Alavors; you on che other hand, would rarely buy it-This isos) true fr smple preferences ike vanilla fe cream, But we would be making serious nistake if we atsued i were alvaye the case-A long history of research suggests that in manystutiony hs in ition is wrong. Leté take a closer lok. One ofthe casi studies ofthe ati- tude-behavior selaioaship war conducted in the early 1930s by Richard LaPiere Ar che time, there was much more overt and biatane prejudice in the United Stator directed toward people of color than there is now. Often, Americans of Asian, Htpanis ot Affican descent were denied eay access to public est ooms and the use of water fountains, resturant, and hotel ling In 1933 LaPiee contacted 128 hotel and resturant propeicion: and a sessed their atitude toward Chinete people by asking them, - Will youaccept member ofthe Chinese race guts in your establish iment?” Over 99 pevent of those contacted sid, “Nol” Howere, when a young Chinese couple serally made an appearance, LaPiere found that ofthese 128 extablishments, only one refused them accommodation or service. The proprietor ates con cerning Chinese people didnot pedis thei ac tal behavioe La Pere’ findings ae nota ake To 1969, Alan Wicker under- took scholarly review of ove 0 stud that had explored the st tide-behavior relationship. These suds investigated a wide range of atudes and opinions on such topics as job ssfaeon, ethic Prejudice, consumer preferences, and politi beliefs, Wicker found only weak support fr the hypothesis tat attitudes predict behave. ‘Ashesays, “Taken as whol, there tics ugget that it consid ably more ily that atétuder wil be untlated or oly slighty re lated to overt behaviors chan chat attitudes wil be lovely elated to tins p65). The Aiud Bebavio Relationship in Our Hea. low can we soa body af ach wth inion at peo {ude are song selred to hi or ber beavioe One ways 0 ‘Sacloe hat tet no cman eaineipbetwecn aces ed behavior Iva ino head wet imagine hat peopl act Sse nth bela ite, Ter oe for this proportion Inthe preous two chapter, we sm the oer of the cal sivation t indoe conformity. LaPet keg undid ed eg ch ee mt “ringry boa aimisng Chinese people othe meme they fad erry press (ovo aling + sen) to lodge the Young Chine coupe once ey spend ote Be Pea Tray dingl ved in te tot immediate premre. Peshaps we ie song tore than creatures who seceamb 0 whateer ‘esses happen oct ino ined soil environment Tn napore of the hypothesr that de peeepton of a svwde-Sekvoe conse) ie" in out Bea nthe common tendeny to atu the cate ofan indvidals birt cha ‘reas of the individual euch agro its and atiues, “nergy oa estan al Fo ca din wiry-Why die Johny lo hi omewod asian fer ane with te ene Bew be pi oe Sgroing such stononal acre overcrowded schools o poor ical enwonmene nthe ord we kanedin Caper shone ce something happen 3 ptson, mow o us sue that The ene consent wit the Kad of pron be o she i. We sald ike tw ble that pope getwha they dese and deserve Aa they get Edward Jones and hr colleagues al hs tendeney TDi the case of bhai ts componding characte {ofa penn a convespondeat inference The bearoe of the pecsn hci in ee fa tuo rita jut ke beh Some np cae Sum pled wo Be enue he clay’ ot eet ofs momentary dstrcin uA saeppd a Ted boca shes hole pron (not be hase she mowencly ot er tempe). “An eperment by Edward Jones and Victor Haris demoa- suaies ht sh nsencer can Be peti In hi expeniment ‘fj read eas ether forte or onivorbl to Fel Casts ‘een Cb lege ween by ens in poll cence (hiv Ha of che fj were deat he tony wes Heychor the poston preset in thi ys, whereas the ote ‘ri tot the wets al ben fd oe pone ‘et inurated to make thebstcethey cul Sabet ied {gues he ny wters ee ate toward Gute. When he tay wie cold chor poston fly sees amend ee the content of thc nays fered tr tr: Thee tng 10-Caty ess were eed to be pro Caran hen ne Sh Ca eye vette ba i fet tuprsing. What wa! pig i at thse rr ot cored when the cnay writer had bern forced to auc tsagned postion. In ote wor, eany wre ocd oh Cones ere ssamed to be pro-Cary and tse fred tures sees Cato were asmed oh nano lang the nese sje dsounte the station prenre takes ponte sad felted cnt barre rade ie nai de or ashi afc When De inde Pret Bebvet Jase because sie ont irae pri lec no en th ds Ne pred bebo The lof scent te yt dees te teins unr wich a eet oe oe Lich ee Kal Faia cao oe suerte lthood Gar we lactone ate ncn Ate accent relent the staph ofthe asscaton es oa ‘Scand our treason of far xample fy lee ne peur wil ied thik “bad denen’ cp Ree Paiing* mvt wil quickly spond teal” Weal acy rope tout whom we iedaly in, Oh, none ar ok fin comely "Wont Wha wonder enon These Ay sce ate Noval ais sd ble highly cei i exam we may have opis on Posto Res raat or ne tinrting bat on of thes ops done eae tenind Sonne whem ate th sn the objet ore in memory Neve we mig stn oe pinion aed Fr cme ey tearhes fa fase cpa of ging te opion bot mae p oe och 481 phony pec of leptin of reign it aonesiencous- Ulett two casey os acne aude and nat ‘Tues arent ily o gid behave How does aide ccrbity inns behavior Acoding to Fai atirdes ue ued to interpre sad presie an aject = {rcv and to ake ene of scomplox sition, We ba en ‘pevowly how atsuder coe influnc copie pocesiag an Frode server ts Hout to infoence ou itezpetaon, ton, eoing and judgment ft sitastion But any gen a> tale oye of many att can be nel to mak ee oa Stion For epi, make yense Of comple stun, we tanya the oe etre ofthe atin, rh othe people fay abot orc general stad abst sinar ston. When tn arotade i igh accesible, i mre Uhl 0 be the mae ‘lag we we for dfn» situation, a those satons, we wil ac entices ofthe aide “There consteabe evidence to support the proposition that hig ses atadee gue behave One menue of ae sod isthe speed sath which endl ean provide 3 Srlauinetaponse fan abject oie Using ti simple mess, Rossel Faso and Carl Willams were sle to make extern fanly accurate pedcons of who would vor fr ether Ronald Reagan or Wale Mondale inthe presidential clecion of 1984 ier mom baie econ nnd Witla oka ic ecomputer to led shopping mall snd shed passerby t ge thir opine oat aot enh an eration of exch ofthe wo presidental candidates The computer recoded the {peed with whch they nll the presidencies: Ths eertace menue of toe sceibny Lae, Faso and Wik Te contcted the subjects and sked ther about Ger peep fone oft pesidential eats Af the eleton, hye for ‘nor they bd yore. Theres showed tht thor odds Wh highly scosble atade (Bt repose) $ months before the eletion wre more likly fo vote fr their favored candidate fe we perce he preidenGa Snes in 4 manner consistent sek ae de Ths sigh ciferenc vein, Fao and his coleague scully imaipuated the accessbliy ofan aie by heving bjs r= [rely expt tec pinion orb ging abject the opporsty to have direct experience with the aticude object. They conse tency found tha atte that ae made acesibl in this manner became predictive of subsequent behavior to far greater extent than aitudes chat are not made accesible asi’ concept of atiude acesbiity provides us with sev= «eal ways of interpreting the lack ofan attitude behave Flan shipin the LaPiere study ofiankeepers The problem is that we do ‘not know how accessible sttudes toward Chinese people were for cach ofthe innkeepers. Moreove, it may be tha different ats ‘des were activated by the questionnaire da bythe actual vit af the Chinese couple. Por example, a survey item mentioning only Chinese people may have vemiaded an innkesper of his ot her ener prejudice, whereas the presence ofa young, well dressed Chinese couple may have invoked competing thoughts and fee ings. Moreover, even if pejuiced atitudes were highly accesible and subsequently iauenced pereptions ofthe situation, thee no guarantee that the innkeepers would or could have ated on ‘those perceptions. Peshape dhe presence of other goers made the fnokeepes feu of creating a Scene. Pthaps the experience wat Anew one fr the proprietors, and they simply didnot know how to behave. Thee factors limit the extent o which a person wil et ‘on hi oc her belies Acting on Prcptons. Thee is snaher way that atcudes and bil en influence behavior: The belie can come to create the social world in which we live. An experiment by Paul Her illustrates how this ean cerus”* Using + word puzale game, Herr intentionally incresed the acenblity ofthe concept ery in tome of hit subject, using the techaique of priming discussed cules in the chapter. Specialy, Hears subjects were requed to find hidden names of pessone in s mati of letter. For hall of the subjet, the hidden names were of persons awociated with hosilty—Chares Manson, Adolf Hider, Ayatollah Khomeini, and Dracula, The other mibjects sought and found the names of seluively gendle peoplePeter Pan, Pope John Paul Shirley Temple, and Santa Claus, The subjects then sead an xmbiquocs description ofa person named Donal, whose behavior could be seen a citer hostile o gene, and reted Donal’ level of hostility. Consistent with ou eater dacussion of contrast effets, we woul pete diferent pales to infuencejdgnents about Deal Cotmpared to Hitler tad Manson, aimox eveyone looks gene Sneloiog Donalds compated toe Pape and Seta Cla alnost verona tpn herteinclding Boal. Tiss cacy what Hew foun Thore abject pened with the eremcy hele ewone ved Donal te et howie compared with se ho (Seed ihe gentle primes Bt Hers espoimentdidst sop there. Next, the jee pled bring ame ith» pe win hy tought Bor i gr pst men tind ho tween one of to eperecompeting oF coopening, Her Found he when ubjoc expected to lyasins Rosle Dol they payed in highly competitive inner when they expected 2 fre Donald, they payed with fr more copeaon. Inert Spee bch were uel lng leo Dovel a poeived ths compettvenen thy re hc opponent eel Ren ina mane consntat withthe wy be ore ped the ces fe: oma early be root ha ince {a eee tht, intr, fected chair and sbsequnty decel the et ound of pecepsons ost ign ey cme em pes 28 ee i eee sgen rhguse ite Dea mre neyo Setneee iene ne eke Sete tees ite selene SrA tend hun Pen acme ee eet eerie tee trast Sd edn neck he apres ‘seats prpearartane tees Sie pa oe beh Seip en ay na nalree Possible Biases in Social Explanation ery day of our lives, we sek to exphin a variety of events and happeoings: Why ic Saddam Hsin bchaving vo ereccally? Wy did thar ateactive person arose the room ignere te? How come 1 Aid so poorly and you did so well on the recent exty assignment? Why did my mother naples o cook my favorite meal while | was home during the Christmas holidays? Our explanations are often ‘atonal and acurwte But they are wlnerble wo bis and imac ‘cy. In studying how we interpret our social weld soil payhol- ‘git have identified three generl biases that often affect ou 2 ‘nbutions aed explanations the indamental attbution errr the scor-observer bias, and sel biases, ‘The Fundamental Aribution Error," teem fundamental attibution error fea + generl human tendency to. over fsiimate the importance of perionality or dipoitnal Factors relative to sitwational or environmental infivences when dering tnd explaining the causes of socal behavior.” We have lead seen tone eximple ofthis tendency—correrpondeat inference. Tht is when explaining why Sam took a specifi politial postion ot pesformed specific behaviog we tend to vee pesonality char Acetic (he believes strongly in the ius; he is lary) as opposed to situational fetors (he was assigned that position, he wat very tured that day) This may lead ut to believe that thee is more onssency of motive and behavior in the word than actualy ‘Another example ofthe fundamental atbution ero is pro vided by an experiment conducted by Gunter Bierorase In this ‘experiment, sbjecs witnessed a reenacement of a person's perfor mance in Stanley Migs finour experiment on obedience to thority (deserbed in Chapter 2). Real that inthis experiment, ‘Milgram constructed a stuaton that eiited high rates of obed nce in this cate, the Behavior involved adminieterng eveeelec- tte shocks toa “Tearnee” Like most subjects inthe Orginal 3 gram experiment, dhe peson in Bierrauer reenactment showed 2 high level of obedience, administering the maximur level of lec tee shock After showing the reenatenent,Bierbraur then asked his subjects to estimate how many of Milgranis subject in general would be cbedient inthis station The rents showed that sub- ject consendy underestimated the acl degree of obedience Specifically Bietraver' subject erimted that only 10% 20 per~ en ofthe people in thie veting would give the maaimur shock of 450 volts, In actualy, as you wil real Milgram found that 65 percent of the subjects edminirered this level of shock In other trons, Biebravers subject rramed thet this person was an aber ‘ation —that hie behavior elected distinguishing prtonl dispot tions (Le, that he was parccularly aggressive or obedient). They fled to atibue his bebvir to the power ofthe stuaton Yo pro- dice this behavior in moet people “As observer, we fequenly ose sght ofthe fic thaeach ndi~ vidal pays many social roles ad that we might be obrensing oly fone of them. Thus, the importance of social roles can be euly Drerlooked in explaining a persons behavior For ample, I know 2 Phology profesor whom I will all Dr Mensch. The stadens doce Dr Mensch, When they describe him on tache eauatont ‘ndinfrmally they we word och 2 oarm caring, omcernad aout ‘eadet,sprascable earimate Brians, and fenly. However, De Mens profesional colleagues havea diferent image of hi, tspesaly thse who have given profesional tll when he was ia ‘he audience Like the atadens, they soe hia as bilan, but they tse describe De, Mensch a nen, critical, tough, argumentation, tnd rete. ‘Who has the rghe impresion—the erudente or the profer- sional colleagues Ise really a tough ei penn who i imply Prtting on an actin onder o ppeat tobe watt and caving in font Fis stadenn? Or ise elly a warm and caring individal who pretends tobe tough when confonting other psychologists? These fs the wrong questions, The face i tht ny fend is eapable of 2 ‘wide range of Behavior, Some social rolet tend to pull behavior From one prt af che spectruy other Socal roles tea to pull be- havior Eom different par ofthe spectrum, The students see De Mensch in only one role—that of teacher. He is a very good teacher, and the jb of «good teacher iso get the bet out ofthe student thi null ries warm and caring behavior The su- dents have acuretely described my fends behavior within this role On the other hand, the oe of useful profesional colleaguesometimes reqs adver chavo In omer co dover the trath a gpod profesional afte wil ony pres an argument to Sex how far wl go. This freuen els in hap iatese and ‘ets etc The,Ds Mensch profesional colleagues aso tociratly describe the havior ha they see, However both at dens and profesional collages make» fundamental atrhuton esr when they are tht the behavior they observe duce {ely some peony carci, athe ii bed age nth wy DE Menach pecces the fopurenent of hi ei roe Thisis not tay tat personality eleant Not everyones Capable ofthe wide ay of behavior aiferted by De, Mensch [But to ase that be is either tough oe warn io ignore he poerof the soi le "A dlever experiment by Lee Rot Tees Amati, and Jia Stimetileststes hw the impact fel cole xn be nderes™ timated in explaining behavion™ They set wp “quis show” format invwhich they randomly sgn ej to one of wo role: (2 austioner howe tuk twat opp dice uerion for (2) a Contestant, whos tack it watt snswe them, An observer watched {his simulated quis show and then eimated the questioned the contents general kncwege. Ty top youre inthe le afte observer What do you eet Well you very cael, ‘os wil we one very sat, kawledgeale person and one thet Tepid peso But plac tke loser look, Notice how these two rls con- seni the behavior ofthe ptipants The questone i kel ome up with some fay diiclequesions based on exteic ‘nowiedg: "In what baseball park di Babe Rath ht hie second 0 Insehome rnd” What nthe cpl iy of Lithuania” and What isthe date of Thoma Jefferons date By sey arin these question the qurone lock are On the other hand te om tant it feed vith anowering thew diicltquestons and i Ul to mis few: This makes im or er look ite pid: And shit excly what Ros and his league found. The Serves fei tha the qustiones were fa more knowledgesle than the conterants. Howere, since everyone was randomly asigned to thes role iti etme unl hal ofthe quesconer mee actualy ore knowledgeable than al ofthe constant, What i ‘or interesting is thatthe oberers Anew ht he arpa fad been rndotlyscpned to there roles Ye they fled to com sider the impact of these soil soles ia making thie jdgments bout the qulz show participants and fll into the tap of arsibur- ing what they sw to personal dispositions Ifthe fundamental atibtion ear were mite to judgments out cllege prfetors and quia show participants, it probably ‘would aot be much of a cause for concern, However, ts impic. tons are far-reaching. Consider common cation of mort Amer- Jeans toa person using food stampe aa supermarket "She lx, ifthe jet tried hares abe could get ajo" Or consider this char scterzation of «convicted burglars “He ie «tenible human being, ‘what ype of vlin could commit euch act?” Both desetitons ‘ould conccvably be accurate, ut what is more key i that they fepereat the fundamental ateibution err in ation. Althovgh thir snot the place fora fll discussion ofthe situational deters ‘ante of poverty and crime, there canbe many factor ther than personal characteristics that ean explain why & peso is poor or ommit crime. Thee incide lack ofjob opportunites, literacy, ‘economic eceson, the lack of poitive role models in one igh bothood, and growing upin« dyafunctionl family. do not mean o imply that a eiminal should mot beheld ac~ countable fr his or ber actions, Cains re sxpooble for what they do and should be held accountable. But by focusing on per- onal rather than situational factors, we will advocate different plc fo desing with socal problese sch a poverty andere For example, the atibstion “this criminal a fend” wl eutin policy of pending more money on bigger and stronger prison and ‘holing ou longer prison sentences. Perceiving the causes of ere 2s due largely fo Unemployment, poor role models, and iliteacy ‘will result policies such ar increeed spending for better schools nd better terchers and tax credit to Dusneser that invent i poverty tricken seen Dost got me weong, Iam aot euggeting thar dispositional factors such as laznes, clumsiness, oF cious ress do not exist. They do, am merely pointing oa that most of 1s most ofthe ime, af oo prone to intake a dispositional ab tion when the ease ofthe Behavior may wel be sitatonal. At the very lea, our knowledge of the Fundamental atribuion exor "hould alert wero the pouty that our dispouitonalatibutions ‘ay not always be correct and that we should tke triusy the ‘motto ofthe novelist Same! Butier: "Thee, bu forthe grace of God, go 1"‘The Actr-Oberer Bist. Another common bist in social judgment is known asthe aetor-observerbins—the tendency for actors to attibute thei owe actions to stutinalfctce, wheat observers tend to tribute the same actions to sable personality Alspostions ofthe actors! For example, ia ay judgment go to the beach a lor because the weather i beautify but, ia ray judgment, you go to the beach 1 lot Beene you ate probably + beach bom. Polit leaders often describe wite moves and blunders as lrgely inescapable under the circumstance, wheres prvae citizens ate lhely eo see both at 2 consequence of the leaders pereonalcharscteritice. Real the Kitty Genovese murder lacus in Chapter 2. After Ms, Genovese was murdered in Fill view of 38 witnesses in New York Cig the eyewitneses claimed ‘hat the situation was ambiguous an that ar dificult to know what do; newspaper reporter called it tender apathy In other Words I give myaelf the benefit of the doubt; 1 use atutinal {utes to fxpain myef But dont give you the ume benef when Ttry to explain your behavog, I make the fundamental stbution "There is considerable evidence thatthe actor-observer bias is pecvasive, For example, studies have shown tat (1) in exhining ‘acces and flue on anintelligenc et college students ar likely to explain othere poor pesformance ia terme of their ability, wheres they explain thet own pooe performance in terns ofthe Alicalty ofthe ee items; 2) college students who vohnteted to Daticipace in psychological research ateuted thee participation to the importance ofthe reseuch, whereas observer viewed thet purcpaton a reflecting a personal inclination to participate in ‘ny and al reseach; (3) when observing a peer behavior, college Sradents leapt the conclusion eat this person wil continue fo act {na similar manner in the fore (hus implying sn underlying dis Poston t behave ina parsclar way), wheres the “ator” indi ‘ated that hey peesoally would probably act diferenty i the fi tue; (4) students described their best find’ choice of ilriends tnd college major in ems ofthe qualities oftheir best fiend but explained their own choices in tems of the qualities oftheir ge ‘tiend or major and (5) people ascribe more personality tit fo other people than to themeclven® ‘Whats the cause ofthe sctor-observe bia? An experiment by Michael Storms indicates that iis a fonction of whee a person attention i fcuted The actor’ attention is uel focused om the ecvizoament and oa past history; he or she may have spesial knowledge abou the fictors the od up tothe Behavior and how he arshe felt about che behavior. On the other hend the observer at tention i almost always focused onthe acter; therefore, the ob- server may be uneware of histodal or environmental reson for ‘why the actor di what he or she did Ta the Storms experiment, two subjects engaged ina conversa tion wtile two observers watched each cbeerce wat instructed vo monitor one ofthe converstionlis, After the converstion, the {ors and the obperves indicted fo what extent behaviors uch a ‘endlines,takatveness, servoures, and dominance were doe cither to person characteristics ort the situation. Ae you sight fexpec, the actors were more likely to expo thee behavior in terms ofthe station, whereas the obrever explined the ber ior in tims of the actors peronliry dapositions, This was not prising itis consatet with what we know abou the actor-ob {Server bias. However the study had an interesting twist Some sub- jet viewed a videotape of the conversation that wis played back tithe from the same angle st which they originally sa it ie the tsetors sw a videotape ofthe other person, and che observes sat the peton they were aed to macitor) or om avevereungle (a, the actos sa themselves, and the observers aw the other pss). ‘When the camers angle was the same, the actor observer bat oc- cured however, when the camera angle was reversed, so was the tetor-oberver bias, Actors who sv themeelves fom the observer point of view were more ely to explain teie own beavioe in ferme of dpaitina factors, whereas observers who saw the ord fem the porn of view of dhe actors were more Ukely eo pain Be- havior in rtuational term, Often the actorsobserver bias can lead to misunderstanding and confit, For example, if Sem shows up late fora date with Susu, he (theater) nay explin his tudes by noting that “ll the raf lghts happened t bere” whereat Susu (the observer) may conclude that Sen“ losing interest ia ime” These differing perceptions and attibuions might, in turn, serve a the base for subecquent ation that might serve t exalt Feelings of honiy and coli. ‘The Storms experiment points to one method fr nipping this ‘potent conflict inthe bod before it happens: Change the ator nd the observers perspectives, One tactic fr doing this i pro‘mote empathy by role-playing the others point of vews* Anothee ‘acti, used on the intermationl fron, i ultra exchange po sams in which citaens of one county lve in another. Both tetics, hange both the perspective and the information avilable for mak ing aterbutions In Chapter 8 we wil look at 4 very powerful aad socesfl technique called sestvtytmning, whichis simed at increasing intesperional understanding by providing feedback on how other see and fe about the wel The SelB. 18 nom tie 10 tun ou tetion to what tappens our social cognitions when ur most important sal coprition~the eis inolved As you wil el fom ou eae

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