Combustion of hydrocarbon

+ ( + ) 2 2 + 2
2
2
PV=nRT
Chain
isomerism
Structural
Isomerism

Positional
isomerism

Functional
isomerism
Isomerism

Stereoisomerism
-differ in
orientation of
atoms group in
space

cis-,trans- isomers
Geometrical
isomerism
Optical
isomerism

cis-: more polar(high b.p.),

less symmetrical and can't
pack closly(low m.p.)

+ isomer
dextrorotatory
d-isomer
Enantiomers

:rotate light clockwise

-similar physical properties

- isomer

-differ in effect toward polarised light

levorotatory
l-isomer
:rotate light anticlockwise

Mixture of +/- isomers = racemic mixture (not optically active)

Homolytic Fission

Bond Fission
Reaction

Heterolytic Fission
Bond Fussion

Lewis

Bronsted Lowry

Acid: electron pair acceptor

Acid: proton donor

Base: electron pair donor

Base: proton acceptor

+ : inductive effect results in a permanent dipole

Initiation Step
Free Radical Substitution

Propagation Step
Termination Step

Source of aliphatic hydrocarbon: 1) Natural gas 2) Crude Oil

600~900 oC
Termal Cracking
Fractional
Distillation

free radical
mechanism
silica & alumina

Catalytic Cracking

carbocation
mechanism

Fractions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Liquid petroleum gas

Gasonline (petrol)
Kerosene
Diesel Oil (fuel oil)
Lubricating Oil
Residue (bitumen)

Pollutants from combustion of hydrocarbon and its effects on environment:

1. CO
-Bond with haemoglobin to form complex which inhibit the transportation of oxygen
2. CO2, CH4
-greenhouse effect
3. C
4. SO2
-acid rain (corrosive and produce salt in soil)
5. NO
-acid rain (corrosive and produce salt in soil)
6. NO2
-acid rain (corrosive and produce salt in soil)
-formation of photochemical smog

2 +
+2 3
3 + +
7. PbBr4 (Leaded Petrol)
-poisonous (brain damage)
Catalyst: Platinum, Palladium

1st compartment

Add O2, heat at high T

Thermal Reactor

unburned hydrocarbon oxidised.

: oxidise CO

CO + O2 -> CO2

2nd compartment
Catalytic Reactor

Catalyst: Alumina layered with CuO

& Cr2O3.

: reduce NO/NO2

2NO -> N2 + O2

Catalytic
Convertor

*must use lead-free petrol: Pb(CH3)4 , Pb(C2H5)4 will poison catalysts

Non-flammable
Inert
CFCs (Freon)

Volatile / low m.p.

Odourless
Non-toxic / non-corrosive

Decoding the Freon number:

Freon -12 + 90 = 102
1=C, 0=H, 2=F
Aerosol Propellant
As solvents
Uses of CFCs
As Coolants
In fire extinguisher (Halon)

Cause air, water, land pollution (toxic)

Effect of DDT

Pesticide persistence (accumulate in soil)

Contamination of food (biomagnifications: cumulative effect)

Lucas test (Lucas reagent)

-test the class of alcohol (rate to form cloudiness)
-conc. HCl & ZnCl2
Uses: dettol and antiseptic
methanal solution: dry skin
(treatment of wart)

preserve biological
specimen

aqueous methanal
Uses of carbonyl
compound

disinfectant: kill bacteria

benzaldehyde: food
flavoring(almond)

solvent (nail polish

remover, sweet smell)

propanone
drying agent in lab

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides
Carbohydrates
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

Glocose (photosynthesis)
6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Monosaccharide
(CnH2nOn)

glucose: aldohexose sugar

fructose: ketohexose sugar
Sucrose, lactose, maltose

Disaccharides
(Cn+1H2nOn)

Donate electron ---> reducing

sugar (maltose,actose)
X donate electron --> nonreducing sugar (sucrose)

Tollens' reagen
Fehling's solution
Benedict's reagent
(Na2CO3, NaCN, CuSO4)
--> Brick-red prep. CuO

Lower carboxylic acid and benzoic acid form dimer in vapour phase and when dissolved in non-polar
solvent.
ethanoic acid (vinegar)
Food preservative
Uses of carboxylic acid

Manufacture of
polymer
Perfume

Purification of ester
1. Shaking ester with ~ in a separating funnel
a. Sodium carbonate solution
- Remove ethanoic acid
b. Calcium chloride solution
- Remove ethanol
c. Water
- Remove NaCO3 & CaCl2
2. Now contains small amount of H2O
- Use fused CaCl2 / CaO to dry

benzoic acid (chilli

sauce)

Ester

3. Sealed and kept for 24 hours, filtered to remove CaCl2

4. The filtrate are distilled, compounds at 74C and 78C are collected.

Food flavouring
Preservative
Uses of ester
Perfume
Solvent: clean circuit board

-amino acid
- amino group and carboxyl group attached to same C

Amino acid

undergo internal acid-base reaction to form dipolar ions

: zwitterions (internal salt)

Zwitterion is amphoteric

pH of amino acid that is electrically neutral without net charge is called isoelectric point.
Electrophoresis is the separation of amino acid based on their immigration under the effect of electric
field at specific pH.

Condensation of amino acid (peptide bond)

2 a.a dipeptide
3 a.a tripeptide
Long a.a polypeptide

Sequence of a.a
-NH2~~~~-COOH
Proteins > 105 a.a
General formula

Primary structure: sequence a.a

Secondary structure: arrangement of polypeptide chain

Condition to carry out hydrolysis

1. Lab: reflux with dilute acid / alkaline
2. Living organism: catalyst by enzymes
Complete
Hydolysis

gives the number and relative amounts

of amino acid (without sequence info)

Partial
Hydrolysis

gives fragment and sequence info

Hydolysis

Protein: structural component / physiological protein

Fibrous protein elongated, insoluble
Globular protein spherical, soluble