ez eereanon Pau, Fatty Gh, 2 Sbeoc Ree EnylerX ims Gem Unobargroerd Bee. £ ie eae eae _ bis information readily avail- ——- a ~ BURRESS | dary Solna. tack, 07, Yess 7 agamannstoee tp Sate ee Seer 1 19 A Gonditions inorder to obtain SMPORTANT GROUND PARAMETERS IN SOFT GROUND TUNNELING by Ronald B. Heuer” anong the more inportant objectives in tunneling are a) eevite the tunnel = renove neterial and make @ Role: (2) Szintain the excavation ~ support the hole and keep it Gu miitsd Line che tunnel a6, necessary for ite intended oS" (ents conplotes construction) (3) minimize, the environ age, "impacts ives, 0 all of the above with minimun dis~ | aera to surroundings and with minimum threat to the | tere Gad catecy of tae workmen and publicy and (4) en- | Mfpta satisfactory Life ang usetuinets of tye tunel fol- Wwreag conseraction, Ground paranoters are important inso- 32203 Ehey relate io problens which may arise in achieving Fe evobjextives: Mus, in arriving at an understanding of SEES ground parameters ‘are ingortant to soft ground eun~ weithey it devinstructive first to consider connon prob= Tons. ‘The term "ground" ‘is used in this paper for the soil and rock materials through vaich the tunnel is driven, Sitnout distinguishing between soll and rock. The ground Ye generally naturally occurring, but in sone cases may be fantuade. fhe terms "soil" and ‘soft ground" are used in- Terchangeably in referring to an aggregate of mineral Grains which can be separated by gentle mechanical means Such as agitation in water. In conventional tunneling practice, soft ground can be excavated with hand tools, oF With hand-held pneumatic tools. TYPICAL PROBLEMS IN SOFT GROUND TURNELING EXCAVATION Standup Pine. A fundamental feature of most tunneling methoi 0 first excavate an opening of sone size (this may be the fol] face or some mali part of it), then leave “senior Geotechnical Engineer, Foster-Miller Associates, i inc., Alexandria, Virginia j ithie opening standing for a short time until the necessary Sipsort is placed. Almast every type of ground will stand Unsupported for some period of tine over and in front of an ‘opening of some s: Successful tunneling requires match- Eenthe work methods to this "standup tine’ of the ground. Tusneling problems, progress, and costs are quite sensitive Tovstandap time and stability of the excavated face. These Problems are particularly critical in soft ground tunneling ‘Where the standup tine ip typically short. In fact, short Wandup tine fe che distinctive feature of soft ground tun- felingy ‘Most special methods and equipment developed for Tore ground tunneling are directly related to this probien of short standup time. ‘A conon, functional tunneling classification of soft ground, the "funneiman's Ground Classification” (Terzaghi, 530) ;’ie exsentially based upon standup tine of the ground, A moaified version of Terzaghi's soft ground classification ie given in Table 1. Probably the most important factor determining stendup tine is the ground's cohesive strength (as measured by its Gnconfined compression strength or undrained shear strength) Felative to the stresses in the ground about the tunnel. ‘The in-situ vertical stress at tunnel depth in a soil nass {Te approximately equal to the overburden pressure. The Gircunferential stress which tends to develop at the tunnel Wall is approximately twice the in-situ stress ~ i.e., Geice the overburden pressure. When this circunferential stress is mich greater than the ground's unconfined compre: Sion strength, che ground fails alnost immediately upon ex- posure, i.e-, the standup tine is short, and the ground Rill "tun, ‘flow", or "squeeze" rapidly. If the circunfer~ Gntial stress is low with respect to the ground strength, the ground may be "fir" and stand unsupported for a long period of tine, If the circumferential stress is of the Same general magnitude as the ground's unconfined strength, the ground may "squeeze" slowly or "ravel”. Swelling ground behavior is more directly related to grain mineralogy and i only indirectly related to ground strength. Ground with low cohesive strength tends tobe less susceptible to svell- ing because it generally is either granular material of in- are mineralogy, or clay already at a high water content, Hence not prone to absorption of more water. the rate of squeeze depends upon the degree of ever- stressing. Peck (1969) nas summarized data showing that the squeezing behavior of clay in tunnel excavation is amnenan's Grunt Cheelttction(sn vate seas perpen, “Neyer tere ont gn ‘go Tignes Lae et worstvunnna War seals ned edits tach sera rm jrenpieaes ate tee ere fetes +4 sera peigghifes gy ve bed 4 Paes HE aft Saredisddt Sgeei sd eek yi e EGguCESaR es Es by goadsdgiity | 68: dbteiedct ids jaa tuayeads #34 reageg*Sagassans | SBE afigi Eee wee BE cbady Seg gobontaghay = sag det gpee"Segegses gfe Beegban geek Case Pyetdeegeghieats § f2y Pealisdgte 200 GSE te egdeer gus sec, sptaial © 23a wasted, Hesse THs“a SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION related to a stability factor N, given by unere p, 42 the overburden pressure af depth © of 555, The tunnel aix pressure above at~ ‘oneerizne tunnel, Pp i SScpheric, if any, afd s, 36 the ‘undreined shear strength more clsy. From case History data ‘summarized by Peck oF gtnt “devappeare chat, although squeeze, 1950s of tunnel Uooeere systens must be considered of Ny greater SupPOrE Syetthe race Of squeeze Goes not Present 3 Py Snet un the excavation if the stability fector eee Galue of Ny exceeds about 5, $5lyenough totinvade the annular void 8° Refers this void can be tilted, iR'woula be troublesome in such Hang wiping weep rapa ciay squeezc+ Wen che voles, 38 Me cane pee aot gy chest faiuure ahead of the GUNN’. oeettS oxseeds, Guenents inte the face, regardless Of Me CSbit ‘to GEOL Ove ag of the face, even in shield Tunsvesn: maintain Pitte of K, exceeds about 7, the clay 18 ony” wae eed to the extint that general sheat f0:0000%, and esed to te, around the tunnel, heading cause Shiea$, nero? to become aifficult, fe 'tends to dive. paveling ground stands initiaily, then begine to, £825 tee SUT or tine. Several factors may contethar, °° after 2 Period Giores The strength of geologic Basar Si* Sele celevGecreasen with increasing duration Of 2080.7 crecgive failure mechaniams related to stress cause of progreround flaws. The ground strangth may $059, Goncentration Sfoe"gae co nechanians such ss dissipation of decrease wit psssures induced by ground movenents 27, 28f, excers Pore Dn or water and subsequent loss of apparent Co” or qvaporatice end zine sand. stresses in the g£oug hesion in Siinel may increase with time. Tor SXaupie. about phe onnels arching of loads around tne face aay iin three dineure the loads at the heading, then cause She thadly redce one Qe that point as the face advances Peyons, de is apparent from the above discussion that 970003) fag ds not simply an inherent property of ce is dependent upon ground stresses che tunnel, i-e, upon the tunnel depth, Tonnce the water cable. For example, 3 “giemt at a shallow depth, but ‘eater depth where more the ground material which develop about and upon the locats eiey oF cemented send may be Stghecting' oF "fast raveling” at a 9r Meet ete coed. Granular soils are pareicularly SomeseiT’ highly streter conditigns. 2£ completely Sry, 2 cheer Sone $e grote ee syunning” and difficult to control. The sane sand mols aurea3ACE EXPLORATION tor Ny given by pressure at depth z of the ae tunnel air pressure above at~ is the undrained shear strength story data sumarized by Peck cthough squeeze ioads on tunnel isidered for values of N, greater weze does not present a‘problem \e stability factor N, is about « Wi, exceeds about 5,"the clay totinvade the annular void n, before this void can be £illea, a'would be troublesome in such ¥ squeeze. ‘When the value of Ny Bre ahead of the tunnel causes ace, regardless of attempts to ace, even in shield tunneling. 8 about 7, the clay is over general shear failures and funnel heading cause shield yan the chield tenga to dive, initially, then begins to fall veral factors may contribute to trength of geologic materials reasing duration of load be~ : mechanisms related to streas ‘The ground strength may also ishanisms such as dissipation of by ground moverante in clay, 1 “Tequent loss of apparent Go- sexesses in the ground with tine. “For example, loads around the face may ini- he heading, then cause the Ant as the face advances beyond. above discussion thet ground Sinply'an inherent ‘property of Sapendent upon ground stresses aly iver upon the tunnel depth, Por examples a "im" at a shallow cepth, but at a greater depth where nore Had afelparticolariy genstetve it Completely ary, a clean tine UsEicule to” contsol. tne sane water table. SOFT GROUND TUNNELING 45 a, if toontad slightly abors ee water table where 4 ts sengc with capillary water and has apparent cohesion, would mo*fslow raveling” and not difficult to work if h landled Be ene, reveling, Sr oot GLcsscane to work ie bandied ang would be Very treacherous "flowing ground. Variable Face. Excavation may be a problen if several paveriaa cf Videly alsfering density and°haccsoss ane See Gunsered in the face atone tine, oulders tiehin’s sore Ground matrix may be difficult to remove while breasting thé Hier nay cause Hajor disruption in operation ore fosteg HGkine, end nay casse trouble In seesting o antelae reise Bchaers may be aisticult to handle uniess they are’ broke are by Jeckhammer of blasting, even after they see Repent $Rte eho dnnel. "A mixed face Of soft ground over took generally means slow, defticule eonneliage "the uppes oft Sound portion of he face must be carefeity beeaseed waite fhe underlying rock is drilled and blascea,” shield quinince tay be diffioatt unless care ie taken to: ensure no coer Sights” project inside the shield Tine before ehe shield Is shoved forerd, Sintlar problens may be encountered Shere soft grouné materials of differing density ana need fete (such a5 loose sand over natd clay] are entounvenss“in She face, or vhere buried man~ade obstructions such as ole SSmnsacions oF rubble fli are encoumeered, Water Inflows. water inflows through the face may be another source of difficulty during excavation. These ine flows may cause trouble because the water tends to wash soil particles into the tunnel, as for flowing ground. This may be particularly worrisome where an interface of send over impermeable clay is present in the face, and an attempt is made to dewater the sand. Generally, che water table can not be lowered enough to dry up such an inter= face. Hence, some water seepage and washing of soll materi~ ais into the tunnel along the interface is almost inevitable, Large water inflows may be a problen simply because of the volume of water which tends to flood the funnel and hem per operations, hence must be pumped out, This may catee trouble wherever large Volunes of ater may be tapped, ss within granular soil, or in any soil at shallow depth be~ low a river oF other body of water. MANVIAINING THE EXCAVATION Ground Loads. Most soft ground tunnels need internal support. Ground loads on the supports can generally be grouped into one or more of three classes: (2) loosening joads, (2) squeeze loads, or (3) swell loads.Excavation of a tunnel inevitably results in stress redistribution and ground movenent around the tunnel. | Tf the resulting sezain exceads the ground's ability to de- foinr sone ground inmediately over the tunnel tends to loos~ Gnvané settle down upon the support system under the influ- Qhce of gravity. The loosening load on the support is the SofGne of the foosened material. Outside of the loosened Yong the ground may be self supporting. One axiom of tun~ Reling is that, with few exceptions, every effort should be nade fo minimise ground disturbance and movenent which is Rllowed to develop. In this way loosening loads are mini- Rized. Conversely, excessive ground movement tends to de~ Stroy or reduce the.ground's strength and ability to support tecle°by arching over the tunnel. Granular materials are particularily sensitive to loosening behavior, especially Shen they heve a weak cementation and cohesive strength, because small movenants may be enough to destroy the cemen~ Retions Ductile, plastic clay materials which can deform with Little loss of strength are less sensitive to loosen ing behavior. Squeeze loads develop on tunnel supports when the stability factor N, approaches unity or greater, The Squeeze Load magnitude varies with the degree of overstress~ ing, and may approach full overburden pressure in highly Ovestressed clay. Clay materials with low frictional Strength are most likely to develop high squeeze loads. Granular soils with significant frictional strength gen- erally will not develop high squeeze loads, but can be sta~ bilized with moderate support pressures, even if ground pressures greatly exceed the ground's unconfined strength. Both theory and experience inaicate squeeze loads often can be minimized if a certain anount of inward squeeze movement £5 Slowed to develop (one exception £9 the “prevent move ment” axiom). Swelling behavior is often similar in appearance to squeeze behavior. However, the two have different causes ~ Suelling is © physicochemical response, a volune increase Gue to absorption of water, while squeezing is a mechanical response to overstressing.| The water required for swelling Ray be Water introduced into the tunnel fron elsewhere, a6 water standing in the invert, or it may be pore water which Migrates toward the tunnel through the surrounding ground. Tf allowed to proceed without restraint, swelling generally Zlows and eventually stops after a period of tine. Hence, as for squeezing ground, swell loads can often be minimized GE the ground is not completely restrained, but is allowed to swert (a'second exception to the “prevent movement? eonr pres ind one- Gant vat some ont over thor ist Sag lor ‘side sou: sid: for com iy ger urb. anc: the par wad thi, ing vol gro. BetL inevitably results in stress tovenent around the tunnel. If Phe ground's ability to de- over the tunnel tends to loos. | support system under the influe ining load on the support is the wial. “Outside of the loosened F supporting. One axion of tun- ‘ceptions, every effort should be turbance and movement whieh is 8 way loosening loads are mini~ ve ground moverent tends to de- 8 strength and abilicy to support tunnel.” Granular materials are oosening behavior, especially tation and cohesive strength, be enough to destroy the cemen- lay materials which can deform sare less sensitive to loosen~ oa tunnel supports when the tes unity or greater. “The os with the degree of overst averburden pressure in highly verials with low frictional develop high squeeze loads. tant frictional strength gen- ‘squeeze loads, but can be sta- pressures, oven is ground \ ground's unconfined strength. ndicate squeeze load often can unt of invard squeeze movement xception to the "prevent move: teu similar in appearance to fhe two have different caust i response, a volume increase wnile squeezing is a mechanical The water required for svelling the tunnel from elsevhers, as yor it may be pore water which Srough the surrounding ground, 3 restraint, swelling generally ter a period of tine, ence, {2 loads can often be minimized Aly restrained, but is allowed ‘0 the "prevent movenent” Design Load on tunnel Suprort. In most soft ground anneli af moterste Goptiey the Tsitial and eieal Liniage Ein be economically designed to support the full overburden an are, assumed vo act'on the lifting tn anitsrm redvat Eompression. To allow this uniform loading to develop, the GPalng shoud be eapsble of deforming eilipticaliy’asose otfaid percent. in granular nateriais at a deeth oF ews soocbatd percent. tn gramciay materiale af depth of ge of stability factor M, it may be possisie to noke Wine allovance for ground sEZenjth ind t© design sofe ground s0heel Linings for & gioind pressure toss ehan'ehe sal Warburden pressure, “in ewelling ground, special consider Sin must be given to the magnicies of possibie'svell tosde, Water Inflows. Water inflows through the Lining sone aistance bal heading may cause problens in naineain~ Sng the excavation, similar to those caused by water ing Hows at the face during excavation, NIWIMIZING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Surface Subsidence, In soft ground tunneling, sub- eidence of the ground surface over the tunnel is a common source of disturbance to the surroundings. Surface sub- Sidence is a particular problen in soft ground tunnel ing for at least three reasons: (1) soft ground tunnels are Commonly close to the surface, hence more readily affect the gurface, (2) excessive ground movenent develops more read~ fly arotnd a sof ground tunnel because of the low ground strength, and (3) Soft ground tunneia exe commonly andes Geban areas, which are most sensitive to surface disturl- ance. 1 Thore are a nunber of causes of subsidence. one is consolidation of compressible soil layers due to lowering the groundwater level. Soft clay and organic nateriais are particularly susceptible to euch behavior. Another cause of subsidence is loss of ground during construction. If more ground material is removed than that which is initially present within the cylindrical volume to be occupied by the tunnel, and the volume represented by this material is not filled in some way, then the surround- ing ground tends to nove into this excavated volume. This volume is often termed "lost ground", The volume of lost ground is generally about equal to the volune of surface Settlement. Loss of ground may occur in at least three locations.“8 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION one location is at the face, where ground may be lost be- cause of (a) face or heading collapse due to flows, runs, or rapid raveling; or (b) overstressing and plastic flow of clay ahead of the face. when the stability factor N, is greater than about 6, inward ground movement ahead of the face may be impossible to prevent even with the best con~ struction techniques. A second possible location of lost ground is in the annilar void at the tail of a shield. In shield tunneling the initial support is generally erected Anside a shield tail. ‘The outside dianeter of the initial support is less than the diameter of the shield excavation because of the shield tailskin thickness and the necessary clearances between the initial support and the tail inside surface. The annular void represented by this difference in diameters must be filled to prevent loss of ground. This filling may be accomplished by expanding the lining out against the ground, or by injecting some material into the void. Cohesive soils tend to squeeze into the annular void before it can ba filled, if the stability factor Ne is greater than about 5. Granular soils with little cohesion are particularly susceptible to loss of ground into the annular void because friction between ground and shield skin tends to loosen the ground inmediately outside and be- hind the tail. A third possible location of lost ground is ‘through the tunnel support or lining, if water flowing into ‘the tunnel washes in soil particles Health and Safety. excessive, sudden water inflows; or face collapse, runs, and flows are a physical hazard to workmen in the tunnel,’ Such occurrences may present a threat to the general public if the loss of ground propa: gates to the surface and causes a sudden street collapse. Toxic and flammable gases are a serious problem. Re- cent disasterous explosions in tunnels at San Fernando, California and Port Huron, Michigan have emphasized the Seriousness of this problem. Tunneling annale relate many uch occurrences in the past. ENSURE TUNNEL LIFE AND USEFULNESS Severel potential problems in ensuring the tunnel lite and usefulness are related to ground parameters. Adverse geoundwater chemistry may hasten corrosion of metal linings or may cause sulfate attack on concrete. High external water pressures may produce structural damage of facilities, and may wash soil particles into the tunnel, causing prob- lems of lost ground long after construction’ is compete. Gas seepage through the Lining may result in explosive or toxic gas accumulations. erte Reet nerizEXPLORATION re ground may be lost be~ lapse due to flows, runs, srstressing and plastic flow of 2 the stability factor Ny is ‘ground movement ahead of the avent even with the best con- jnd posible location of lost ae the tail of a shield. In ‘support is generally erected ateide diareter of the initial jeter of the shield excavation En thickness and! the necessary al support and the tail inside opresented by this difference to prevent loss of ground. shed by expanding the lining y injecting some material into fa to equeeze into the annular if the stability factor Np is lar soils with Little coheston ‘fo lose of ground into the a between ground and shield dnd innediately outside and be~ ible location of lost ground is r lining, if water flowing into tticles: sssive, sudden water inflows: Flows are 2 physical hazard to ‘occurrences may present a i= the loss of eround propa- s 2 sudden street collaps {re a serious problem. Re- in cannels at San Fernando, Lehigan nave enpnasized the Tunneling annals relate many uxess ens in ensuring the tunnel life S'ground parameters. Raverse stan corrosion of metal Linings Sn concrete, High extornal Structural danage of faciiities, into the tunnel, causing prod er construction is complete. tg ay result in explosive or SOFT GROUND TUNNELING 4“ IMPORTANT GROUND PARAMETERS After considering common problems, it is possible to petter understand ground paraneters which are important to Boft ground tunneling. Inportant ground paranaters are sun forized in Table 2, and discassed below. SOTL GRAIN AND MASS PARAMETERS Primery Importance. Cohesive strength parameters’ are avong'the nowt important because of their effect apon seand- Sp tine and loads on tume! supports. ‘The cementation ana Serengeh of granclar materials is neglected in aesign for feny foundation engineering problens. in tunnel excavation this cohesive strengeh or cementation, even if eneily is Yery important because of its effect on standup tine and $hould be noted wherever possible. In cohesive sori, the Cohesive strength should be meastzed in some manner ard ex~ preseed as an unconfined compression strength or undrained Shear strength. For any soil possessing frictional cerength, the angle of internal friction is an important paranetcr affecting ground ioads on the tunnel supports. “he sensi- Eivity of Glay materials, expreasea as 2 ratio of undis turbed strength to remoulded strength, is important as an indication of possible problems with flows if highly sensi~ tive clay ir excassively disturbed. ‘The permeability and porosity of the ground are in- portant because they determine water inflows to be antici fated, the volune of water which mast be pumped if dewater- ing is attempted, the possibility of devatering by normal neans, the possibility of injecting grout to stabilize the ground, and the potential loss of compressed air. ‘The unit weight is important for all soils because the product of unit veight and tunnel depth indicates the insite ground pressure about the tunnel. this insite pressure may then be compared to the ground strength for sn indication of tunnel stability. Relative density of granular materials is important. Higher relative densities indicate a nore stable material While lower relative densities indicate ground nore sus ceptible to runs and flows. . Gradation, or grain size distribution, is an important parameter in material of silt size or coarser. TheSSA, on Table 2. Ground Parameters Important ‘6 Soft Ground Tunneling or Gnas he id Hass Pavanetors Primary Inportance it stzenoth, pecmeters Be Permeability and porosity fete Unit weight Toss Relative density Gradation “effective size, Dy, ay poveg yonder a Svel1 potential port: Secondary Importance and Atterberg limits and natural water content Mineralogy - montnorilion! Stickiness on Glay consolidation parameters eign Distribution of Different Ground types Groundwater ae able Water lever si Racutal weter flows pra: Chenistxy pear gos hear Origin and Geologic History+ Paraneters important uné Tunneling eters i porosity ietive size, Diy doze and natural water content ‘tnorilionite on parameters Ground 2yp ave grain size (Bip, the grain aise for which 108 of ofSecttg EBS a S40 as tobeaed Ese, Cat as te osofttRs Palatine pesseabll ey of Boe gebutd, ne eesteh G ubbeptisliity’ terstpinasver erteiSe te tne PPlowing water. Materials of silt and fine sand Les Seat stncaptibls to siping." Bee graaivlon iver 230, Sleation of the relative ease of dewatering the ground. an ince compressed air from the tunnel may be excessive if 1088 Cf 1cnas a Dyq size greater than about 0.2 milii- Ser LH Tesh Sible' Le the gol nbs "bho size abt DPvattsiaeees faeeraghls 19600" fess the mmber, distribution, and size of boulders ic im- peonts as described earlier, the sign: ficance cf potvjexe tends to increase with increasing sophistication boulaschanization of the tunneling equipment. Swell potential is an important parameter in clay goils,, Terzaghi (1946) suggests that swelling is not a seenidieant problen in ground with a free swell of Less fin about two percent. Seco: yetance. Atterberg limits and natural voter Sontent are sot ingortant in’ thenselves, bur are val (Eble insofar as they are an indicator of paraneters of prinery importance. For example, clays with water content Pear the liguid 1inét comonly are of low strength and are ductile. A cley with high liquid limit but a water content aSar the plastic limit commonly may be a fairly strong SSterdel but may have swell potential. Stickiness is a rather obscure property, but may be gaite important to the contractor if muck tends to stick fa the muck handling equipment. Consolidation parameters of a clay are generally not of Airect importance in tunnel driving, but may have an Unportant effect on surface subsidence if dewatering is attempted. DISTRIBUTION OF GROUND TYPES ‘The previous paragraphs considered important parameters of individual soil types. Of equal importance is the dis= tribution of these materials in the three dimensional space through which the tunnel is excavated. Repetition of2 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION operations is inportant in rapid, economical tunneling. A Basic objective of tunnel constriction is to set up a sin- ple, repetitive ‘assembly line” operation. If the greatest Eavantage is to be made of this concept, it is necessary to know the typical or average ground condition, the degree to which conditions may vary from this norm at any place Along the tunnel, and the location of these changes. This is particularly important as attempts are made to develop nore sophisticated and mechanized tunneling systems. ‘tthe contacts between different ground types, the nature of these contacts, and the extent of different ground jerse to it, are important. Por example, # discontinuous isolated small pocket of sand in‘a clay mass may drain a small amount of water into the tunnel, rapidly ary up, and be of Litele significance. But if the sane small sand body is ‘the edge of a large sand mass below the water table, larce volumes of water and sand may flow rapidly into the tunnel Jeading to loss of the heading and major surface cubsi- dence. A sharp and well-defined soii/rock contact which cuts the tunnel at a high angle, moaning only a short length of mixed face, is quite a different problem than an fregular, nearly hofizontal contact that wanders in and a of the tunnel face for ioaeete of feet. A coarse sand mm body that appears on a tunnel profile a single narrow jeereee isolated pocket hee one meaning if it is truly an isoleced compost pocket, bat quite another meaning if it represents a coarse, bility Frenuléc bucled stream channel, cuteing across, the tame! Wine below: the water fables "If bedrock is believed 0 Bro ject op into the Line of 8 soft ground tamel, if auger iSibe Eee’ put down to Setine’ the’ bedrock rurfice, and it the suger Roles meet vefueal on boulders in.an iéregular ee ee Giite dldfecont than thies ubden wouid/be pronant. sf the seco Speh of refunes protite had sctesTly hoor the Deereot tore SHGOESE Hae souet It is common to draw geologic profiles connecting con~ no septogic profi. ting tory Pp) tacts between different ground types as the contacts are determined at boring locations, as if these boring loca~ tions actually represent high Gr low spots along the con— tact profile. But when three borings spaced at 500 ft. centers show sand on top of clay, with che contact 10 ft. above the tunnel, 3 ft. above the tunnel, and 15 ft. above suspec the tunnel in these three borings; ve are being rather optimistic if ve really believe that the overlying sand Goes not project down into the tunnel sonewnere along this length.{PACE EXPLORATION F ~apid economical tunneling. a ‘striction ia to get up a aine azns" operation, If the' greatest ethis concept, it is necessary exage ground condition, the degree ary from this norm at any place eeation of ‘these changes his as attempts are made to deve chanized tunneling systems. oe different ground types, the natu 2 extent of different ground ze yeh axis and transverse to it, are * Md:scontinuous and isoiatea ‘clay mass mey drain a snail wunne?, rapidly dry up, and be of Hf'thé Sate etall’ sand body ts lass below the water table, large | ‘ay flow rapidly into the’ tunnel ‘fing and major wurface subei= ‘sfined soli/sock contact vaich angie, meaning only a shore dite a differant problem than an a} contact that wanders in and hundreds of feet, A cosree sand nel profite ass single nasrorr aning it i¢ {3 ctly’an Iaclated Rearing if it represents a cossee, ‘nel cutting acroes the tinsel’ | wdE bedrock is Believed to’ pro= soft ground tunnel, if auger ne the sedrock surface, ana if al on boulders in an ifregular Sen tunneling conditions aay be ch would be present if the 1, .ctually been’ the bedrock sur feologic profiles connecting con- vund types as the contacts are ons, as if these boring loca gh or low spots along the con- ‘ee borings spaced at 500 ft. clay, with the contact 10 ft. ‘We, She funnel, ‘and 15 fe. above orings; we are being rather ieve that the overlying sand ‘the tunnel somewhere along this SOFT GROUND TUNNELING 3 GROUNDWATER AND GAS The subject of groundwater has appeared repeatedly ghroughout preceding paragraphs. ‘The significance of water jn soils of silt size and coarser can not be overemphasived. fine sands and silts are particularly troublesone below ia Water table because they are most susceptible to piping Gnd flowing, but are too fine to be dewatered readily. ‘The height of the groundwater table above the tunnel and its seasonal, tidal, and other fluctuations aze im portant, These parancters determine water pressure at tun- Rel depth, the distance the water level mist be lovered if the site is dewatered, and necessary air pressure if con- essed air is to be used for groundwater control. Natural Water flow across the site may be an important factor, Gapecially in attenpts to freeze the ground. Suen val flow may “wash avay the cola" before the ground can be frozen. The chemistry of the ground water may be important if it is such as to hasten corrosion of the tunnel lining, or contaminate water flowing in the tunnel. The presence of gas, either from natural or man-made sources is important. Significant parameters are the gas composition, pressure, quantity, and the ground pernes- bility with respect £5 gas flow. ORIGIN. AND GEOLOGIC HISTORY ‘The engineering properties of the ground are of direct importance in tunnel construction. The origin and geologic history of the ground is not of inherent significance in itself. However, knowledge of the origin and geologic his- tory is of value’ ingofar as it helps provide a conceptual model to assist in interpreting the results of an explora- tory progran, in extrapolating from known data, and in sug- gesting ground conditions which should be anticipated. For example, boulders would be expected in glacial till, but not in jacustrine Clay deposits. When coarse sand is en- countered in one boring across an alluvial plain, one would suspect a buried stream channel crossing the tunnel line, not a single isolated pocket of cand. In a residual soii Soposit an irregular, gradational transition between soil and rock would be expected, whereas a sharp contact would be expected where transported solls overlie bedrock. Many similar examples could be cited.COMMENTS ON SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION yor large, complex underground structures in a local- eee nea Goslogie setting, of for tunnels in uniform ground ied lone’ Setailea subsurface exploration may be of sreat Selue in structural design of the facility. In such cases nt tha Gestion may be closely tailored to the ground conditions enoal Stithe sicer "Most tunnels, hovever, extend through a peoge BLE ae ground conaitions, In such cases it is commonly mae xaue‘clonaaicel to use one standard design for the final mater Structure + 2 design which is adequate for the entire range ° SF'tonditions expected along the tannel length. In other Sords, in sost tunnels design of the final lining is not Wehsitive to details of the geologic setting and to subtle Variations in ground paraneters Peck, conversely, the problens, progress, and cost of excava- tion and initial support of a tunnel are quite sensitive to Such subtle details. It aeons appropriate, to, recognize that che detailed subsurface exploration which is the sub- Ject of this conference is ost beneficiel not for struc~ aoe 2hral design of the finished faculty, but for planning its Construction. This detailed subsurface exploration is of benefit to the tunnel designer to the extent that he accepts responsibility for design of the initial support, {othe extent that he wished to anticipate construction nerzt problems and provide for them in the contract, and to the Extent that he wishes to accurately estimate the time and cost of performing the work. Problens underground generally arise because unantici~ pated conditions are encountered. These unanticipated con- Eltions are commonly of tvo types: 1) unanticipated eround materials, of 2) the unanticipated behavior of ground Materials which were recognized to exist. ‘The doubling, of cost on the Eisennower (Straight Creek) highway tunnel in Colorado is an example of unanticipated behavior of ground fateriais which were recognized to exist. A nearby pilot funnel indicated the full range of ground materials which Were later encountered in the parallel main bore. The Pilet tunnel was carefully instrumented and studied. How Ever, the problems of extrapolating ground behavior and experience from a 13 ft. diameter pilot tunnel to a nearly S0'fe. diameter main bore were not fully appreciated. This 38 a cese of inadequacy in the conceptual model used in ‘extrapolating from the test, of the prototype. ‘he Big Walker Mountain highvay tunnel in southwestern virginia is an example of the encounter of unanticipated Ground materials. in this case a mass of highly weatheredDee seep eer ae pee pee eee fees ses decomonee grou veg snouptecad about #09 ft. bel ‘the residual soil cover. ¢ -cound structures in a local. pose ee ener oe F ox tunnels in uniform ground yund_ conditions face exploration may be of great noth reasons for unanticipated ground af the Facilicy. “In such cases utd be Fenenbered when conducting’ subsurface exproration ailored to the ground conditicns programs, This conference is concerned prinarily with however, extend through a prGas for reducing occurrences of suranticipaced eos eankdadGh cates Sie gomnonty Reterials. Of equal importance is the need fo: standard design for na aa understanding of ground behavior. adequate for the entire range our ithe tunnel length. In other ‘n of the final Lining is noe geologic setting and to subtle REFERENCES: - 8, (1969), "Deep Excavation and Tunneling in Soft 31 progress, and cost of ex Pooks Be croand,* giate oP the Art Volung, Savents ae. a tunnel are quite sensitive to Cont. on Soft Nech. and Found. Eng., pp. 225-290, Re appropriate to recognize Mexico City. expioration which is the sub~ ogt beneficial not for struc r2aghi, K, (1946), "Section I ~ Rock Defects and Loads faculty, but for planning ita Le fo Suneel Sdoposts’ un oct Bunnesing Wien Sel, subsurface exploration if of Supports, by Proctor and White, Contercial shesttne ar to the extent that he SnbSisoing Co.s Youngstown, Ohio. jaign of the initial support, to anticipate construction reaghi, K, (1950), "Geologic Aspects of soft Ground Tun- tin the contract, and to the pena heting", Chapter 11 in Applied Sedimentation, ed. wately estimate the time and Pr trask, sone wiley aden; Nev Yorks erally arise because unantici~ ' zed. These unanticipated cons | ypes: 1) unanticipated ground 'd behavior of ground + exist. The doubling of ght Creek) Aighway tunnel in Aticipated benavior of ground 3d to exist. A nearby piloe ye of ground materials which parallel main bore. The strumented and studied. tlow- ating eround behavior and iter pilot tunnel to a nearly v not fully appreciated. This q Conceptual model used in the prototype. Aghway tunnel in southwestern j eAcounter of unanticipaced d © a mass of highly weathered