Professional Documents
Culture Documents
edition
Knut Sydster
Peter Hammond
www.pearsoned.co.uk/sydsaeter
ISBN 13: 978-0-273-68185-4/ISBN 10: 0-273-68185-0
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
Lecturers adopting the main text are permitted to download the manual as required
Preface
This instructors and solutions manual accompanies Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis (2nd edition, FT Prentice Hall, 2006). Its main purpose is to provide solutions to the even-numbered problems.
(Answers to the odd-numbered problems are given in the main text.) For many of the more interesting and/or
difcult problems, detailed solutions are providedmore detailed than instructors are likely to need for themselves. Nevertheless, the extra detail may be useful if answers are supplied to the students, or as a guide to
marking answers. Sometimes only an outline of the solution is given. For some of the simpler problems, only
the nal answer is presented.
In addition, for each chapter we have a section with comments on the content. Sometimes we explain
why certain topics are included and others are excluded. There are also occasional useful hints based on our
experience of teaching the material. In some cases, we also comment on alternative approaches, sometimes
with mild criticism of other ways of dealing with the material that we believe to be less suitable.
Chapters 1 and 2 in the main text review elementary algebra. This manual includes a Test I, designed for
the students themselves to see if they need to review particular sections of Chapters 1 and 2.
Many students using our text will probably have some background in calculus. The accompanying Test II
is designed to give information to both the students and the instructors about what students actually know
about single variable calculus, and about what needs to be studied more closely, perhaps in Chapters 6 to 9 of
the text.
Oslo and Stanford, August 2005
Knut Sydster, Peter Hammond
Contact addresses:
knut.sydsater@econ.uio.no
hammond@stanford.edu
Contents
1
Properties of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Derivatives in Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Single-Variable Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10
11
Multivariable Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
14
Constrained Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
15
Answers to Test I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Answers to Test II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
Section 2.2 discusses equations with parameters which arise in many economic applications, yet are often
neglected in textbooks. The problems for this section are aimed at training students to solve such equations.
Then Section 2.3 covers quadratic equations (in a single variable). It describes the crucially important
technique of completing the square, as well as how to use the roots of a quadratic equation to factor the
left-hand side. Only after several examples is the technique described in general. Then the expressions for
the sum and product of the two roots (when they are real) are given.
Section 2.4 deals with the solution of two equations in two unknowns. First, the nature of the problem is
explained. Then two methods of solution are proposed. The rst method involves using one equation to solve
for one variable in terms of the other. After this, the solution for both variables is easily derived by substitution,
of course. The second method is to eliminate one of the variables by adding or subtracting multiples of one
equation from the other. An appropriate tableau for doing this is described. The section ends with a formula
giving the solution to a general pair of two linear equations in two unknowns. More general simultaneous
linear equations, together with techniques for solving them, receive extended coverage in Chapters 15 and 16.
Section 2.5 gives some examples of how to solve some types of nonlinear equation which frequently
occur in optimization problems.
All the problems in this chapter are supplied with answers in the text itself to make this material more
suitable for self study.
CHAPTER 3
2. (a) 2 0 + 2 1 + 2 2 + 2 3 + 2 4 = 2(3 + 2 + 3)
(b) (x + 0)2 + (x + 2)2 + (x + 4)2 + (x + 6)2 = 4(x 2 + 6x + 14)
(c) a1i b2 + a2i b3 + a3i b4 + + ani bn+1 (d) f (x0 )x0 + f (x1 )x1 + f (x2 )x2 + + f (xm )xm
6 + 15 + 28
49
23+35+47
100 =
100 =
100 144.12
4.
13+25+37
3 + 10 + 21
34
6. (a) The total number of people moving from region i. (b) The total number of people moving to region j .
3.2
2. (a + b)6 = a 6 + 6a 5 b + 15a 4 b2 + 20a 3 b3 + 15a 2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6 . (The coefcients are those in the
seventh row of Pascals triangle in the text.)
5
543
54321
5!
5!
m(m 1) (m k + 1)
m
4. (a)
=
=
=
=
. In general,
=
3
123
12321
3! 2!
2! 3!
k
k!
m!
m(m 1) (m k + 1) (m k)!
=
.
k!(m k)!
(m k)! k!
87654
8
8
8
8
8
876
= 56. Also,
=
=
= 56;
+
=
(b)
=
123
5
12345
3
3+1
3
8 3
8765
9876
8+1
9
56 +
= 126 and
=
=
= 126.
1234
3+1
4
1234
m!
m!
m
m
m
m
m!
=
and
+
=
+
(c)
=
(m k)!k!
mk
k
k+1
(m k)!k! (m k 1)!(k + 1)!
k
(m + 1)!
m+1
m!(k + 1 + m k)
=
=
=
(m k)!(k + 1)!
(m k)!(k + 1)!
k+1
=
3.3
2. (a) The total number of units of good i.
(b) The total number of units of all goods owned by person j .
(c) The total number of units of goods owned by the group as a whole.
4. Because arj a is independent of the summation index s, it is a common factor when we sum over s, so
m
m
sj a)
= (arj a)
(arj a)(a
sj a)
=
m
r=1 s=1
m
(arj a)
r=1
(asj a)
()
s=1
(arj a)
=
r=1
m
r=1
arj
m
a = maj ma = m(aj a)
r=1
m
s=1 (asj
a)
= m(aj a).
CHAPTER 3
3.4
2. x = 2. (x = 1, 0, and 1 make the equation meaningless. Multiplying each term by the common
denominator x(x 1)(x + 1) yields 2x(x 2 3x + 2) = 0, or 2x(x 1)(x 2) = 0. Hence, x = 2 is
the only solution.)
4. (a) x 0 is necessary, but not sufcient.
(c) x 4 is necessary and sufcient.
6. (a) No solutions. (Squaring each side yields x4 = x+518 x + 5+81, which reduces to x + 5 = 5,
with solution x = 20. But x = 20 does not satisfy the given equation.)
(b) x = 20
(i)
(ii)
8. (a) x+ x + 4 = 2 x + 4 = 2x x+4 = 44x+x 2 x 2 5x = 0 x5 = 0 x = 5.
Here implication (i) is incorrect (x 2 5x = 0 x 5 = 0 or x = 0.) Implication (ii) is correct, but
it breaks the chain of implications. (b) x = 0. (After correcting implication (i), we see that the given
3.5
2. (a) Logically the two statements are equivalent.
poetic reinforcement.
3.6
2. F B C is the set of all
female biology students in the university choir; M F the female mathematics
students; (M B) \ C \ T the students who study both mathematics and biology but neither play tennis
nor belong to the university choir.
4. (a) B M
(b) F B C = (c) T B =
(d) F \ (T C) B
6. (b) and (c) are true, the others are wrong. (Counter example for (a), (d), and (f): A = {1, 2}, B = {1},
C = {1, 3}. As for (e), note in particular that A B = A C = A whenever B and C are subsets of A,
even if B = C.)
8. (a) Consider Fig. M3.6.8, and let nk denote the number of people in the set marked Sk , for k = 1, 2, . . . , 8.
Obviously n1 + n2 + + n8 = 1000. The responses imply that: n1 + n3 + n4 + n7 = 420; n1 + n2 +
n5 + n7 = 316; n2 + n3 + n6 + n7 = 160; n1 + n7 = 116; n3 + n7 = 100; n2 + n7 = 30; n7 = 16,
and n8 = 334. From these equations we easily nd n1 = 100, n2 = 14, n3 = 84, n4 = 220, n5 = 186,
n6 = 46, n7 = 16. (i) n3 + n4 = 304 had read A but not B; (ii) n6 = 46; (iii) n8 = 334.
(b) We nd n(A \ B) = n3 + n4 = 304, n(C \ (A B)) = n6 = 46, and n( \ (A B C)) = n8 = 334.
The last equality is a special case of n( \ D) = n() n(D). (The number of persons who are in ,
but not in D, is the number of persons in all of minus the number of those who are in D.)
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
10
CHAPTER 3
A
S5
S1
S4
S7
S2
S3
S6
S8
Figure M3.6.8
3.7
2. We prove only (3.2.6); the proof of (3.2.5) is very similar, but slightly easier. For n = 1 the LHS and the
RHS of (3.2.6) are both equal to 1. As the induction hypothesis, suppose (3.2.6) is true for n = k, so that
k
i 3 = 13 + 23 + + k 3 = [ 21 k(k + 1)]2
i=1
Then
k+1
i3 =
k
i=1
i=1
But this last expression is equal to 41 (k + 1)2 (k 2 + 4k + 4) = [ 21 (k + 1)(k + 2)]2 , which proves that
(3.2.6) is true for n = k + 1. By induction, we have proved (3.2.6).
4. The claim is true for n = 1. As the induction hypothesis, suppose k 3 + (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 is divisible
by 9. Note that (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 + (k + 3)3 = (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 + k 3 + 9k 2 + 27k + 27 =
k 3 + (k + 1)3 + (k + 2)3 + 9(k 2 + 3k + 3). This is divisible by 9 because the induction hypothesis implies
that the sum of the rst three terms is divisible by 9, whereas the last term is also obviously divisible by 9.
Review Problems for Chapter 3
2. (a) 12 4+22 5+32 6+42 7 = 4+20+54+112 = 190
1 + 1/2 + 1 + 4 + 25 + 216 = 495/2
4. (a)
38
i=4
i(i + 2)
(b)
n 1
i
i=1 x
(c)
16
x 2j
2j + 1
j =0
(d)
(b) 1 16 =
81
k=1
(1)k1
5
6
1
k
6. (a) true, false (b) false (because x 2 = 16 also has the solution x = 4), true
false (x can be 3) (d) and both true
(c) true,
CHAPTER 4
11
12
CHAPTER 4
x1
11
1
1
x2
1x
is x 2 + 1
4.3
2. (a) f (5) = 0, f (3) = 3, f (2) = 0, f (0) = 2, f (3) = 4, f (4) = 0
(b) Df = [5, 4], Rf = [3, 4]
x
4.
h(x) = x 2 2x 3
See Fig. M4.3.4.
x
G(x) = 1 2x
1/2
3/4
7/8
6.
CHAPTER 4
13
6
5
6
5
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
2
4 x
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
3
4
Figure M4.3.4
1 2 3 x
Figure M4.3.6
4.4
2. See Figs. M4.4.2a, M4.4.2b, M4.4.2c
y
4
3
2
3
1
1
Figure M4.4.2a
4
1 2
3 4
5 6 7
10 x
3
2
1
4
5
Figure M4.4.2b
Figure M4.4.2c
5 x
1
1
Figure M4.4.8a
Figure M4.4.8b
Figure M4.4.8c
14
CHAPTER 4
10. See Fig. M4.4.10. Each arrow points to the side of the line where the relevant inequality is satised. The
shaded triangle is the required set.
y
y
3
2 f (x) = 1 x 2 x +
2
1
xy =1
3
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
1
x
2
3x + y = 3
3x + 4y = 12
Figure M4.4.10
3
2
1 2 3 x
Figure M4.6.2
4.5
2. (a) 75 3P e = 20 + 2P e , and hence P e = 11.
(b) P e = 90
4. C = 0.8y +100. (The equation is C = ay +b. We are told that 900 = 1000a +b and a = 80/100 = 0.8.
So b = 100.)
6. (a) April 1960 corresponds to t = 9/4, when N (9/4) = 17 400 (9/4) + 151 000 = 111 850.
(b) 17 400 t + 151 000 = 0 implies t = 8.68, which corresponds roughly to September 1966.
4.6
x
2.5
1.5
1.5
2.5
2. (a)
f (x) = 21 x 2 x +
3
2
(b) See Fig. M4.6.2. (c) f (x) = 21 (x + 1)2 + 2. Maximum point (1, 2).
(d) x = 3 and x = 1. (e) f (x) > 0 in (3, 1), f (x) < 0 for x < 3 and for x > 1.
4. (a) x(x + 4). Zeros 0 and 4. (b) No factoring is possible.
No zeros.
4.7
2. (a) 1 and 2
(b) 1, 5, and 5
(c) 1
6. c4 + 3c2 + 5 = (c2 + 3/2)2 + 11/4 is not 0 for any choice of c, so the division has to leave a remainder.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 4
15
4.8
2. (a): C
(b): D
(c): E
(d): B
(e): A
(f) F: y = 2 (1/2)x
(c) x 2 2x + 2 = 2, so x 2 2x = 0,
2/3
6.
V = (4/3) r 3 implies r 3 = 3V /4 and so r = (3V /4 )1/3 . Hence, S = 4 r 2 = 4 3V /4
=
3
2/3
36 V .
4.9
2. P (t) = 1.22 1.034t . The doubling time t is given by the equation (1.034)t = 2, and we nd t 20.7
(years).
4. The graphs are drawn in Fig. M4.9.4.
x
2x
1/8
1/4
1/2
2x
1/2
1/4
1/8
y
8
y = 2x
y = 2x
6
4
f (x) = 1 +
4x
x 2 +4
1
3 2 1
1 2
3 x
Figure M4.9.4
4 3 2 1
Figure M4.R.2
6. We nd (1.035)t = 3.91 105 /5.1 0.7667 105 , and (taking ln of each side) we nd t 327. So the
year is 1969 + 327 = 2296. This is when every Zimbabwean would have only 1 m2 of land on average.
8. (b) and (d) do not dene exponential functions. (In (f): y = (1/2)x .)
10. Use the two points on each graph to determine A and b from the equation y = Abx .
You then get: (a) y = 2 2x (b) y = 2 3x (c) y = 4(1/2)x .
4.10
2. (a) ln 3x = x ln 3 = ln 8, so x = ln 8/ ln 3. (b) x = e3 (c)x 2 4x + 5 = 1 so (x 2)2 = 0. Hence,
x = 2. (d) x(x 2) = 1 or x 2 2x 1 = 0, so x = 1 2. (e) x = 0 or ln(x + 3) = 0, so x = 0
or x = 2. (f) x 5 = 1 so x = 36.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
16
CHAPTER 4
1
B
1
5.6
ln
(b) t =
ln
22. It will take approximately 22 years before the two
r s A
0.07 1.2
countries have the same GNP.
4. (a) t =
(b) F (x) = 1 +
4
tends to 1 as x
x + 4/x
(c) 3 x 5
(c) k = 26
(d) k = 1 and k = 4
CHAPTER 5
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
17
1
1
Figure M5.1.2a
1 x
Figure M5.1.2b
Figure M5.1.2c
4. Move y = |x| two units to the left. Then reect the graph about the x-axis. Finally, move the graph up 2
y
units. See Fig. M5.1.4.
1
1
Figure M5.1.4
6. y =
Bd 2 Ad + c
2Bd
18
CHAPTER 5
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
5.2
2. See Figs. M5.2.2a to M5.2.2c. (Note that the graph of ex + x is not symmetric about (0, 1).)
2
x
Figure M5.2.2a
Figure M5.2.2b
Figure M5.2.2c
5.3
2. p = (157.8/D)10/3
4. (a) The domain of f 1 is {4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8}. f 1 (2) = 1
6. (a) f (x) = x/2 and g(x) = 2x are inverse functions. (b) f (x) = 3x 2 and g(x) = 13 (x + 2) are
inverse functions. (c) C = 59 (F 32) and F = 95 C + 32 are inverse functions.
8. (a) See Fig. M5.3.8a.
(b) See Fig. M5.3.8b. Triangles OBA and OBC are congruent.
y
y=x
D
y=x
C = (b, a)
y
3
(3, 5)
B
(1, 3)
(5, 3)
A = (a, b)
(3, 1)
1
1
x
Figure M5.3.8a
Figure M5.3.8b
(b) x = ey+4 , y (, )
5.4
x
Figure M5.4.2
2. (a) See Fig. M5.4.2. (b) If a > 1, then g(a) = 1 a 1 and g(a) < 1 (see the gure), so that
2
g(g(a)) = g(1 a 1) = (1 a 1)2 2(1 a 1)+2
CHAPTER 5
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS
19
4. F (100 000) = 4070. The graph is the thick line sketched in Fig. M5.4.4.
y
y
4070
A = (3, 2)
2
(2, 4)
2
2
P
RN
7500
100 000
Figure M5.4.4
Figure M5.5.2
B = (5, 4)
Figure M5.R.10
5.5
2. (5 2)2 + (y 4)2 = 13, or y 2 8y + 12
= 0, with solutions y = 2 and y = 6. Geometric explanation:
The circle with centre at (2, 4) and radius 13 intersects the line x = 5 at two points. See Fig. M5.5.2.
4. (a) (x 2)2 + (y 3)2 = 16 (b) (x 2)2 + (y 5)2 = 13
5.6
2. The function in (b) is one-to-one and has an inverse: the rule mapping each youngest child alive today to
his/her mother. (Though the youngest child of a mother with several children will have been different at
different dates.) The function in (d) is one-to-one and has an inverse: the rule mapping the surface area to
the volume. The function in (e) is one-to-one and has an inverse: the rule that maps (u, v) to (u 3, v).
The other functions are many-to-one, in general, and so have no inverses.
Review Problems for Chapter 5
2. (f + g)(x) = x 2 2, (f g)(x) = 2x 3 x 2 2, (f g)(x) = x 2 (1 x)(x 3 2), (f/g)(x) =
(x 3 2)/x 2 (1 x), f (g(1)) = f (0) = 2, and g(f (1)) = g(1) = 2.
4. p = (64 10D)/3
8. (a) 13 (b) 17 (c) (2 3a)2 = |23a| (Note that 23a is the correct answer only if 23a 0,
i.e. a 2/3. Ask students with the wrong answer to put, say, a = 3.)
10. (x 3)2 + (y 2)2 = (x 5)2 + (y + 4)2 , which reduces to x 3y = 7. See Fig. M5.R.10.
20
CHAPTER 6
DIFFERENTIATION
Chapter 6 Differentiation
Our treatment of the single variable calculus begins in Chapter 6. Section 6.1 is devoted to the slopes of curves
and their tangents, as well as the tangent denition of derivative. Section 6.2 discusses how the tangent is
the limit of a sequence of lines joining nearby points on the graph of a function. It proceeds to present the
formula for the Newton (or differential) quotient, whose limit is the derivative. The derivative is then used in
the general equation for the tangent to the graph of a function at any point where it is differentiable. A general
recipe for nding derivatives is provided, and Leibnizs differential notation is introduced.
Section 6.3 discusses increasing and decreasing functions and explains how the sign of the derivative
can help us to nd the intervals of increase/decrease of a differentiable function. (Note 8.4.2 shows how the
mean-value theorem can be used to prove the main results of this section.)
Section 6.4 is devoted to the economic signicance of the derivative of a function. The instantaneous
and proportional rates of change are distinguished. Marginal cost, revenue, prot, propensity to consume,
product, are all dened in terms of derivatives. Marginal cost is distinguished from incremental cost.
It is crucially important for economics students to understand the denition of the derivative. In fact, this
is more important than knowing how to differentiate very complicated functions. Example 6.4.3 and problems
like 6.4.5 should be emphasized. The procedure of smoothing a function to t a set of discrete data points is
illustrated at the end of this section.
Limits were used to dene derivatives informally in Section 6.2. The more careful discussion that is
really needed is the topic of Section 6.5, though even this remains rather informal. The discussion proceeds
mostly through examples. Some general rules for limits of sums, differences, products, ratios, and powers are
presented.
After these preliminaries, Section 6.6 is devoted to some simple rules for differentiation, including the
rule for differentiating a power function. Section 6.7 presents the rules for differentiating sums, differences,
products, and quotients. The product rule in particular is illustrated economically. The quotient rule is used
to show that average cost is increasing iff it is less than marginal cost.
Section 6.8 states the chain rule, rst using Leibnizs notation in a suggestive way, then more carefully.
An incomplete proof of the chain rule is provided in small print; we judge that a complete proof belongs to
more rigorous courses in mathematical analysis.
The next section 6.9 introduces second-order derivatives. It also denes convex and concave functions
using the sign of the second derivative. In fact, much modern economic analysis has been built on specic
assumptions to the effect that certain functions are either concave or convex. The examples illustrated in
Figures 4 and 5, or similar examples, should be carefully discussed. In Example 5 it is shown that an increasing concave transformation of a concave function is concave. Higher-order derivatives, found by repeated
differentiation, are discussed next.
Sections 4.9 and 4.10 introduced exponential and logarithmic functions, which are often used in economics, of course, as well as in statistics. Section 6.10 shows that if the special number e = 2.718281828 . . . is
used as the base for the exponential function, then dex /dx = ex for all x, so the derivative of the function is the
function itself. It also shows how to differentiate eg(x) using the chain rule. Finally, the rule for differentiating
the general exponential function a x is derived.
Section 6.11 shows how to differentiate the natural logarithmic function, d ln x/dx = 1/x, and also
the derivative d ln[h(x)]/dx for any positive valued differentiable function h(x). The section includes a
discussion of the useful technique of logarithmic differentiationi.e., taking the logarithm of an expression
before differentiating. As shown later in Section 7.7, this is often a natural way for economists to calculate
elasticities.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 6
DIFFERENTIATION
21
A subsection characterizes the number e as limh0 (1 + h)1/ h . Finally, when a is any real number and
x > 0, the power x a can be dened as exp(a ln x), and using the chain rule, the power rule then follows for
all real exponents a.
In fact, Chapter 6 almost completes the inventory of functions of a single variable used in this book, and in
most mathematical work in economics. The major omission is the family of trigonometric functions discussed
in FMEA. In economics, they are used almost exclusively to solve difference and differential equations, which
are topics in FMEA.
6.2
2. (a) f (x) = 6x + 2
1
1/(x + h) 1/x
x (x + h)
h
1
f (x + h) f (x)
=
=
=
=
2
h
h
hx(x + h)
hx(x + h)
x(x + h) h0 x
4.
f (x + h) f (x)
1
(x + h)1/3 x 1/3
1
as h 0,
=
=
2/3
1/3
1/3
2/3
h
h
(x + h) + (x + h) x + x
3x 2/3
and 1/(3x 2/3 ) = 13 x 2/3 .
6.3
6.4
2. I is the xed cost, whereas k is the marginal cost, and also the (constant) incremental cost of producing
each additional unit.
4. T (y) = t, so the marginal tax rate is constant.
6. (a) C (x) = 3x 2 180x + 7500
6.5
2. (a) 0.6931 (b) 1.0986 (c) 0.4055 (Actually, using the result in Example 7.12.2, the precise values of
these limits are ln 2, ln 3, and ln(3/2), respectively.)
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
22
CHAPTER 6
4. (a) 5
(b) 1/5
DIFFERENTIATION
(c) 1
(d) 2
(e) 3x 2
(f) h2
6. (a) 4 (= f (1)) (b) 5 (= f (2) f (1)) (c) 6 (= f (2)) (d) 2a + 2 (= f (a)) (e) 2a + 2 (= f (a))
(f) [f (a+h)f (ah)]/ h = [(a+h)2 +2(a+h)(ah)2 2(ah)]/ h = 4a+4 4a+4 as h 0, so
f (a) = 4a+4. (Alternatively, [f (a+h)f (ah)]/ h = [f (a+h)f (a)]/ h+[f (a)f (ah)]/ h
f (a) + f (a) = 4a + 4 as h 0.)
6.6
2. (a) 2g (x) (b) 16 g (x) (c) 13 g (x)
4. (a) 8 r
6. (a) F (x) = 13 x 3 + C
(c) (5/2)A7/2
(b) F (x) = x 2 + 3x + C
(c) F (x) =
an arbitrary constant.
x a+1
+ C, where in all three cases C is
a+1
6.7
2. (a) 65 x 14x 6 21 x 1/2
(b) 4x(3x 4 x 2 1)
(c) 10x 9 + 5x 4 + 4x 3 x 2
3
x 4 + 5x 2 + 18x + 2
2(1 + 2x)
4x
2x 2 + 2
4. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(x 2 + 2)2 (x + 3)2
x3
(x 2 + 1)2
(x 2 x + 1)2
2 x( x + 1)2
3
2
2(x x + x + 1)
(f)
3x 3 (x + 1)2
6. (a) [2, ) (b) 3, 0 and in 3, (c) 2, 2
x(x x1 )(x x2 )
(d) (, x1 ] and in [0, x2 ], where x1,2 = 21 21 5. (f (x) =
)
(x + 1)2
3(x 1)(x + 1)
8. f (x) =
. f (x) is increasing in (, 1], in 1, 2 + 3 , and in 2 + 3, .
2
2
(x + 4x 1)
10. Differentiating f (x) f (x) = x gives f (x) f (x) + f (x) f (x) = 1, so 2f (x) f (x) = 1. Hence,
1
1
f (x) =
= .
2f (x)
2 x
6.8
2. (a) dY /dt = (dY /dV )(dV /dt) = (3)5(V + 1)4 t 2 = 15t 2 (t 3 /3 + 1)4
(b) dK/dt = (dK/dL)(dL/dt) = AaLa1 b = Aab(bt + c)a1
4. (dY /dt)t=t0 = (dY /dK)t=t0 (dK/dt)t=t0 = Y (K(t0 ))K (t0 )
6.
a
dx
=
dp
2 ap c
8. b(t) is the total fuel consumption after t hours. b (t) = B s(t) s (t). So the rate of fuel consumption
per hour is equal to the rate per kilometre multiplied by the speed in kph.
10. (a) y = 5(x 4 )4 4x 3 = 20x 19
CHAPTER 6
DIFFERENTIATION
23
6.9
2. d 2 y/dx 2 = (1 + x 2 )1/2 x 2 (1 + x 2 )3/2 = (1 + x 2 )3/2
6. d 2 L/dt 2 = 3(2t 1)5/2
6.10
qt 4 + 2qt 3 pt p
t 2 et
2
t
2
2
t
2(at + bt )(a + 2bt)e (at + bt ) e
t (a + bt)(bt 2 + (4b a)t + 2a)
(c) x =
=
(et )2
et
6. (a) ee ex = ee
x +x
(b) x =
et et
(et + et )2
6.11
2. (a) x 2 ln x(3 ln x + 2)
4. (a) x > 1
(b)
x(2 ln x 1)
(ln x)2
(c)
10(ln x)9
x
(d)
2 ln x
+ 6 ln x + 18x + 6
x
(c) x = 0
6. (a) (2, 0] (y is dened only in (2, 2).) (b) [e1/3 , ) (y = x 2 (3 ln x + 1), x > 0)
(c) [e, e3 ] (y = (1 ln x)(ln x 3)/2x 2 , x > 0)
8. (a)
2
f (x)
=
f (x)
3(x 2 1)
(b)
f (x)
= 2 ln x + 2
f (x)
(c)
f (x)
1
2x
4x 3
=
+ 2
+ 4
f (x)
2x 4 x + 1 x + 6
(h) y = 1/2 x( x + 1)
2
24
CHAPTER 7
DERIVATIVES IN USE
2. 2u + v + u
6. y =
CHAPTER 7
DERIVATIVES IN USE
25
7.2
2. (a) 1 = C (Q )(dQ /dP ), so dQ /dP = 1/C (Q ) (b) dQ /dP > 0, which is reasonable because
if the price received by the producer increases, the optimal production should increase.
7.3
4x 2 (3 x 2 )
. So f increases in [ 3, 3 ], and decreases in [2, 3 ] and in [ 3, 2].
3 4 x2
See Figure
M7.3.2.
(b)
f
has
an
inverse
in
the
interval
[0,
3] because f is strictly increasing there.
1
g ( 3 3 ) = 1/f (1) = 3 3/8.
2. (a) f (x) =
y
2
r + dr
1
2
1
2
Figure M7.3.2
Figure M7.4.10
7.4
1
1 10
x. (f (0) = 1/9, f (x) = 10(5x + 3)3 , so f (0) = 10/27.)
2
(5x + 3)
9 27
4. AK A 1 + (K 1)
2.
6. (a) (px p1 + qx q1 ) dx
7.5
2. p(x) = x 21 x 2 + 13 x 3 41 x 4 + 15 x 5
4. Follows from formula (1) with f = U , a = y, x = y + M s.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
26
CHAPTER 7
DERIVATIVES IN USE
6. We nd x(0)
yields x(t)
= x(t) + t x(t)
+
2 =
4[x(t)]x(t),
and so x(0)
= x(0)+4[x(0)]x(0)
+ 21 x(0)t
9 2
1 + 2t + 2 t .
8. Use (2) with f (x) = (1+x)n and x = p/100. Then f (x) = n(1+x)n1 and f (x) = n(n1)(1+x)n2 .
The approximation follows.
7.6
3
2
2. (a) 25 = 3(1 2/27)1/3 3(1 13 27
19 2742 ) 2.924
5
1
2 1
1/5
(b) 33 = 2(1 + 1/32) 2(1 + 532 25
) 2.0125
322
8/3 x 3
5 x 3
4. (a) p(x)
= 1 + 13 x 19 x 2 (b) |R3 (x)| =
3!1 g (c)x 3
=
16 10
27 (1 + c)
81
7.7
2. ElK T = 1.06. A 1% increase in expenditure on road building leads to an increase in the trafc volume
of approx. 1.06 %.
4. (a) Elx eax = (x/eax )aeax = ax
(b) 1/ ln x
(c) p + ax
(d) p + 1/ ln x
6. Elr D = 1.23. This means that a 1% increase in income leads to an increase in the demand for apples of
approx. 1.23 %
8. (a) See Fig. M7.7.8. (The straight line has been drawn through the lowest and highest points.)
T
36.3
35.0
33.9
32.4
24.7
24.2
ln n
5.04
4.89
4.70
4.54
3.64
3.58
(b) f (T ) = 1.99e0.12T
(c) The fall in temperature that halves the pulse rate is (ln 2)/0.12 5.8 degrees.
ln n
5
4
3
20 25
Figure M7.7.8
30
35
40
CHAPTER 7
27
DERIVATIVES IN USE
xf
f
xg
xg gf f g
=
= Elx f Elx g
=
g
f
g2
f
g
xf
xg
f
+g
x(f + g )
f Elx f + gElx g
f
g
(d) Elx (f + g) =
=
=
f +g
f +g
f +g
(e) Is like (d), but with +g replaced by g, and +g by g .
x dz
x u dz du
(f) z = f (g(u)), u = g(x) Elx z =
=
= Elu f (u) Elx u
z dx
u z du dx
(c) Elx
f
xg
=
g
f
7.8
2. f is discontinuous at x = 0. g is continuous at x = 2. The graphs of f and g are shown in Figs. M7.8.2a
and M7.8.2b.
y
1
2
3 x
5 x
3
Figure M7.8.2a
Figure M7.8.2b
f (x)
1
x
a
Figure M7.8.4
Figure M7.8.6
Figure M7.9.6
7.9
1
3
2
x3
x
x
2. (a) 2
0 as x .
=
1
x +1
1+ 2
x
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
(b)
2 + 3x
=
x1
3 + 2/x
3 as x .
1 1/x
(c) a 2
28
CHAPTER 7
DERIVATIVES IN USE
(c) y = 3x + 5 (x = 1 is a vertical
7.10
2. A persons height is a continuous function of time (even if growth occurs in intermittent spurts, often
overnight). The intermediate value theorem (and common sense) give the conclusion.
4. Integer root: x = 3. Newtons method gives 1.880, 0.346, and 1.533 for the three other roots.
6. If f (x0 ) and f (x0 ) have the same sign (as in Fig. 2), then (1) implies that x1 < x0 . But if they have
opposite signs, then x1 > x0 .
7.11
2. (a) Converges to 5. (b) Diverges to .
3/ 2 = 3 2/2 as n )
3n
3
(c) Converges to 3 2/2. (sn =
2
n 2 1/n
2 1/n2
7.12
x 2 a2
2x
x 2 a2
(x a)(x + a)
0
=
= lim
= 2a (or
=
= x + a 2a as x a.)
xa x a
xa
0
1
xa
xa
2(1 + x)1/2 2 x
(1 + x)1/2 1
0
0
(b) lim
=
=
lim
=
=
x0 2(1 + x + x 2 )1/2 2 x
x0 (1 + 2x)(1 + x + x 2 )1/2 1
0
0
(1/2)(1 + x)3/2
1/2
1
lim
=
=
x0 2(1 + x + x 2 )1/2 + (1/2)(1 + 2x)2 (1 + x + x 2 )3/2
2 1/2
3
2. (a) lim
6. lim
2. 5y 4 y y 2 2xyy = 0, so y =
Because no point
(2/x)(1 + 15 ln x)
= 0 for x = e5 .
1 + 1/y
CHAPTER 7
12. Letting x =
1
2
1
2
1!
( 21 )2
( 1 )3
( 1 )4
( 1 )5
( 1 )6
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 ec
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
( 1 )6
2
where c is some number between 0 and 21 . Now, R6 ( 21 ) = 6!
ec <
1
1
c
we used the fact that since c < 2 , e < e 2 < 2. Thus it follows that
29
e2 1 +
DERIVATIVES IN USE
1
2
1!
( 21 )6
6! 2
1
23040
0.0004340, where
( 21 )2
( 1 )3
( 1 )4
( 1 )5
1 1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + 2 =1+ + +
+
+
1.6486979
2!
3!
4!
5!
2 8 48 384 3840
1
1 2
16 x .
16. Elr (Dmarg ) = 0.165 and Elr (Dmah ) = 2.39. When income increased by 1%, the demand for margarine decreased by approximately 0.165 %, while the demand for meals away from home increased by
approximately 2.39 %.
18. Put f (x) = x 3 x 5. Then f (x) = 3x 2 1. Taking x0 = 2, formula (7.10.1) with n = 1 gives
x1 = 2 f (2)/f (2) = 1 1/11 1.909.
3 x + 17
20. (a) 2 (b) Approaches +. (c)
approaches + as x 1 , but as x 1+ ,
x+1
so there is no limit as x 1.
2ex+1 x 2 4x 5 0
2ex+1 2x 4 0
=
=
=
lim
=
x1
x1
(x + 1)3
0
3(x + 1)2
0
2ex+1 2 0
2ex+1
1
=
= lim
= .
lim
x1 6(x + 1)
x1
0
6
3
22. (a) 1
(b) 1/16
(c) lim
30
CHAPTER 8
SINGLE-VARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
CHAPTER 8
SINGLE-VARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
31
Section 8.7 considers inection points, for which Theorem 8.7.1 gives a simple test. This section also
provides an alternative denition of concavity/convexity based on line segments joining pairs of points on
the graph. This leads next to standard denitions of strict concavity or convexity, for which there are obvious
second-derivative sufcient conditions. These ideas will be generalized and extensively discussed in FMEA.
2
1 for all x because 2 + x 2 2 and so
2 + x2
2
1.) No maximum. (b) Maximum 2 at x = 1. No minimum.
2 + x2
(c) Minimum 99 at x = 0. No maximum. (When x , H (x) 100.)
8.2
3x)(2 + 3x)
2.
=
. The function has a maximum at x = 2 3/3 and a minimum at
2
2
(3x +
4)
h (x)
4. f (x) = [4x(x 4 + 1) 2x 2 4x 3 ]/(x 4 + 1)2 , then simplify and factor. f on [0, ) has maximum 1 at
x = 1, because f (x) increases in [0, 1] and decreases in [1, ).
6. f (x) = 3e3x 6ex = 3ex (e2x 2). So f (x) = 0 when e2x = 2 or 2x = ln 2, so x = 21 ln 2. If
x < 21 ln 2 then f (x) < 0, and if x > 21 ln 2 then f (x) > 0, so x = 21 ln 2 is a minimum point.
f (x) = ex (e2x 6) tends to + as x , so f has no maximum.
8. (a) x =
(c) x =
1
3
1
5
10. (a) f (x) = k Aex = 0 when x0 = (1/) ln(A/k). Note that x0 > 0 iff A > k. Moreover,
f (x) < 0 if x < x0 and f (x) > 0 if x > x0 , so x0 solves the minimization problem.
(b) Substituting for A in the answer to (a) gives the expression for the optimal height x0 . Its value increases
as p0 (probability of ooding) or V (cost of ooding) increases, but decreases as (interest rate) or k
(marginal construction costs) increases. The signs of these responses are obviously what an economist
would expect.
8.3
2. (a) (Q) = (102 2Q)Q (2Q + 21 Q2 ) = 100Q 25 Q2 , which is maximized at Q = 20.
(b)
(Q) = 100Q 25 Q2 tQ, which is maximized at Q = 20 t/5.
4. p (x) = kcecx , p (x) = kc2 ecx . No maximum exists, and p(x) a + k as x . See
Fig. M8.3.2.
8.4
2. (a) Maximum 1 at x = 0. Minimum 7 at x = 3.
(b) Maximum 10 at x = 1 and x = 2. Minimum 6 at x = 1.
(c) Maximum 5/2 at x = 1/2 and x = 2. Minimum
2
at x = 1.
32
CHAPTER 8
SINGLE-VARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
R(Q) = 80Q
4000
3000
a+k
2000
1000
a
x
Figure M8.3.2
10
Q0
30 Q 40
50
Figure M8.5.2
8. f is not continuous at x = 1 and x = 1. It has no maximum because f (x) is arbitrarily close to 1 for
x sufciently close to 1. But there is no value of x for which f (x) = 1. Similarly, there is no minimum.
8.5
2. (a) See Fig. M8.5.2. (b) (i) The requirement is (Q) 0 and
Q [0, 50], that is Q2 +70Q900 0
and Q [0, 50]. The rm must produce at least Q0 = 35 5 13 17 units. (ii) Prots are maximized
at Q = 35.
4. (i) Q = 450
(ii) Q = 550
(iii) Q = 0
6. (Q) is stationary at Q = (P /ab)1/(b1) . Moreover, (Q) = ab(b 1)Qb2 < 0 for all Q > 0, so
this is a maximum point.
8.6
2. (a) No local extreme points. (b) Local maximum 10 at x = 1. Local minimum 6 at x = 1.
(c) Local maximum 2
at x = 1.Local minimum 2 at x =
1.
8.7
x = 3, 0, and 3.
(b) g (x) = 4(1 + x)3 > 0 when x > 1, so g is (strictly) convex in (1, ). No inection points.
(c) h (x) = (2 + x)ex , so h is convex in [2, ) and x = 2 is an inection point.
CHAPTER 8
SINGLE-VARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
33
(b) (x) = p(1/2 x) w = 0, or p/2 x = w. (Marginal cost = price times marginal product.) Then
x = p2 /4w 2 . Moreover, (x) = 41 px 3/2 < 0 for all x > 0, so prot is maximized over the interval
(0, ). When x = p2 /4w 2 , then = p2 /2w p 2 /4w F = p 2 /4w F . So this is a prot maximum
if F p2 /4w; otherwise, the rm does better not to start up and to choose x = 0.
6. a = 2/5, b = 3/5 (f (1) = 1 gives a + b = 1. Moreover, f (x) = 3ax 2 + 2bx and f (x) =
6ax + 2b, so f (1/2) = 0 yields 3a + 2b = 0.)
y
y
2
f
g
1
1
1
Figure M8.7.8
Figure M8.R.4
f (x)
+ 1 ex ,
f (x)
+ ex .
x
f (x) is strictly
= 2x
= 2
increasing in [3, ln 2] and strictly
6. (a)
decreasing in [ ln 2, 3].
(b) Note that f (3) = 7 e3 < 0, f ( ln 2) = 2 ln 2 1 > 0, and f (3) = 5 e3 < 0. By the
intermediate-value theorem and the strict monotonicity of f (x) on both sides of x = ln 2, it follows
that f (x) = 0 has just one solution (say, x0 ) in (3, ln 2), and another (actually x = 0) in ( ln 2, 3).
(c) Because f decreases in [3, x0 ], increases in [x0 , 0], then decreases again in [0, 3], the candidate
maxima are x = 3 and x = 0. Because f (3) = e3 12 > f (0) = 1, the maximum is at x = 3.
8. (a) f (x) = 4e4x +8ex 32e2x , f (x) = 16e4x +8ex +64e2x (b) f (x) = 4e2x (e3x +4)(e3x 2), so
f (x) is increasing in [ 13 ln 2, ), decreasing in (, 13 ln 2]. f (x) > 0 for all x so f is strictly convex.
(c) 13 ln 2 is a (global) minimum. No maximum exists because f (x) as x .
10. (a) g (x) = (a 1)(1 ca x a ) and g (x) = a(a 1)ca x a1 . Moreover, limx0+ g(x) = and
limx g(x) = . (b) gmin = g(c) = a(c 1). (Look at the sign of the derivative.)
(c) Because g(c) = a(c 1) < 0, the intermediate-value theorem and strict monotonicity of g(x) on each
side of x = c imply that there is one root in each of the intervals (0, c) and (c, ). But g(1) = ca 1 < 0
and g(a/(a 1)) = ca (a/(a 1))1a > 0, so the root that is greater than c must lie in (1, a/(a 1)).
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
34
CHAPTER 9
INTEGRATION
Chapter 9 Integration
Integration is an important mathematical technique which features occasionally in economic analysis. Indeed,
after this chapter, integrals appear only rarely in the rest of the book. However, when we study differential
equations and control theory in FMEA, integrals become important. Despite this, undergraduate economics
students do need a thorough understanding of elementary ideas in the theory of integration, not so much for
the occasional economic application they may see, but because integrals play such an enormous role in the
statistical foundations of econometrics.
Section 9.1 introduces an indenite integral as, in effect, an antiderivativei.e., a function whose derivative is the original function. Indenite integrals are dened only up to an arbitrary additive constant of
integration. General rules for integration are presented.
Section 9.2 shows how integrals are used to nd the area of certain plane regions. In fact, it is shown that
if A(x) denotes the area under the graph of the non-negative valued function f (x) over the interval [a, x], then
A(x) is an indenite integral of f (x). Students should be made aware that this discovery is not another boring
fact, but historically a fundamental breakthrough in the history of science. On this basis the area under the
graphs of complicated functions can often be calculated with ease. We next introduce denite integrals. They
can be found, of course, as differences in the value of any indenite integral (or antiderivative), provided that
such an indenite integral is known. The section concludes with a brief consideration of the areas associated
with graphs of functions that may have negative values.
In Section 9.3 standard properties of denite integrals are explainede.g., the integral of a sum is the
sum of the integrals, etc. The rules for differentiating a denite integral w.r.t. both its upper and lower limits
of integration are given. It is pointed out that any continuous function, at least, can be integrated, and a list of
insoluble integrals is given. Also, it is briey explained how the NewtonLeibniz integral presented in
the chapter can be extended to Riemann integrals (at least for bounded functions).
After three sections of almost pure mathematics comes Section 9.4, with economic applications. The rst
concerns extraction from an oil well. It brings out the elementary but important idea that changes in stocks
are integrals of ows. There follows a rather extended discussion of the cumulative distribution function of
income, dened as the integral of a density function. It is shown how one can nd total and mean income
for all individuals with income in a certain interval. There is also a discussion of how, when all individuals
demands for a commodity are a known function of their incomes, it is possible to nd total demand for that
commodity once the income distribution is also known. The section concludes with a brief discussion of
consumer and producer surplus.
Next, Section 9.5 presents the method of integration by parts. This is the counterpart for integrals of the
product rule for differentiation. It is a tricky technique to master, however, because it is not very obvious
which part of the integral needs to be integrated rst. So students should be encouraged to attempt as many
problems as possible.
The second important technique for economics students to learn is that of integration by substitution, as
discussed in Section 9.6. This is the counterpart for integration of the chain rule for differentiating a function
of a function.
In Section 9.7 we study integrals over innite intervals, partly because some important economic models
involve an innite planning horizon, partly because this generalization is useful in statistics.
The chapter ends with a short introduction to differential equations. The rst-order equations for proportional growth, growth towards an upper limit, and logistic growth are presented and solved. Of course, FMEA
provides a much more extensive discussion of differential equations.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 9
35
INTEGRATION
(b) 4e 4 x + C
4. (a) 41 t 4 + t 2 3t + C
(d) 41 (x + 2)4 + C
(c) 23 e2x + C
(b) 13 (x 1)3 + C
(c) 13 x 3 + 21 x 2 2x + C
(f) 13 x 3 3x + 4 ln |x| + C
6. (a) and (b): Differentiate the right-hand side and check that you get the integrand. (For (a) see also
Problem 9.5.4.)
8. The graph of f (x) in Fig. 2 can be that of a cubic function, with roots at 3, 1, and 1, and with
f (0) = 1. So f (x) = 13 (x + 3)(x + 1)(x 1) = 13 x 3 + x 2 13 x 1. If f (0) = 0, integrating gives
1 4
f (x) = 12
x + 13 x 3 16 x 2 x. Figure M9.1.8 is the graph of this f .
10. (a) Differentiate the right-hand side. (Once we have learned integration by substitution in Section 9.6,
1
this is an easy problem.) (b) (i) 10
(2x + 1)5 + C (ii) 23 (x + 2)3/2 + C (iii) 2 4 x + C
1 4
12. The general form for f is f (x) = 13 x 3 + A, so that for f is f (x) = 12
x + Ax + B. If we require that
1 4
f (0) = 1 and f (0) = 1, then B = 1 and A = 1, so f (x) = 12 x x + 1.
1
f (x) =
Figure M9.1.8
9.2
ex
1
Figure M9.2.2
Figure M9.2.6
2
3x 2 dx =
0 x 3 = 8 (b) 1/7 (c) e 1/e. (See the shaded area in Fig. M9.2.2.) (d) 9/10
1
1
4. A = 21 1 (ex + ex ) dx = 21
1 (ex ex ) = e e1
2
0
8. (a) 6/5
(b) 26/3
(c) (e 1)/
(d) ln 2
9.3
1
1
+
(b) f (x) = 4x 3 3x 2 + 5. (f (1) = 6 gives a + b = 6, f (1) = 18 gives
p+q +1 p+r +1
2a + b = 18.
a = 12 and b = 6, so f (x) = 12x 2 6x. By integration, f (x) = 4x 3 3x 2 + C.
2 Then
3
Requiring 0 (4x 3x 2 + C) dx = 18 gives C = 5.)
2. (a)
36
CHAPTER 9
INTEGRATION
4. (a) Use formula (6) to obtain F (x) = x 2 + 2. To nd G (x), put u = x 2 and use formula (8). Then
G (x) = [(x 2 )2 + 2]2x = 2x 5 + 4x. (One can also evaluate the integrals and then differentiate: G(x) =
x 2 1 3
( t + 2t) = 1 x 6 + 2x 2 , so G (x) = 2x 5 + 4x.) (b) H (t) = 2tK(t 2 )et 2 (use formula (8)).
0
3
2
0 ( 3x x + 2x) dx = 6. See Fig. M9.3.6.
2
> 0 for x > 0 and f has range (, ), so f has an inverse g
x + 4 ( x + 4 2)
dened on (, ). We nd that the inverse is g(x) = ex/2 + 4ex/4 .
(b) See Fig. M9.3.8. (c) In Fig. M9.3.8 the graphs of f and g are symmetric about the line y = x, so
a
area
A = area B = 10a 0 (ex/2 + 4ex/4 ) dx= 10a + 18 2ea/2 16ea/4 . Because a = f (10) =
4 ln( 14 2), this simplies to 10a + 14 8 14 6.26.
8. (a) f (x) =
y
10
a
B
y + 1 = (x 1)2
y2
y=x
150
= 3x
3
5
A a
10 x
100
50
1
1
1
1
Figure M9.3.6
5
2
Figure M9.3.8
10
Figure M9.4.4
9.4
2b
2. (a) m = 2b ln 2. (The relevant number of individuals is n b Br 2 dr = nB/2b, whose total income is
2b
2b
M = n b Br 1 dr = nB ln 2.) (b) x(p) = b nAp r Br 2 dr = nABp b1 (21 1)/( 1)
4. (a) See Fig. M9.4.4. (f and g both have maximum value 4000/27 148 at t = 20/3 and at t = 10/3,
t
1
respectively.) (b)
g( ) f ( ) d = t 2 (t 10)2 0 for all t.
2
0
10
10
t 3 + 9t 2 + 11t 11 + 11/(t + 1) dt = 940 + 11 ln 11 966.38,
p(t)f (t) dt =
(c)
10 0
10 0
3
p(t)g(t)dt =
t 19t 2 + 79t + 121 121/(t + 1) dt = 3980/3 121 ln 11 1036.52.
0
CHAPTER 9
9.5
1 2
x ln(x + 2) dx =
2 x ln(x + 2)
1
1
1
4
1
1
x2+
dx = 2 23 ln 3
2 ln 3 2
x+2
1
2. (a)
1
1
1 2
2x x
1
dx =
+2
(b) 8/(ln 2)
INTEGRATION
1
2
ln 3
3/(ln 2)2
1
2
37
x2
dx =
x+2
(c) e 2
4. Use (1) with f (x) = ln x and g (x) = x . (Alternatively, simply differentiate the right-hand side.)
9.6
2. (a)
(b)
(d)
1
2
6
2
dx. The integral becomes 41
24 (2x + 3) + C. (Substitute u = 2x + 3, so du = 4x
3
3
2
1 x +2
+ C. (Substitute u = ex +2 .) (c) 41 ln(x + 2) + C. (Substitute u = ln(x +
3e
2
5/2 2 (1 + x)3/2 + C. (Substitute u =
1 + x.)
5 (1 + x)
3
u5 du.)
2).)
1
1
+ C. (Substitute u = 1 + x 2 , or u = (1 + x 2 )1 .)
+
2
2(1 + x ) 4(1 + x 2 )2
2
(4 x 3 )5/2 89 (4 x 3 )3/2 + C. (Substitute u = 4 x 3 .)
(f) 15
x
x
2t 2
ln(t 2 2t) = ln(x 2 2x) ln 3 = ln 1 (x 2 2x), so the given equation reduces to
4.
dt
=
3
2
t
2t
3
3
1 2
2
2
3 (x 2x) = 3 x 1. Hence, x 4x + 3 = 0, with solutions x = 1 and x = 3. But only x = 3 is in
the specied domain. So the solution is x = 3.
(e)
6. (a) 1/70 (The integrand can be written as x 4 (x 5 1)13 . Then put u = x 5 1.)
u=
9.7
6.
8.
10.
1
1
1
b
dx =
(b a) = 1
x=
a
ba
ba
a ba
+
b
x
1
1
1
b 2
(b)
xf (x) dx =
dx =
(b2 a 2 ) = (a + b)
x =
a
b
a
2(b
a)
2(b
a)
2
a
b
1
1 b3 a 3
1
3
(c)
x =
= (a 2 + ab + b2 )
3(b a) a
3 ba
3
b
b
[x/(1+x 2 )] dx = 21 ln(1+x 2 ) = 21 ln(1+b2 ) as b .
The rst integral diverges because
0
0
b
b
1
2
On the other hand,
[x/(1 + x )] dx =
ln(1 + x 2 ) = 0 for all b, so the limit as b is 0.
b
b 2
b
b
1
1
1
for
x
1,
and
dx
=
(1/x) = 1 1/b 1 as b , so by Theorem 9.7.1
2
1
1 + x2
x2
1 x
the given integral converges.
1 rs
2( s) rs
1
1
2
r
e ds =
(1 er ) (b) z =
1
(1
e
e
ds
=
)
(a) z =
r
2
r
r
0
0
1
ln x
Using the answer to Problem 9.6.6(b),
dx =
h (2 x ln x 4 x) = 4 (2 h ln h 4 h)
x
h
2. (a)
4.
f (x) dx =
38
CHAPTER 9
INTEGRATION
+
+
1
2
12. (a) The suggested substitution gives
f (x) dx =
eu du = 1, by (8).
+
+
1
u2
xf (x) dx =
( + 2 u)e
du = , using part (a) and Example 3.
(b) Here
+
+
1
2
(c) Here I =
x 2 f (x) dx =
(2 2 u2 + 2 2 u + 2 )eu du
+
2 2 + 2 u2
2 2 + u2
2
2
=
u e
du +
ue
du +
eu du = 2 + 0 + 2 . (Note how
+
1 u2
1 u2
2
2 u2
integration by parts gives u e
du = ue
+
du, so
u2 eu du = 21 .)
e
2
2
9.8
2. (a) K(t) = (K0 I /)et + I / (b) (i) K(t) = 200 50e0.05t and K(t) tends to 200 from below
as t . (ii) K(t) = 200 + 50e0.05t , and K(t) tends to 200 from above as t .
4. N(t)
= 0.02N(t) + 4 104 . The solution with N (0) = 2 106 is N (t) = 2 106 (2e0.02t 1).
6. The percentage surviving after t seconds satises p(t) = 100et , where p(7) = 70.5 and so =
ln 0.705/7 0.05. Thus p(30) = 100e30 22.3% are still alive after 30 seconds. Because
100et = 5 when t ln 20/0.05 60, it takes about 60 seconds to kill 95%.
8. (a) In 1950 there were about 276 thousand. In the next 10 years the number increased by 155 thousand.
(b) y 479.36 as t . See Fig. M9.8.8 for the graph.
Tractors (in 1000)
500
400
300
200
100
5
(1950)
10
(1960)
15
20
(1970)
Figure M9.8.8
10. At about 11:26. (Measuring time in hours, with t = 0 being 12 noon, one has T = k(20T ) with T (0) =
35 and T (1) = 32. So the body temperature at time t is T (t) = 20 + 15ekt with k = ln(5/4). Assuming
that the temperature was the normal 37 degrees at the time of death t , then t = ln(17/15)/ ln(5/4)
0.56 hours, or about 34 minutes before 12:00.)
Review Problems for Chapter 9
2. (a) e2x + C
(b) 21 x 2
25 25
2 e
+C
(d) 2 ln |x + 5| + C
CHAPTER 9
INTEGRATION
1
1
(1 + x 4 )5 = 31/20
4. (a) 5/4, according to Example 9.7.2. (b)
20
0
(c)
5tet 0 5et dt = 5
et = 5
0
0
e
e
e
e
2
2
(d) 1 (ln x) dx =
x(ln x) 2 1 ln x dx = e 2
(x ln x x) = e 2
1
1
0
2
1
2 3
2 3/2
3/2
(e)
9 (x + 1) = 9 (9 1) = 52/9 (f)
3 ln(e3z + 5) = 13 (ln 6 ln 5) =
0
6.
F (x)
= 4( x 1). (Hint:
(u1/2 + xu1/2 ) du =
8. C(x) =
x
4
2 3/2
3u
+ 2xu1/2 = 83 x 3/2
1
3
ln(6/5)
16
3
4x.)
x
(e 1) + x + C0
(b) x = Ae4t + 3
21
1 Ae
21 t
1
Be
21 t
(c) x =
3
12 Ae3t
(d) x = Ae 5 t
1
(B = 2A)
b + I (1a)t b + I
39
40
CHAPTER 10
6. The effective yearly rate for alternative (ii) is (1 + 0.2/4)4 1 = 1.054 1 0.2155 > 0.215, so
alternative (i) is (slightly) cheaper.
8. Let the nominal yearly rate be r. By (2), 0.28 = (1 + r/4)4 1, so r = 4( 4 1.28 1) 0.25, or 25%.
10.2
2. (a) (i) 1000(1 + 0.05)10 1629 (ii) 1000(1 + 0.05/12)120 1647 (iii) 1000e0.0510 1649
(b) (i) 1000(1 + 0.05)50 11467 (ii) 1000(1 + 0.05/12)600 12119 (iii) 1000e0.0550 12182
10.3
2. (i) The present value is 50 000 1.05755 37 806.64.
10.4
2. (a) (1/5)/(1 1/5) = 1/4 (b) 0.1/(1 0.1) = 1/9 (c) 517/[1 (1.1)1 ] = 5687
(d) a/[1 (1 + a)1 ] = 1 + a (e) 5/(1 3/7) = 35/4
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 10
41
(b) Quotient k = 1/ x. Converges to x x/( x 1) for x > 1, that is, for x > 1.
(c) Quotient k = x 2 . Converges to x 2 /(1 x 2 ) for |x| < 1.
6. Let x denote the number of years beyond 1971 that the Earths extractable resources of iron will last. Then
we get 794+7941.05+ +794(1.05)x = 249103 . Using (3), 794[1(1.05)x+1 ]/(11.05) = 249103
or (1.05)x+1 = 249 103 0.05/794 16.68. Using a calculator, we nd x (ln 16.68/ ln 1.05) 1
56.68, so the resources will be exhausted part way through the year 2028.
rt
rt
P (t)ert
P (t)
(t) = P (t)(e 1) P (t)re , and t > 0 can only
(b)
Here
f
=
1 ert
ert 1
(ert 1)2
rt
maximize f (t) if f (t ) = 0, that is, if P (t )(e 1) = rP (t )ert , which implies that P (t ) =
8. (a) f (t) =
10.5
2. (a) 10 years ago the amount was: 100 000(1.04)10 67556.42
1.064 1
43746.16
(b) 10000(1.063 + 1.062 + 1.06 + 1) = 10 000
1.06 1
4. Offer (a) is better. The second offer has present value 4600
1 (1.06)5
20 540.
1 (1.06)1
6. If the largest amount is a, then according to formula (4), a/r = K, so that a = rK.
15 1 0.06t
15
500
e
= 0.06
1 e0.9 4945.25.
8. PDV = 0 500e0.06t dt = 500
0 0.06
FDV = e0.0615 PDV = e0.9 PDV 2.4596 4945.25 12163.3.
10.6
2. Using (2) we get a =
(0.07/12) 80000
928.87.
1 (1 + 0.07/12)120
12 000 1.115
[1 (1.115)8 ] 67 644.42.
0.115
7000
[1 (1.115)12 ] 66 384.08.
Schedule (c) has present value 22 000 +
0.115
Thus schedule (c) is cheapest. When the interest rate becomes 12.5 %, schedules (b) and (c) have present
values equal to 65907.61 and 64374.33, respectively.
10.7
a
a
+ = a0 , which yields a/r = a0 , so r = a/a0 .
+
1+r
(1 + r)2
4. $ 1.55 million. (400 000 1/1.175 + (1/1.175)2 + + (1/1.175)7 1 546 522.94.)
6. Applying (10.5.2) with a = 1000 and n = 5 gives the equation P5 = (1000/r) 1 1/(1 + r)5 = 4340
to be solved for r. For r = 0.05%, the present value is $4329.48; for r = 0.045%, the present value is
$4389.98. Because dP5 /dr < 0, it follows that p is a little less than 5%.
42
CHAPTER 10
4. 15 000e0.0712 34745.50
6. (a) 44/(1 0.56) = 100 (b) 20/[1 (1.2)1 ] = 120
(d) 400/(1 201 ) = 8000/19
5000
[(1.04)4 1] = 21 232.32
0.04
(c) The last payment will be on 1st January 2006, when the initial balance of 10 000 will have earned
interest for 10 years. So K must solve 10 000 (1.04)10 + K[(1.04)8 1]/0.04 = 70 000. We nd that
K 5990.49.
3200
10. (a) Present value:
[1 (1.08)10 ] = 21 472.26.
0.08
3000
(b) Present value: 7000 +
[1 1.085 ] = 18 978.13.
0.08
4000
[1 (1.08)10 ] = 26 840.33. The present value when
(c) Four years ahead the present value is
0.08
Lucy makes her choice is 26 840.33 1.084 = 19 728.44. She should choose option (a) .
8. (a) 5000(1.04)4 = 5849.29.
(b)
CHAPTER 11
43
44
CHAPTER 11
(c) 1 x 2 + y 2 4. The domains in (b) and (c) are the shaded sets
z
y
y
2
2
x2 + y2
Figure M11.1.6b
Figure M11.1.6c
Figure M11.3.6
11.2
2. (a) z/x = 2x, z/y = 6y (b) z/x = y, z/y = x
(c) z/x = 20x 3 y 2 2y 5 , z/y = 10x 4 y 10xy 4 (d) z/x = z/y = ex+y
(e) z/x = yexy , z/y = xexy (f) z/x = ex /y, z/y = ex /y 2
(g) z/x = z/y = 1/(x + y) (h) z/x = 1/x, z/y = 1/y
= z = z = z = 0
4. (a) zx = 3, zy = 4, and zxx
xy
yx
yy
2
2
3
= 6xy 2 , z = 2x 3 , and z = z = 6x 2 y
(b) zx = 3x y , zy = 2x y, zxx
yy
xy
yx
= 20x 3 6y, z = 30y 4 , and z = z = 6x
(c) zx = 5x 4 6xy, zy = 3x 2 + 6y 5 , zxx
yy
xy
yx
= 0, z = 2x/y 3 , and z = z = 1/y 2
(d) zx = 1/y, zy = x/y 2 , zxx
yy
xy
yx
= 4y(x + y)3 , z = 4x(x + y)3 , and z =
(e) zx = 2y(x + y)2 , zy = 2x(x + y)2 , zxx
yy
xy
3
2
2
= y 2 (x 2 + y 2 )3/2 ,
zyx = 2(x y)(x + y)
(f) zx = x(x + y )1/2 , zy = y(x 2 + y 2 )1/2 , zxx
= x 2 (x 2 + y 2 )3/2 , and z = z = xy(x 2 + y 2 )3/2
zyy
xy
yx
6. (a) FS = 2.260.44S 0.56 E 0.48 = 0.9944S 0.56 E 0.48 , FE = 2.260.48S 0.44 E 0.52 = 1.0848S 0.44 E 0.52
(b) SFS + EFE = S 2.26 0.44S 0.56 E 0.48 + E 2.26 0.48S 0.44 E 0.52 = 0.44 F + 0.48 F = 0.92 F ,
so k = 0.92.
8. Here z/x = x/(x 2 + y 2 ), z/y = y/(x 2 + y 2 ), 2 z/x 2 = (y 2 x 2 )/(x 2 + y 2 )2 , and 2 z/y 2 =
(x 2 y 2 )/(x 2 + y 2 )2 . Thus, 2 z/x 2 + 2 z/y 2 = 0.
11.3
2. (a) A straight line through (0, 2, 3) parallel to the x-axis.
(b) A plane parallel to the z-axis whose intersection with the xy-plane is the line y = x.
4. f (x, y) = ex y + (x 2 y 2 )2 = ec + c2 when x 2 y 2 = c, so the last equation represents a level curve
of f at height ec + c2 .
2
CHAPTER 11
45
6. Generally, the graph of g(x, y) = f (x) in 3-space consists of a surface traced out by moving the graph
of z = f (x) parallel to the y-axis in both directions. The graph of g(x, y) = x is the plane through the
y-axis at a 45 angle with the xy-plane. The graph of g(x, y) = x 3 is shown in Fig. M11.3.6. (Only a
portion of the the unbounded graph is indicated, of course.)
8. (a) f (2, 3) = 8. f (x, 3) = 8 has the solutions x = 2 and x = 5 (b) As y varies with x = 2 xed,
the minimum of f (2, y) is 8 when y = 3. (c) A: f1 (x, y) > 0, f2 (x, y) > 0. B: f1 (x, y) < 0,
f2 (x, y) < 0. C: f1 (x, y) = 0, f2 (x, y) = 0. At A, f1 2/1 = 2 and f2 2/0.6 = 10/3.
1
2
10. F (1, 0) = F (0, 0) + 0 F1 (x, 0) dx 2, F (2, 0) = F (1, 0) + 1 F1 (x, 0) dx F (1, 0) + 2,
1
1
F (0, 1) = F (0, 0) + 0 F2 (0, y) dy 1, F (1, 1) = F (0, 1) + 0 F1 (x, 1) dx F (0, 1) + 2,
1
F (1, 1) = F (1, 0) + 0 F2 (1, y) dy F (1, 0) + 1.
11.4
2. d =
11.5
2. (a) F (K + 1, L, T ) F (K, L, T ) is the increase in output from increasing capital input by one unit.
(b) F (K, L, T ) = AK a Lb T c , where A, a, b, and c are constants, A > 0.
(c) F (tK, tL, tT ) = t a+b+c F (K, L, T )
4. You drive (5/60) 0 + (10/60) 30 + (20/60) 60 + (15/60) 80 = 45 kilometres in 5 + 10 + 20 + 15 = 50
minutes, so the average speed is 45 60/50 = 54 kph.
6. (a) Each machine would produce 60 units per day, so each unit produced would require 480/60 = 8
minutes. (b) Total output is ni=1 (T /ti ) = T ni=1 (1/ti ). If all
n machines were equally efcient,
n
n
the time needed for each unit would be nT T i=1 (1/ti ) = n
i=1 (1/ti ), the harmonic mean of
t1 , . . . , tn .
11.6
2. (a) f1 = 2x, f2 = 3y 2 , and f3 = 4z3 (b) f1 = 10x, f2 = 9y 2 , and f3 = 12z3
(c) f1 = yz, f2 = xz, and f3 = xy (d) f1 = 4x 3 /yz, f2 = x 4 /y 2 z, and f3 = x 4 /yz2
(e) f1 = 12x(x 2 + y 3 + z4 )5 , f2 = 18y 2 (x 2 + y 3 + z4 )5 , and f3 = 24z3 (x 2 + y 3 + z4 )5
(f) f1 = yzexyz , f2 = xzexyz , and f3 = xyexyz
4. First-order partials: w1 = 3yz + 2xy z3 , w2 = 3xz + x 2 , w3 = 3xy 3xz2 . Second-order partials:
w11
= 2y, w12
= w21
= 3z + 2x, w13
= w31
= 3y 3z2 , w22
= 0, w23
= w32
= 3x, w33
= 6xz.
2
2a 0 0
a(a 1)g/x
abg/xy
acg/xz
6. (a) 0 2b 0 (b) abg/xy
b(b 1)g/y 2
bcg/yz , in concise form.
0
0 2c
acg/xz
bcg/yz
c(c 1)g/z2
8. fx = y z x y
z 1
46
CHAPTER 11
11.7
2. Simplied answers: (a) KYK + LYL = aY
4. D/p and E/q are normally negative, because the demand for a commodity goes down when the
price of that commodity increases. If the commodities are substitutes, this means that demand increases
when the price of the other good increases. So the usual signs are D/q > 0 and E/p > 0.
6. KYK + LYL = mY . (YK = (m/)a()Aet K 1 [aK + (1 a)L ](m/)1 and
YL = (m/)(1 a)()Aet L1 [aK + (1 a)L ](m/)1 , so
KYK + LYL = (m/)()[aK + (1 a)L ]m/ = mY.
11.8
2. Let z = ug with u = ax1d + bx2d + cx3d . Then El1 z = Elu ug El1 u = g(x1 /u)adx1d1 = adgx1d /u.
Similarly, El2 z = bdgx2d /u and El3 z = cdgx3d /u, so El1 z+El2 z+El3 z = dg(ax1d +bx2d +cx3d )/u = dg.
(This result follows easily from the fact that the function is homogeneous of degree dg (see Problem
12.7.2(b) and the elasticity form (12.7.3) of the Euler equation.)
(p, m) D(p, m)
pD(p, m)
pD(p, m)
mDm
4.
=
[Elm D(p, m)1] > 0 iff Elm D(p, m) > 1,
=p
m
m
m2
m2
so pD/m increases with m if Elm D > 1. (Using the formulas in Problem 7.7.10, the result also follows
from the fact that Elm (pD(p, m)/m) = Elm D(p, m) Elm m = Elm D(p, m) 1.)
Review Problems for Chapter 11
2. f (1, 2) = 10, f (2a, 2a) = 4a 2 , f (a, b + k) f (a, b) = 6bk 3k 2 , f (tx, ty) t 2 f (x, y) = 0.
4. (a) Y /K 0.083K 0.356 S 0.562 and Y /S 0.035K 1.356 S 0.438 .
(b) The catch becomes 21.356+0.562 = 21.918 3.779 times higher.
6. FK = aF /K, FL = bF /L, and FM
= cF /M, so KFK + LFL + MFM
= (a + b + c)F .
4
2
4
4
10. (a) z/x = 10xy (x y + 2) (b) K(F /K) = 2 K( K + L)(1/2 K) = K + L
(c) KFK + LFL = K(1/a)aK a1 (K a + La )1/a1 + L(1/a)aLa1 (K a + La )1/a1 =
(K a + La )(K a + La )1/a1 = F (d) g/t = 3/w + 2wt, so 2 g/wt = 3/w 2 + 2t
(e) g3 = t3 (t12 + t22 + t32 )1/2 (f) f1 = 4xyz + 2xz2 , f13
= 4xy + 4xz
12. If x y = c, then F (x, y) = ln(x y)2 + e2(xy) = ln c2 + e2c , a constant.
14. (a) Elx z = 3, Ely z = 4
(b) Elx z =
2x 2
+
(c) Elx z = Elx (ex ey ) = Elx ex = x, Ely z = y
(x 2
, Ely z =
+
(d) Elx z = x 2 /(x 2 +
y 2 ) ln(x 2
y2)
2y 2
(x 2 + y 2 ) ln(x 2 + y 2 )
2
y ), Ely z = y 2 /(x 2 + y 2 )
CHAPTER 12
47
We do not discuss the concept of functional dependence. Most texts in mathematics for economists state erroneously that functional dependence of n functions is equivalent to the vanishing of the associated Jacobian determinant.
For a correct account, see J. E. Marsden and M. J. Hoffman: Elementary Classical Analysis, 2. ed. W. H. Freeman and
Co. (1993).
48
CHAPTER 12
The main part of Section 12.11 consists of Examples 13 showing how to nd partial derivatives from
differentials. Whereas Examples 1 and 2 are purely mechanical, with no economic distractions, Example 3 is
based on a rather standard macroeconomic model.
The general case of a system of structural equations is briey discussed, as is the distinction between
endogenous and exogenous variables. Finally, the concept of reduced form is dened in this setting.
dz
y
x
1
ln t
t + 1 ln(t + 1)
= ln y +
1+
+ ln x
= ln(ln t) +
+
+
dt
x
y
t
t +1
t ln t
t
dz
1
1
at
bt
(b)
= Aae + Bbe = a + b
dt
x
y
4. dY /dt = 10L 21 K 1/2 0.2 + 10K 21 L1/2 0.5e0.1t = 35 7 5/100 when t = 0 and so
K = L = 5.
2. (a)
x 1 (3b ax 4 )
Then U (x) =
. So U (x ) = 0 at x = 4 3b/a, whereas U (x) > 0 for
3[x + (ax 4 + b)/3 ](ax 4 + b)
x < x and U (x) < 0 for x > x . Hence x maximizes U .
12.2
2. (a) z/t = y 2 + 2xy2ts = 5t 4 s 2 + 4t 3 s 4 , z/s = y 2 2s + 2xyt 2 = 2t 5 s + 4t 4 s 3
2(1 s)ets+t+s
z
z
2(1 t)ets+t+s
=
(b)
and
=
t+s
ts
2
t
(e + e )
s
(et+s + ets )2
4. z/t1 = F (x)f1 (t1 , t2 ), z/t2 = F (x)f2 (t1 , t2 )
6.
C
Q1
Q1
Q2
=a
+b
+ 2cQ1
= 1 A(a + 2cAp11 p2 1 )p11 1 p2 1 + 2 bBp12 1 p2 2
p1
p1
p1
p1
C
1
1
= 1 A(a + 2cAp11 p2 1 )p11 p2 1 2 bBp12 p2 2
p2
8. (a)
f x
f y
f z
f w
u
=
+
+
+
r
x r
y r
z r
w r
(b)
u
= yzw + xzw + xyws + xyz(1/s) = 28
r
12.3
2. See the answers to Problem 7.1.1. (For (a): Put F (x, y) = x 2 y. Then F1 = 2xy, F2 = x 2 , F11
=
2
2y, F12 = 2x, F 22 = 0, so y = F1 /F2 = 2xy/x
=
2y/x.
Moreover,
according
to
(3),
y = (1/(F2 )3 ) F11
(F2 )2 2F12
F1 F2 + F22
(F1 )2 = (1/x 6 )[2yx 4 2(2x)(2xy)x 2 ] = 6y/x 2 .)
4. h (x) =
6x 3y 2
= 1 at (x, y) = (1, 1).
6xy + 3y 2 + 6y
6. Differentiating the equation w.r.t. x gives (i) 1 azx = f (y bz)(bzx ). Differentiating w.r.t. y
gives (ii) azy = f (y bz)(1 bzy ). If bzx = 0, solving (i) for f and inserting it into (ii) yields
azx + bzy = 1. If bzx = 0, then (i) implies azx = 1. But then zx = 0, so b = 0 and then again
azx + bzy = 1.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 12
49
12.4
2. Differentiating partially w.r.t. x yields () 3x 2 + 3z2 zx 3zx = 0, so zx = x 2 /(1 z2 ). By symmetry,
, differentiate () w.r.t. y to obtain 6zz z + 3z2 z 3z = 0, so
zy = y 2 /(1 z2 ). To nd zxy
y x
xy
xy
2
2
2
3
zxy = 2zx y /(1 z ) . (Alternatively, differentiate zx = x 2 /(1 z2 ) w.r.t. y.)
4. zx =
yx y1 + zx ln z
x y ln x + zy z1
and zy = z
z
x1
y ln y + xz
y ln y + xzx1
Fx (1, 3)
(x 1) with Fx (1, 3) = 10 and
Fy (1, 3)
y
y
y
y
(b)
=
,
=
K
K(1 + 2c ln y) L
L(1 + 2c ln y)
12.5
2. (a) Ryx = (x/y)a1 = (y/x)1a
12.6
2. x(tp, tr) = A(tp)1.5 (tr)2.08 = At 1.5 p 1.5 t 2.08 r 2.08 = t 1.5 t 2.08 Ap 1.5 r 2.08 = t 0.58 x(p, r), so the
function is homogeneous of degree 0.58 . (Alternatively, use the result in Example 11.1.4.)
4. Checking denition (1) shows that f is homogeneous of degree 0. Then using the partial derivatives
found in Example 11.2.1(b), we conrm that xf1 (x, y) + yf2 (x, y) = 0.
6. Denition (1) requires that for some number k one has, t 3 x 3 + t 2 xy = t k (x 3 + xy) for all t > 0 and
all (x, y). In particular, for x = y = 1, we must have t 3 + t 2 = 2t k . For t = 2, we get 12 = 2 2k , or
2k = 6. For t = 4, we get 80 = 2 4k , or 4k = 40. But 2k = 6 implies 4k = 36. So the two values of k
must actually be different, implying that f is not homogeneous of any degree.
8. Let C and D denote the the numerator and the denominator in the expression for yx in Problem 12.5.3.
Because F is homogeneous of degree one, Eulers theorem implies that C = F1 F2 F , and () implies
that xF
=
= xF12
. Hence, D = xy (F2 )2 F11
2F1 F2 F12
+(F1 )2 F22
11 = yF12 and yF22 = xF21
2
F12
y 2 (F2 )2 + 2xyF1 F2 + x 2 (F1 )2 = F12
(xF1 + yF2 )2 = F12
F , using Eulers theorem again.
2
F ) = F1 F2 /F F12
.
Hence xy = C/D = (F1 F2 F )/(F12
12.7
2. (a) The function is homogeneous of degree 1 because
1
(tx1 tx2 tx3 )2
1
1
+
+
(tx1 )4 + (tx2 )4 + (tx3 )4 tx1
tx2
tx3
6
2
t (x1 x2 x3 )
1 1
1
1
= 4 4
= tF (x1 , x2 , x3 )
+
+
x2
x3
t (x1 + x24 + x34 ) t x1
g
g
(b) G(tx1 , tx2 , tx3 ) = a(tx1 )d + b(tx2 )d + c(tx3 )d = t d (ax1d + bx2d + cx3d )
= t dg G(x1 , x2 , x3 ), so G is homogeneous of degree dg.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
50
CHAPTER 12
4. vi = ui a/(x1 + + xn ), so ni=1 xi vi = ni=1 xi ui ni=1 axi /(x1 + + xn ) =
n
a [a/(x1 + + xn )] i=1 xi = a a = 0. By Eulers theorem, v is homogeneous of degree 0.
6. Let = ln C(tw, y) ln C(w, t). It sufces to prove that = ln t, because then C(tw, y)/C(w, y) =
ln et = t. We nd that
=
n
i=1
n
n
1
ai [ln(twi ) ln wi ] +
aij [ln(twi ) ln(twj ) ln wi ln wj ] + ln y
bi [ln(twi ) ln wi ]
2
i,j =1
i=1
n
i=1
n
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
1
ai + (ln t)2
aij + (ln t)
ln wi
aij + (ln t)
ln wj
aij + ln y ln t
bi
2
2
2
i,j =1
j =1
i=1
i=1
j =1
i=1
12.8
x x0
y y0
2. f (x, y) Ax0a y0b + aAx0a1 y0b (x x0 ) + bAx0a y0b1 (y y0 ) = Ax0a y0b 1 + a
+b
x0
y0
4. f (0.98, 1.01) 5 6(0.98 1) + 9(1.01 + 1) = 4.97. The exact value is 4.970614, so the
error is 0.000614.
6. v(1.01, 0.02) v(1, 0) + v1 (1, 0) 0.01 + v2 (1, 0) 0.02 = 1 1/150
8. g(0) = f (x0 ), g(1) = f (x). Using formula (12.2.3), it follows that
g (t) = f1 (x0 + t (x x0 ))(x1 x10 ) + + fn (x0 + t (x x0 ))(xn xn0 ). Putting t = 0 gives
g (0) = f1 (x0 )(x1 x10 ) + + fn (x0 )(xn xn0 ), and the conclusion follows.
12.9
2. (a) dz = 3x 2 dx + 3y 2 dy
(c) dz =
x2
2
(x dx y dy)
y2
12.10
2. There are 6 variables Y , C, I , G, T , and r, and 3 equations. So there are 6 3 = 3 degrees of freedom.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 12
51
12.11
2. (a) Differentiating yields: u3 dx + x3u2 du + dv = 2y dy and 3v du + 3u dv dx = 0.
Solving for du and dv yields, with D = 9xu3 3v,
du = D 1 (3u4 1) dx + D 1 6yu dy
(b) ux = D 1 (3u4 1),
and
4. With a xed, I (r) dr = S (Y ) dY and a dY + L (r) dr = dM. Solving for dY and dr in terms of dM
gives
I (r)
S (Y )
Y
r
=
=
and
M
aI (r) + L (r)S (Y )
M
aI (r) + L (r)S (Y )
6. (a) Differentiation yields the equations:
dC
dY = dC + dI + dG,
= FY dY + FT dT + Fr dr , and
dI = fY dY + fr dr. Hence, dY = FT dT + dG + (Fr + fr ) dr /(1 FY fY ).
(b) Y /T = FT /(1
FY fY ) < 0, so Y decreases as T increases. But if dT = dG with dr = 0,
then dY = 1 + FT dT /(1 FY fY ), which is positive provided that FT > 1.
8. (a) There are 3 variables and 2 equations, so there is (in general) one degree of freedom.
(b) Differentiation gives 0 = lP dy + L (r)dr and Sy dy + Sr dr + Sg dg = Iy dy + Ir dr. We nd
L (r)Sg
dy
=
,
dg
L (r)(Sy Iy ) lP (Sr Ir )
lP Sg
dr
=
dg
L (r)(Sy Iy ) lP (Sr Ir )
10. Differentiating while putting dp2 = dm = 0, gives: (i) U11
dx1 + U12
dx2 = p1 d + dp1 ;
(ii) U21 dx1 + U22 dx2 = p2 d; (iii) p1 dx1 + dp1 x1 + p2 dx2 = 0. Solving for dx1 , we obtain
p 2 + x1 (p2 U12
p1 U22
)
x1
= 2 2
2
p1 p1 U22 2p1 p2 U12 + p2 U11
(b) k
(c) 0
52
CHAPTER 12
14. Differentiate f (tx1 , . . . , txn ) = g(t)f (x1 , . . . , xn ) w.r.t. t and put t = 1, as in the proof of Eulers
theorem (Theorem 12.7.1). This yields ni=1 xi fi (x1 , . . . , xn ) = g (1)f (x1 , . . . , xn ). Thus, by Eulers
theorem, f must be homogeneous of degree g (1). In fact, g(t) = t k where k = g (1).
16. (a) Differentiating, then gathering all terms in dp and dL on the left-hand side, yields
(i) F (L) dp + pF (L) dL = dw
Since we know that pF (L) = w, (ii) implies that dp = (Ldw + dB)/F (L). Substituting this into (i)
and solving for dL, we obtain dL = [(F (L) LF (L))dw F (L)dB]/pF (L)F (L). It follows that
p
L
=
,
w
F (L)
p
1
=
,
B
F (L)
L
F (L) LF (L)
=
,
w
pF (L)F (L)
L
F (L)
=
B
pF (L)F (L)
(b) We know that p > 0, F (L) > 0, and F (L) < 0. Also, F (L) = (wL + B)/p > 0. Hence, it is
clear that p/w > 0, p/B > 0, and L/B > 0.
To nd the sign of L/w, we need the sign of F (L) LF (L). From the equations in the model, we
get F (L) = w/p and F (L) = (wL + B)/p, so F (L) LF (L) = B/p > 0. Therefore L/w < 0.
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
53
54
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
13.2
2. (a) Prot: (x, y) = 24x + 12y C(x, y) = 2x 2 4y 2 + 4xy + 64x + 32y 514. Maximum at
x = 40, y = 24. (Then (40, 24) = 1150.) Since 11
= 4 0, 22
= 8 0, and 11
22
2
(12 ) = 16 0, we have found the maximum. (b) x = 34, y = 20. (With y = 54 x, prots are
= 2x 2 4(54 x)2 + 4x(54 x) + 64x + 32(54 x) 514 = 10x 2 + 680x 10450, which
has a maximum at x = 34. Then y = 54 34 = 20. The maximum value is 1110.)
4. (a) (x, y) = px + qy C(x, y) = (25 x)x + (24 2y)y (3x 2 + 3xy + y 2 ) = 4x 2 3xy
3y 2 + 25x + 24y. (b) 1 = 8x 3y + 25 = 0 and 2 = 3x 6y + 24 = 0 when (x, y) = (2, 3).
2
Moreover, then 11
= 8 0, 22
= 6 0, and 11
22 (12
) = (8)(6) (3)2 = 39 0.
So (x, y) = (2, 3) maximizes prots.
6. (a) The rst-order conditions are: 1 = p2x = 0, 2 = q 2y = 0. Thus the only stationary point is
2
x = p/2, y = q/2. Moreover, 11
= 2 0, 22
= 2 0, and 11
22 (12
) = 4 0,
13.3
2. (a) f1 = 2x + 2y 2 , f2 = 4xy + 4y, f11
= 2, f12
= 4y, f22
= 4x + 4
(b) f2 = 0 4y(x + 1) = 0 x = 1 or y = 0. If x = 1, then f1 = 0 for y = 1. If
y = 0, then f1 = 0 for x = 0. Thus we get the three stationary points classied in the table:
(x, y)
AC B 2
(0, 0)
(1, 1)
16
Saddle point
(1, 1)
16
Saddle point
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
55
4. (a) f1 (x, y) = 24x 2 12y = 12(2x 2 y), f2 (x, y) = 12x + 3y 2 = 3(y 2 4x). The stationary
points are thus the solutions of the system (i) 2x 2 y = 0, (ii) 4x + y 2 = 0. From (i) we get y = 2x 2
which inserted into (ii) yields 4x(x 3 1) = 0. The only solutions of this equation are x = 0 and x = 1.
The stationary points are thus (0, 0) and (1, 2). Moreover, f11
(x, y) = 48x, f12
(x, y) = 12, and
f22 (x, y) = 6y. The stationary points are classied in the table:
(x, y)
AC B 2
(0, 0)
12
144
(1, 2)
48
12
12
432
(b) Since g(x, y) is a square, g(x, y) 0 for all x and y. On the other hand, g(0, 0) = 0, so (0, 0) is
a global minimum point for g. (There are many global minimum points for g, namely all points (x, y)
satisfying 8x 3 12xy + y 3 = 0.)
6. In all three cases we easily nd that (0, 0) is a stationary point where z = 0 and A = B = C = 0, so
AC B 2 = 0. In case (a), z 0 for all (x, y), so the origin is a maximum point. In case (b), z 0 for all
(x, y), so the origin is a minimum point. In (c), z takes positive and negative values at points arbitrarily
close to the origin, so it is a saddle point.
2xy
x2
and f2 (x, y) =
. Here
2
1+x y
1 + x2y
f1 = f2 = 0 at all points (0, b) with b . (c) Because AC B 2 = 0 when (x, y) = (0, b), the
second-derivative test fails. But by studying the function directly, we see that (0, b) is a local maximum
point if b < 0; a saddle point if b = 0; and a local minimum point if b > 0. See Fig. M13.3.8.
z
z = ln(1 + x 2 y)
y
Figure M13.3.8
13.4
a + b
c + d
,q =
.
2b
2d
The second-order conditions are obviously satised because 11
= 2b, 12
= 0, and 22
= 2d.
(b) The new prot function is = bp2 dp 2 + (a + b)p + (c + d)p (a + c) and the price
a + c + (b + d)
which maximizes prots is p =
.
2(b + d)
56
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
c2
a+c
a
c
a2
,q =
, and (p , q ) =
+
. Moreover, p =
with
2b
2d
4b
4d
2(b + d)
(ad bc)2
(a + c)2
, and (p , q ) (
0. Note that the difference is 0 when
p)
=
(p)
=
4(b + d)
4bd(b + d)
ad = bc, in which case p = q , so the rm wants to charge the same price in each market anyway.
(c) If = 0, then p =
4. (a) Let (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 11.29), (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 11.40), (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 11.49), and (x3 , y3 ) = (3, 11.61),
so that x0 corresponds to 1970, etc. (The numbers yt are approximate, as are most subsequent results.)
We nd that x = 41 (0 + 1 + 2 + 3) = 1.5, y = 41 (11.29 + 11.40 + 11.49 + 11.61) = 11.45,
and xx = 41 [(0 1.5)2 + (1 1.5)2 + (2 1.5)2 + (3 1.5)2 ] = 1.25. Moreover, we nd xy =
1
4 [(1.5)(11.2911.45)+(0.5)(11.4011.45)+(0.5)(11.4911.45)+(1.5)(11.6111.45)], which
is equal to 0.13125, and so a = xy /xx = 0.105 and b = y a
x 11.45 0.105 1.5 = 11.29.
(b) With z0 = ln 274, z1 = ln 307, z2 = ln 436, and z3 = ln 524, we have (x0 , z0 ) = (0, 5.61),
(x1 , z1 ) = (1, 5.73), (x2 , z2 ) = (2, 6.08), and (x3 , z3 ) = (3, 6.26). As before, x = 1.5 and xx = 1.25.
Moreover, z = 41 (5.61 + 5.73 + 6.08 + 6.26) = 5.92 and
xz 41 [(1.5)(5.615.92)+(0.5)(5.735.92)+(0.5)(6.085.92)+(1.5)(6.265.92)] = 0.2875
Hence c = xz /xx = 0.23, d = z c
x = 5.92 0.23 1.5 = 5.575.
(c) With ln (GNP) = 0.105x + 11.25, GNP = e11.25 e0.105x = 80017e0.105x . Likewise, FA = 256e0.23x .
The requirement that FA = 0.01 GNP implies that e0.23x0.105x = 80017/25600, and so 0.125x =
ln(80017/25600). Thus x = ln(80017/25600)/0.125 = 9.12. Since x = 0 corresponds to 1970, the
goal would have been reached in 1979.
13.5
2. (a) Stationary points occur where both (i) f1 (x, y) = 3x 2 9y = 0 and (ii) f2 (x, y) = 3y 2 9x = 0.
From (ii) we get x = 13 y 2 , which inserted into (i) yields y 4 = 27y, whose only solutions are y = 0 and
y = 3. So the only interior stationary point is (3, 3). Along the edges x = 0 and y = 0 of the boundary,
the function has no extreme point except
at a corner.
Along the edges x = 4 and y = 4, we nd two
candidates for extreme points at (4, 2 3) and (2 3, 4). There are also the four corners (0, 0), (4, 0),
(0, 4), and (4, 4). Comparing the values of f at all these points, we nd that f has maximum 91 at (0, 4)
and at (4, 0), and minimum 0 at (3, 3). (Extreme points exist by the extreme-value theorem.)
(b) At any stationary point, f1 = 2x 1 = 0 and f2 = 4y = 0, so f is stationary at the interior point
( 21 , 0) of the domain. Along the boundary x 2 + y 2 = 1, the behaviour of f is described by the function
g(x) = x 2 + 2(1 x 2 ) x = 2 x x 2 , with x in [1, 1]. We see that g (x) = 1 2x = 0 at
x = 21 , so the points ( 21 , 21 3) are optimality candidates. Moreover, g(1) = 2 and g(1) = 0,
so (1, 0) and (1, 0) are also optimality candidates.
Comparing the values
of f at all these points, we
conclude that f has maximum 9/4 at (1/2, 3/2) and at (1/2, 3/2). The minimum is 1/4 at
(1/2, 0).
(c) At any stationary point, f1 = 3x 2 2x = 0 and f2 = 2y = 0, so f is stationary at ( 23 , 0) (and at
the boundary point (0, 0)). Along the edge x = 0, y [1, 1], f (0, y) = 3 y 2 , which is largest at
y = 0 and smallest at y = 1. Along the edge x 2 + y 2 = 1, x [0, 1], one has f (x, y) = 2 + x 3 , which
is strictly increasing, smallest at x = 0, largest at x = 1. Comparing the values of f at all these points,
we conclude that the maximum is 3 at (0, 0) and at (1, 0). The minimum is 2 at (0, 1) and at (0, 1).
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
57
(d) f1 (x, y) = (2x 2 5x + 3)ex x (2y 1)e(y2) and f2 (x, y) = 2(2y 2 5y + 3)(x 2)ex x e(y2) ,
so the function f has ve stationary points, with (x, y) = (1, 1), ( 23 , 1), (1, 23 ), ( 23 , 23 ), or (2, 21 ). None
of these are in the interior of the domain, however. So any maximum or minimum must be on one of the
four edges, or at the four corners. Obviously f = 0 along the edges x = 2 and y = 21 , as well as at the
three corners which make up the ends of these edges. At the other corner, f (0, 0) = 2e4 . Along the edge
x = 0 one has f2 < 0 for all y in [0, 21 ], so only the corners are relevant. It remains to consider the edge
y = 0, along which f1 < 0 for 0 x < 1 and for 23 < x 2, but f1 > 0 for 1 < x < 23 . Note that
f (1, 0) = e4 > 0 and f ( 23 , 0) = 21 e19/4 < 2e4 . We conclude that the maximum is 2e4 at (0, 0) and the
minimum is 0 at (x, 1/2) for all x [0, 2], and at (2, y) for all y [0, 1/2].
2
4. (a) The rst-order conditions 2axy + by + 2y 2 = 0 and ax 2 + bx + 4xy = 0 must have (x, y) =
(2/3, 1/3) as a solution. So a = 1 and b = 2. Also c = 1/27, so that f (2/3, 1/3) = 1/9. Because
A = f11
(2/3, 1/3) = 2/3, B = f12
(2/3, 1/3) = 2/3, and C = f22
(2/3, 1/3) = 8/3, Theorem 13.3.1
shows that this is a local minimum.
(b) Maximum 193/27 at (2/3, 8/3). Minimum 1/9 at (2/3, 1/3). (The extreme points must be stationary
points in the interior of the admissible set or else points on the boundary. Note that we must check if
there are stationary points in the interior other than (2/3, 1/3). The rst-order conditions reduce to
2y(x 1 + y) = 0 and x(x 2 + 4y) = 0. The stationary points satisfying these equations are (0, 0),
(0, 1), (2, 0), and (2/3, 1/3). Three of these four are on the boundary. The maximum is a point on the
boundary line 2x + y = 4.)
6. (a) Closed and bounded, so compact. (b) Open and unbounded. (c) Closed and bounded, so compact.
(d) Closed and unbounded. (e) Closed and unbounded. (f) Open and unbounded.
8. (a) The domain D is shown
in Fig. M13.5.8.
The rst order partials
are
1
1
2
2
f1 (x, y) = e 4 (x+y ) 1 41 (x + y) , f2 (x, y) = e 4 (x+y ) 1 21 y(x + y) .
(b) The unique stationary point (7/2, 1/2) gives the maximum value 4e15/16 .
y
D
y =1x
x
Figure M13.5.8
13.6
2. (a) f (x) = ex and g(x) = F (f (x)) = ln(ex ) = x 2 both have a unique maximum at x = 0.
(b) Only x = 0 maximizes f (x). But g(x) = 5 is maximized at every point x because it is a constant.
2
4. fx = 6x 2 + 30x 36, fy = 2 ey , fz = 3 + ez . The 8 stationary points are (x, y, z) =
(3, ln 2, ln 3 ), and (x, y, z) = (2, ln 2, ln 3 ), where all combinations of signs are allowed.
2
13.7
2. (a) K =
(b) Q =
8 3 3
1 2 2
1
3/2 q 3/2
27 p r , L = 4 p w , T = 3 3 p
4 2 2
+ 21 pw 1 + 13 p 1/2 q 1/2 , so Q/r
9p r
= 89 p 2 r 3 = K /p
58
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
(R21
C21
)dx1 + (R22
C22
)dx2 = dt
(R22
(R C21
C22
)ds (R12
C12
)dt
)ds + (R11
C11
)dt
, dx2 = 21
D
D
where the signs follow from the assumptions in the problem and the fact that D > 0 from (b). Note
that these signs accord with economic intuition. For example, if the tax on good 2 increases, then the
production of good 1 increases, while the production of good 2 decreases.
(d) Follows from the expressions in (c) because R12
= R21
and C12
= C21
.
Review Problems for Chapter 13
2. (a) The prot is (Q1 , Q2 ) = 120Q1 + 90Q2 0.1Q21 0.1Q1 Q2 0.1Q22 . The rst-order conditions
give Q1 = 500, Q2 = 200. We easily see that the second-order conditions are satised.
(b) The prot is now (Q
1 , Q2 ) = P1 Q1 + 90Q2 0.1Q21 0.1Q1 Q2 0.1Q22 . The rst-order
conditions give 1 = P1 0.2Q1 0.1Q2 = 0 and 2 = 90 0.1Q1 0.2Q2 = 0. If we require
Q1 = 400, then P1 80 0.1Q2 = 0 and 90 40 0.2Q2 = 0. It follows that Q2 = 250 and so
P1 = 105. Second-order conditions are easily checked.
= 12x 2 + 4y 6,
4. (a) f1 = 2(x + y 2) + 4x(x 2 + y 2), f2 = 2(x + y 2) + 2(x 2 + y 2), f11
2
f12 = f21 = 4x+2, f22 = 4. (b) f1 = f2 = 0 implies that x+y2 = 2x(x +y2) = (x 2 +y2).
The last equality gives x = 21 or y = 2 x 2 . Inserting each of these into f2 = 0 yields three stationary
points, which are classied in the following table.
(x, y)
AC B 2
(0, 2)
(1, 1)
10
(1/2, 13/8)
7/2
Saddle point
(c) f (0, 2) = f (1, 1) = 0, and f (x, y) 0 for all (x, y), so these are (global) minimum points.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 13
MULTIVARIABLE OPTIMIZATION
59
AC B 2
(0, 0)
(5/6, 5/12)
2
(b) f11
= 2 6x 0 x 1/3, while f22
= 2 0, and f11
f22 (f12
) = 12x 5 0
x 5/12. We conclude that f is concave if and only if x 5/12. The largest value of f in S is 125/432,
obtained at (5/6, 5/12).
60
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
61
consumption of two goods. It also shows the possibility of a corner solution with zero labour supply in case
unearned income is sufciently high.
Section 14.6 deals with sensitivity analysis. First, the standard interpretation of Lagrange multipliers
as shadow prices is mentioned. With m constraints, the value function depends on m variables. Where it is
differentiable, the m Lagrange multipliers are partial derivatives of the value function. Example 1 veries the
properties of Lagrange multipliers numerically for a case with two constraints.
Adjusting the right-hand side of an equality constraint is just one of many perturbations to which a
constrained optimization problem can be subjected. Other perturbations are considered in this section; in
economics they feature constantly in comparative static propositions, of course. For such perturbations, frame
(6) states one version of the envelope theorem, which often arises in economic analysis. Examples 2, 3, and
4 involve interesting economic applications.
The nal Sections 14.7 and 14.8 give a brief introduction to nonlinear programmingi.e., optimization
problems where the contraints are expressed as inequalities, rather than equalities. For the case of two variables
and one constraint, a frame sets out a recipe for solving the problem based on the Lagrange multiplier method.
Part of the recipe involves a complementary slackness condition. Theorem 14.7.1 emphasizes how this method
leads to a sufcient condition when the Lagrangian is concave. Section 14.7 concludes with a graphical
explanation of the complementary slackness condition.
In Section 14.8, the recipe of Section 14.7 is extended to general problems with n variables and m
constraints. Particular attention is paid to nonnegativity restrictions on the variables. The Lagrange multipliers
are related to partial derivatives of the (optimal) value function.
14.2
2. (a) L(x, y) = x + y (x 2 + y 1). The equations L1 = 1 2x = 0, L2 = 1 = 0, and x 2 + y = 1
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
62
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
have the solution x = 1/2, y = 3/4, and = 1. (b) The solution is illustrated in Fig. M14.2.2. The
minimization problem has no solution because f (x, 1 x 2 ) = x + 1 x 2 as x .
(c) The new solution is x = 0.5 and y = 0.85. The change in the value function is f (1.1) f (1) =
(0.5 + 0.85) (0.5 + 0.75) = 0.1. Because = 1, one has dc = 1 0.1 = 0.1. So, in this case, (3)
is satised with equality. (This is because of the special form of the functions f and g.)
y
6
5
4
3
2
d 1
y = 1 x2
( 21 , 43 )
1
x+y =
Figure M14.2.2
x
x+y =
1
2
5
4
321
1
2
3
4
5
6
y 2 = x(x + 1)2
(x, y)
1 2 3 4
Figure M14.3.4
4. (a) x = 4, y = 24, = 1/4. (b) y = 97/4, x = 4. U = 105/4 104/4 = 1/4, the value of the
Lagrange multiplier from (a). (There is exact equality here because U is linear in one of the variables.)
(c) x = q 2 /4p, y = m/q q/4p. (Note that y > 0 iff m > q 2 /4p.)
14.3
2. The problem with systems of three equations and two unknowns is not that they are merely difcult to
solve but that they are usually inconsistenti.e., it is impossible to solve them. The equations fx (x, y) =
fy (x, y) = 0 are NOT valid at the optimal point.
4. The minimum is 1 at (x, y) = (1, 0). Actually, this problem is quite tricky. The Lagrangian can be
written in the form L = (x + 2)2 + (1 )y 2 + x(x + 1)2 . The only stationary point which satises
the constraint is (0, 0), with = 4, and with f (0, 0) = 4. (In fact, L2 = 0 only if = 1 or y = 0. For
= 1, L1 = 3(x + 1)2 + 2 > 0 for all x. For y = 0, the constraint gives x = 0 or x = 1. But x = 1
gives L1 = 2, so x = 0 is necessary for a stationary point.) Yet at (1, 0) both g1 (1, 0) and g2 (1, 0)
are 0, and the Lagrange multiplier method fails. The given problem is to minimize (the square of) the
distance from (2, 0) to a point on the graph of g(x, y) = 0. But the graph consists of the isolated point
(1, 0) and a smooth curve, as illustrated in Fig. M14.3.4.
14.4
2. With L(x, y) = x 2 + y 2 (x + 2y a) the rst-order conditions are 2x = 0 = 2y 2.
So (x, y) = (a/5, 2a/5) with = 2a/5. Applying Theorem 14.4.2 with f (x, y) = x 2 + y 2 and
g(x, y) = x + 2y, we nd that D(x, y, ) = 10, so the only stationary point is a local minimum. (By
reducing the problem to a one-variable problem, it is easy to see that it is actually a global minimum.)
Geometrically, the problem is to nd that point on the straight line x + 2y = a that is closest to the origin.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
63
14.5
2. Here L = x + 4y + 3z (x 2 + 2y 2 + 13 z2 b). So necessary conditions are:
(i) L1 = 1 2x = 0; (ii) L2 = 4 4y = 0; (iii) L3 = 3 23 z = 0. It follows that = 0,
2
and so x
= 1/2, y = 1/, z = 9/2. Inserting these values into the constraint yields
= 9/b, so
= 3/ b. The value of the objective function is x + 4y + 3z
= 18/, so = 3/ b determines the
minimum point. This is (x, y, z) = (a, 2a, 9a), where a = b/6.
4. The constraints reduce to h + 2k + = 0 and 2h k 3 = 0, so k = h and = h. But then
f (x, y, z) = x 2 + y 2 + z2 = 200 + 3h2 200 for all h, so f is maximized for h = 0. Then k = = 0
also, and we conclude that (x, y, z) = (10, 10, 0) solves the minimization problem.
i
i
i
i i
6. (a) c1i = 1 r i /p
1 , c2 = 2 r /p2 . (Write the utility function in the equivalent form U (c1 , c2 ) =
i 1 i 2
ln (c1 ) (c2 ) . Using Theorem 13.6.3, the result follows immediately from () in Example 14.1.3,
recalling that 1 + 2 = 1.) (b) In Example 5, 1 = 1 /e1 , 2 = 2 /e2 . So p1 = 1 and p2 = 2
implies c1i = 1 r i /p1 = r i e1 = i e1 provided that r i = i , which also gives c2i = i e2 . Because
p1 e1 + p2 e2 = 1 e1 + 2 e2 = 1 + 2 = 1, it follows that r i = i (p1 e1 + p2 e2 ) for i = 1, 2.
8. (a) With a CobbDouglas utility function, Uk (x) = k U (x)/xk , so from (6) (with j = 1), we have
pk /p1 = Uk (x)/U1 (x) = k x1 /1 xk . Thus pk xk = (ak /a1 )p1 x1 . Inserted into the budget constraint, we
have p1 x1 + (a2 /a1 )p1 x1 + + (an /a1 )p1 x1 = m, which implies that p1 x1 = a1 m/(a1 + + an ).
Similarly, pk xk = ak m/(a1 + + an ) for k = 1, . . . , n.
(b) From (6) (with j = 1), we get xka1 /x1a1 = pk /p1 and so xk /x1 = (pk /p1 )1/(1a) or pk xk /p1 x1 =
(pk /p1 )11/(1a) = (pk /p1 )a/(1a) . The budget constraint gives
n
a/(1a)
a/(1a)
pi
.
p1 x1 1 + (p2 /p1 )a/(1a) + + (pn /p1 )a/(1a) = m. So p1 x1 = mp1
1/(1a)
n
i=1
a/(1a)
pi
for k = 1, . . . , n.
i=1
10. Differentiating the constraint w.r.t. x1 (keeping x2 xed) yields g1 + g3 (x3 /x1 ) = 0, which implies
(i) x3 /x1 = g1 /g3 . Similarly, (ii) x3 /x2 = g2 /g3 . The rst-order conditions for the maximization of z = f (x1 , x2 , x3 ), where x3 is a function of (x1 , x2 ), are (iii) z/x1 = f1 + f3 (x3 /x1 ) = 0 and
(iv) z/x2 = f2 + f3 (x3 /x2 ) = 0. Substitute from (i) and (ii) into (iii) and (iv), letting = f3 /g3 .
This yields the equations f1 g1 = 0 and f2 g2 = 0. Also, by denition of , f3 g3 = 0. These
are the conditions (3) for n = 3.
14.6
64
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
14.7
2. (a) The Lagrangian is L(x, y) = x 2 + 2y 2 x (x 2 + y 2 1). Conditions (2)(4) take the form:
2x 1 2x = 0; 4y 2y = 0; 0 ( = 0 if x 2 + y 2 <1). (b) Candidates: (1/2, 0) with
= 0; (1,
0) with = 1/2; (1,
0) with = 3/2; and (1/2, 3/2) with = 2. Maximum 9/4 at
(1/2, 3/2) and at (1/2, 3/2). The extreme-value theorem conrms that this is the solution.
4. (a) f1 (x, y) 0 (f1 (x, y) = 0 if x < b) and f2 (x, y) = 0
(f2 (x, y) = 0 if y > a)
14.8
2. (a) The admissible set is the shaded region in Fig. M14.8.2.
(b) With the constraints g1 (x, y) = x y 4, g2 (x, y) = x 1, g3 (x, y) = y 1, the
Lagrangian is L = x + y ex ex+y 1 (x y + 4) 2 (x 1) 3 (y + 1). The rst-order
conditions are that there exist nonnegative numbers 1 , 2 , and 3 such that:
(i) Lx = 1 ex ex+y + 1 + 2 = 0; (ii) Ly = 1 ex+y + 1 + 3 = 0; (iii) 1 (x y + 4) = 0;
(iv) 2 (x 1) = 0; (v) 3 (y + 1) = 0. (We formulate the complementary slackness conditions as
in (14.7.5).) From (ii), ex+y = 1 + 1 + 3 . Inserting this into (i) yields 2 = ex + 3 ex > 0.
Because 2 > 0, (iv) implies that x = 1. So any solution must lie on the line (II) in the gure, which
shows that the third constraint must be slack. (Algebraically, because x + y 4 and x = 1, we have
y 4 x = 5 > 1.) So from (v) we get 3 = 0, and then (ii) gives 1 = ex+y 1 e4 1 > 0.
Thus from (iii), the rst constraint is active, so y = 4 x = 5. Hence the only possible solution is
(x , y ) = (1, 5). Because L(x, y) is concave, we have found the optimal point.
y
7
II
(1, 5)
6
5
4
3
I
(3, 1)
1
2 1
III
1
Figure M14.8.2
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
65
2m
3m
,y =
5p
5q
(b) x =
m
2m
,y =
3p
3q
(c) x =
3m
2m
,y =
5p
5q
4. (a) Interpretation: Maximize the volume of a rectangular box with a given surface area A.
(b) With the Lagrangian L = xyz (2xy + 2xz + 2yz A), the rst-order conditions yield
yz (2y + 2z) = 0, xz (2x + 2z) = 0, xy (2x + 2y) = 0. (The optimal solution obviously
yz
xz
xy
requires all three variables to be positive.) It follows that =
=
=
. The other
y+z
x+z
x+y
required equality is just the constraint divided by 2.
(c) From yz/(y + z) = xz/(x + z) we get y(x + z) = x(y + z), or yz = xz, so x = y because z > 0.
Similarly, from xz/(x + z) = xy/(x + y) we get y = z. Inserting y = z = x into the constraint and
solving for x yields x = A/6, and so the optimal solution is x = y = z = A/6. The optimal box is
a cube whose six faces all have area A/6.
6. With the Lagrangian L = (1/x) + 4y + 4z (x + y + z 2) x 2 + y 2 + z2 3/2 , the rst-order
conditions yield (i) 1/x 2 2x = 0; (ii) 4 2y = 0; (iii) 4 2z = 0. Equations (ii)
and (iii) give y = z, i.e. (iv) (y z) = 0.
A. Suppose = 0. Then (iv) implies y = z, which inserted into the constraints gives x = 2 2y and
x 2 + 2y 2 = 3/2, so (2 2y)2 + 2y 2 = 3/2, or 6y 2 8y + 5/2 = 0. The solutions of this equation
are y = 5/6 and y = 1/2. This gives the following solution candidates: P1 = (1/3, 5/6, 5/6) and
P2 = (1, 1/2, 1/2). The function values are are 11/3 and 3 respectively.
B. Suppose = 0. From (ii) we have = 4, and then (i) gives 1/x 2 = 4, so x = 1/2. Inserting x = 1/2
into the rst constraint gives z = 3/2 y, and then the second constraint gives 2y 2 3y + 1 = 0, with the
roots y = 1 and y = 1/2. The new solution candidates are P3 = (1/2, 1, 1/2) and P4 = (1/2, 1/2, 1).
The function values are both 4.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
66
CHAPTER 14
CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION
It remains to consider the case x = 1/2. But then the rst constraint gives z = 5/2 y, and the
second constraint gives the equation 2y 2 5y + 5 = 0, which has no real solutions.
By evaluating the objective function f at all the four candidate points, we nd that f has its largest
value at P3 and P4 , with fmax = f (1/2, 1, 1/2) = f (1/2, 1/2, 1) = 4.
8. (a) The maximum value is 20 attained at (x, y, z) = (4, 0, 0). The minimum value is 7.5 attained at all
points (x, y, z) satisfying x = 1 and y 2 + z2 = 7.5. (With as the Lagrange multiplier, the rst-order
conditions imply (i) 2x + 1 = 2x; (ii) 2y = 4y; (iii) 2z = 4z. From (ii), y = 0 or = 1/2. From
(iii), z = 0 or = 1/2. Suppose rst that = 1/2. Then (i) implies x = 1 and 2(y 2 + z2 ) = 15,
which gives the minimum value. On the other hand, if = 1/2, then (ii) and (iii) give y = z = 0. Then
x = 4, and x = 4 gives the maximum. By the extreme value theorem, maximum and minimum values
exist in (a) as well as in (b).)
(b) The function f has a unique stationary point in the interior of S at (x, y, z) = (1/2, 0, 0), with
f (1/2, 0, 0) = 1/4. We conclude that the maximum point of f in S is at (4, 0, 0) and the minimum
is at (1/2, 0, 0).
10. (a) The Lagrangian is L(x, y) = U (x, y) [py w(24 x)]. The rst-order conditions imply
pU1 = wU2 = wp, which immediately yields (). (b) Differentiating () and () w.r.t. w gives
pyw = 24 x wxw and p(U11
xw + U12
yw ) = U2 + w(U21
xw + U22
yw ). Solving for xw = x/w
yields the given formula. (c) x/w = (4 ln 18 5)/(ln 18 + 1).
12. (a) See Fig. M14.R.12. Note that x ln(3/2). (b) With and as the Lagrange multipliers, the rstorder conditions are: (i) (2x + 1) + ex = 0; (ii) y + = 0; (iii) 0 ( = 0 if ex < y);
(iv) 0 ( = 0 if y < 2/3). From (i), = (2x + 1)ex 3/2, because of (a). From (ii), =
y 3/2 2/3 > 0, so y = 2/3 because of (iii). Solution: (x , y ) = (ln(3/2), 2/3), with
= 3[ln(3/2) + 1/2], = 3 ln(3/2) + 5/6. (The Lagrangian is concave so this is the solution.)
y
y = ex
1
y = 2/3
(x , y )
1
Figure M14.R.12
CHAPTER 15
67
68
CHAPTER 15
15.2
2. u = 3 and v = 2. (Equating the elements in row 1 and column 3 gives u = 3. Then, equating those in
row 2 and column 3 gives u v = 5 and so v = 2. The other elements then need to be checked, but
this is obvious.)
1 0
4
1 2 6
3
8 20
4. A + B =
,AB=
, and 5A 3B =
2 4 16
2 2 2
10 12
8
15.3
2. (i)
1
15
6 13
1
1 1
x1
3
4. (a)
=
(b) 1
3 5
5
x2
2
x1
2 3
1
0
(c)
x2 =
1
1 1
0
x3
0.2875
6. T(Ts) = 0.2250
0.4875
0 0
0
, since AB =
0 0
0
4
1
x1
1 x2 = 5
2
1
3
x3
0
.
0
15.4
2. (ax 2 + by 2 + cz2 + 2dxy + 2exz + 2fyz) (a 1 1 matrix)
4. Equality in (a) as well as in (b) if and only if AB = BA. ((A+B)(AB) = A2 AB+BAB2 = A2 B2
unless AB = BA. The other case is similar.)
6. (a) Direct verication by matrix multiplication. (b) AA = (AB)A = A(BA) = AB = A, so A is
idempotent. Then just interchange A and B to show that B is idempotent.
(c) As the induction hypothesis, suppose that Ak = A, which is true for k = 1. Then Ak+1 = Ak A =
AA = A, which completes the proof by induction.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 15
15.5
69
1
0 2
3 1
6
2
, B =
, (A + B) =
, (A) =
,
5
2 2
4 7
4 10
4 10
4 10
2
4
AB =
, (AB) =
= B A , and A B =
10
8
10
8
10 14
Verifying the rules in (2) is now very easy.
2. A =
3
2
4. Symmetry requires a 2 1 = a + 1 and a 2 + 4 = 4a. The second equation has the unique root a = 2,
which also satises the rst equation.
6. By the associative law and rule (15.5.2)(d) for transposition, (A1 A2 A3 ) = (A1 (A2 A3 )) = (A2 A3 ) A1 =
(A3 A2 )A1 = A3 A2 A1 . In general, for any natural number n > 3, one has
(A1 A2 An ) ((A1 A2 An1 )An ) = An (A1 A2 An1 ) . As the induction hypothesis, suppose the
result is true for n 1. Then the last expression becomes An An1 , A2 A1 , so the result is true for n.
15.6
2. Gaussian elimination yields:
1
1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
0 2
3
1 21
2 2
0
1 a+1 b1
1
2
a b
1 1 1
1
1 1
1
1
0 1 3/2 1/2 1 0 1 3/2
1/2
0 1 a+1 b1
0 0 a + 5/2 b 1/2
3
1
For any z, the rst two equations imply that y = 21 + 23 z and x = 1 y + z =
2 25 z. From the last
5
1
equation we see that for a = 2 , there is a unique solution with z = (b 2 ) (a + 2 ). For a = 25 ,
there are no solutions if b = 21 , but z is arbitrary (one degree of freedom) if b = 21 .
4. (a) After moving the rst row down to row number three, Gaussian elimination yields the matrix
1 2
1
b2
3
1
0 1
2
2 b2 2 b3
3
1
0 0 3 4a b1 + (2a 2 )b2 + ( 2 a)b3
Obviously, there is a unique solution iff a = 3/4.
(b) Put a = 3/4 in part (a). Then the last row in the matrix in (a) becomes (0, 0, 0, b1 41 b3 ). It follows
that if b1 = 41 b3 there is no solution. If b1 = 41 b3 there are an innite number of solutions. In fact,
x = 2b2 + b3 5t, y = 23 b2 21 b3 + 2t, z = t, with t .
15.7
2. a + b + c = (1, 6, 4), a 2b + 2c = (3, 10, 2), 3a + 2b 3c = (9, 6, 9),
a b c = (a + b + c) = (1, 6, 4).
4. (a) xi = 0 for all i. (b) Nothing, because 0 x = 0 for all x.
6. 4x 2x = 7a + 8b a, so 2x = 6a + 8b, and x = 3a + 4b.
8. The scalar product of the two vectors is x 2 +(x 1)x +33x = x 2 +x 2 x +9x = 2x 2 +8x = 2x(x +4),
which is 0 for x = 0 and x = 4.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
70
CHAPTER 15
10. (a) The rms revenue is pz. Its costs are px. (b) Prot = revenue costs = pzpx = p(zx) = py.
If p y < 0, the rm makes a loss equal to p y.
15.8
2. (a) = 0 gives x = (3, 1), = 1/4 gives x = (2, 5/4), = 1/2 gives x = (1, 3/2),
= 3/4 gives x = (0, 7/4), and = 1 gives x = (1, 2). See Fig. M15.8.2.
(b) As runs through [0, 1], the vector x will run through all points on the line segment S between a and
b. In fact, according to the pointpoint formula, the line L through (3, 1) and (1, 2) has the equation
x2 = 41 x1 + 47 or x1 + 4x2 = 7. The line segment S is traced out by having x1 run through [3, 1] as x2
runs through [1, 2]. Now, (1 )a + b = (3 4, 1 + ). Any point (x1 , x2 ) on L satises x1 + 4x2 = 7
and equals (3 4, 1 + ) for = 41 (3 x1 ) = x2 1. Any point on the segment of this line between
a = (3, 1) and b = (1, 2) equals (3 4, 1 + ) for some [0, 1].
y
=1
= 3/4
= 1/2
= 1/4
=0
a
1
Figure M15.8.2
4. (a) x1 (1, 2, 1) + x2 (3, 0, 2) = (x1 3x2 , 2x1 , x1 2x2 ) = (5, 4, 4) when x1 = 2 and x2 = 1.
(b) x1 and x2 must satisfy x1 (1, 2, 1) + x2 (3, 0, 2) = (3, 6, 1). Then x1 3x2 = 3, 2x1 = 6, and
x1 2x2 = 1. The rst two equations yield x1 = 3 and x2 = 2; then the last equation is not satised.
6. The vectors are orthogonal iff their scalar product is 0, that is iff x 2 x 8 2x + x = x 2 2x 8 = 0,
which is the case for x = 2 and x = 4.
8. (||a|| + ||b||)2 ||a + b||2 = ||a||2 + 2||a|| ||b|| + ||b||2 (a + b)(a + b) = 2(||a|| ||b|| a b)
2(||a|| ||b|| |a b|) 0 by the CauchySchwarz inequality (2).
15.9
2. (a) Direct verication. (To show that a lies on L, put t = 0.) (b) The direction of L is given by the vector
(1, 2, 1), and the equation of the orthogonal plane is (1)(x1 2) + 2(x2 (1)) + 1 (x3 3) = 0,
or x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 1. (c) We must have 3(t + 2) + 5(2t 1) (t + 3) = 6, and so t = 4/3. The
point of intersection is then (2/3, 5/3, 13/3).
4. (a) Direct verication.
4
3
CHAPTER 15
71
1 1 1
1
x
a
1 3 2
y b
2 5
x1
4
=
4. (a)
(b)
1 4 8
5
8
0 z c
x2
t
d
2 0 1 1
a 1 a+1
x
b1
(c) 1 2
1 y = b2
3 4
7
z
b3
3
2
p +p q
2p 2 q + 2pq 2
pq 2 + q 3
6. (a) TS = 21 p 3 + 21 p 2 + 21 p 2 q p 2 q + pq + pq 2 21 pq 2 + 21 q 2 + 21 q 3 = S because p + q = 1.
p3 + p2 q
2p 2 q + 2pq 2
pq 2 + q 3
3
=
5
A similar argument shows that T2 = 21 T + 21 S. To prove the last equality, we do not have to consider the
individual elements: T3 = TT2 = T( 21 T + 21 S) = 21 T2 + 21 TS = 21 ( 21 T + 21 S) + 21 S = 41 T + 43 S.
(b) The appropriate formula is () Tn = 21n T + (1 21n )S. This formula is correct for n = 1
(and for n = 2, 3). Suppose () is true for n = k. Then using the two rst equalities in (a), Tk+1 =
TTk = T(21k T + (1 21k )S) = 21k T2 + (1 21k )TS = 21k ( 21 T + 21 S) + (1 21k )S =
2k T + 2k S + S 2 2k S = 2k T + (1 2k )S, which is formula () for n = k + 1.
1 4 1
2
1
4 1
1 4
1
1 0
5
8. (a)
2 2 8
0 6 6 1/6
0 1 1
4
0 1 1
The solution is x1 = 5, x2 = 1.
2
2 1 2
1 3
1 0
2 3
(b) 1 3
1 0 2
2 1 2
4 1 1
4 1 1
3
3
1 3
1 0
1 3
1
0
0
8 3 2 1/8 0
1 3/8 1/4 13
0 13
4
1
0 13 4 1
1 3
1
0
1 3
1
0
0
0
1 3/8 1/4
1 3/8
1/4
3
0
0
7/8
9/4
8/7
0
0
1
18/7
1 0 1/8
3/4
1 0 0
3/7
0 1 3/8
0 1 0 5/7
1/4
0 0
1 18/7
3/8 1/8
0 0 1 18/7
The solution is x1 = 3/7, x2 = 5/7, x3 = 18/7.
1 3 4 0
5
1
3
4 0
(c)
5 1 1 0
0 14 19 0 1/14
1 3
4
0
1 0 1/14 0
0 1 19/14 0
3
0 1 19/14 0
The solution is x1 = (1/14)x3 , x2 = (19/14)x3 , where x3 is arbitrary. (One degree of freedom.)
10. a
=
35,
b
=
11,
and
c
=
69. Also, |a b| = |(1) 1 + 5 1 + 3 (3)| = | 5| = 5, and
72
CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 16
73
Section 16.8 explains how a general linear system of n equations in n unknowns with a non-singular
coefcient matrix can be solved by means of Cramers rule (Theorem 16.8.1). This result is of theoretical
interest, but for systems with more than 4 unknowns, the calculation of the appropriate determinants usually
becomes computationally impractical. Finally, whereas a linear system of n equations in n unknowns is
usually soluble only when its coefcient matrix is non-singular, a system of homogeneous equations (with
zero right-hand sides) has a non-trivial solution iff the coefcient matrix is singular. This is Theorem 16.8.2.
To conclude the chapter, Section 16.9 gives a brief introduction to the Leontief model.
3
2. See Fig. M16.1.2. The shaded area is 18 =
2
0
.
6
(2, 6)
(3, 0)
Figure M16.1.2
a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22
4. The matrix product is AB =
, implying that
a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22
|AB| = (a11 b11 + a12 b21 )(a21 b12 + a22 b22 ) (a11 b12 + a12 b22 )(a21 b11 + a22 b21 ). On the other hand,
|A||B| = (a11 a22 a12 a21 )(b11 b22 b12 b21 ). A tedious process of expanding each expression, then
cancelling four terms in the expression of |A||B|, reveals that the two expressions are equal.
6. We write the system as
Y C = I0 + G0
bY + C = a
Then Cramers rule yields
I0 + G0 1
a
1
Y =
1 1
b
1
a + I 0 + G0
,
1b
1 I 0 + G0
b
a
C=
1 1
b
1
a + b(I0 + G0 )
1b
The expression for Y is most easily found by substituting the second equation into the rst, and then
solving for Y . Then use C = a + bY to nd C.
16.2
1
2. AB = 7
5
1 1
13 13 , |A| = 2, |B| = 3, |AB| = |A| |B| = 6
9 10
74
CHAPTER 16
1 A0 0
0
b a b
b
t d 1
a bd + A0
a bd + A0 b(1 t)
1
=
=
, C=
0
1 b(1 t)
1 b(1 t)
1 1 0
b
b
1
b
t
1
0 1
A0
a
t (a + A0 ) + (1 b)d
d
=
0
1 b(1 t)
b
1
(This problem is meant to train you in using Cramers rule. Note how systematic elimination is much
more efcient.)
16.3
2. +a12 a23 a35 a41 a54 (Four lines between pairs of boxed elements rise as one goes to the right.)
a
11 a12 . . . a1n
11 b12 . . . b1n
0 a22 . . . a2n
0 b22 . . . b2n
4. With A =
and B =
,
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
0 . . . ann
0
0 . . . bnn
the product AB is easily seen to be upper triangular, with the elements a11 b11 , a22 b22 , . . . , ann bnn on the
main diagonal. The determinant |AB| is, according to (4), the product of these n numbers. On the other
hand, |A| = a11 a22 ann , and |B| = b11 b22 bnn , so the required equality follows immediately.
16.4
2
2. A = 1
3
1
0
1
1
2 , |A| = |A | = 2
5
3 3
4. |AB| = |A||B| = 12, 3|A| = 9, | 2B| = (2)3 (4) = 32, |4A| = 43 |A| = 4
1
|A| + |B| = 1, whereas |A + B| is not determined. (As an example showing this, let A1 = 0
0
=
0
1
0
192,
0
0
3
CHAPTER 16
75
and B1 =
A2 = 0
0
1 0
0
0 1
0 . Then |A1 | =
0 0 4
0 0
2
0
1 0 and B2 = 0 2
0 1
0
0
0
0 , then |A2 | = 3, |B2 | = 4, and |A2 + B2 | = 10.)
1
6. (a) The rst and the second columns are proportional, so the determinant is 0 by part E of Theorem 16.4.1.
(b) Add the second column to the third. This makes the rst and third columns proportional.
(c) The term x y is a common factor for each entry in the rst row. If x = y, the rst two rows are
proportional. If x = y, the rst row has all elements 0. In either case the determinant is 0.
8. By Sarruss rule, for example, |Aa | = a(a 2 + 1) + 4 + 4 4(a 2 + 1) a 4 = a 2 (a 4), so |A1 | = 3
and |A61 | = |A1 |6 = (3)6 = 729.
10. (a) Because A2 = In it follows from part G of Theorem 16.4.1 that |A|2 = |In | = 1, and so |A| = 1.
(b) Direct verication by matrix multiplication.
(c) (In A)(In + A) = In2 + A A A2 = In A2 = 0 A2 = In .
12. Add each of the last n 1 rows to the rst row. Each element in the rst row then becomes na + b. So
Dn = (na + b)
1
a
..
.
1
a+b
..
.
...
...
..
.
1
a
..
.
...
a+b
Next, add the rst row multiplied by a to all the other n 1 rows. The result is an upper triangular
matrix whose diagonal elements are 1, b, b, ..., b, with product equal to bn1 . The conclusion follows
easily.
16.5
2. (a) abc
(b) abcd
(c) 6 4 3 5 1 = 360
16.6
2. Multiply the two matrices to get I3 .
1
2 3
x
3
4 3
3
3
=
4. (a)
=
=
y
3 4
5
3 2
5
1
x
4 3
8
1
x
0
(b)
=
=
(c)
=
y
3 2
11
2
y
0
0 1 1
1 1 2
2
3
0 0 1
(c) Choose P = (A I)1 = 1 0 1 , so that A = [(A I)2 ]1 = P2 . The matrix P also works.
0 1 0
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
76
CHAPTER 16
s + 17 4t 16 0
1
12. (a) AT = 12
2s + 10 5t 8
0 = I3 , and so T = A1 , for s = 5, t = 4.
3s + 15 4t 16 12
(b) BX = 2X + C BX 2X = C (B 2I)X = C. But it is easy to see that B 2I = A.
So BX = 2X + C AX = C X = A1 C = TC, when s = 5 and t = 4. Hence,
5
4
3
2 3
0 1
1/2
0
0 1/6
1
X = 12
7 8
31 0
3 1 = 1/2
3 3 1/6
1
4 3
0 5 4 1
1/2 1
2 1/6
16.7
2. The determinant is 72. The cofactors are
C11
C21
C31
=
=
=
= 3,
3
2
= 5,
1 1
3 2
= 9,
0 3
0
1
3
1
C
1 11
so the inverse is
C12
|A|
C13
C21
C22
C23
C12
C22
C32
=
=
=
6
4
2
4
2
6
= 18,
2
= 6,
1
2
= 18,
3
3
1
C31
3
1
18
C32 =
72
6
C33
5
6
14
C13
C23
C33
=
=
=
6
4
2
4
2
6
0
1
=6
3
= 14
1
3
= 18
0
9
18 .
18
4. Let B denote the n p matrix whose ith column has the elements b1i , b2i , . . . , bni . The p systems of
n equations in n unknowns can be expressed as AX = B, where A is n n and X is n p. Following
the method illustrated in Example 2, exactly the same row operations that transform the n 2n matrix
(A : I) into (I : A1 ) will also transform the n (n + p) matrix (A : B) into (I : B ), where
B is the matrix with elements bij . (In fact, because these row operations are together equivalent to
premultiplication by A1 , it must be true that B = A1 B.) When k = r, the solution to the system is
.
x1 = b1r
, x2 = b2r
, . . . , xn = bnr
16.8
2. The determinant of the system is equal to 10, so the solution is unique. The determinants in (2) are here
b1
D1 =
b2
b
3
1
1
3
0
2
1
3
D2 =
1
2
b1
b2
b3
0
2
1
3
D3 =
1
2
1 b1
1 b2
3 b3
CHAPTER 16
77
Expanding each of these determinants by the column (b1 , b2 , b3 ), we nd that D1 = 5b1 + b2 + 2b3 ,
1
3
D2 = 5b1 3b2 6b3 , D3 = 5b1 7b2 4b3 . Hence, x1 = 21 b1 10
b2 15 b3 , x2 = 21 b1 + 10
b2 + 35 b3 ,
1
7
2
x3 = 2 b1 + 10 b2 + 5 b3 .
16.9
2. (a) No sector delivers to itself. (b) The total amount of good i needed to produce one unit of each good.
(c) This column vector gives the number of units of each good which are needed to produce one unit of
good j . (d) No meaningful economic interpretation. (The goods are usually measured in different units,
so it is meaningless to add them together.)
4. The Leontief system for this three-sector model is as follows:
0.9x1 0.2x2 0.1x3 = 85
0.3x1 + 0.8x2 0.2x3 = 95
0.2x1 0.2x2 + 0.9x3 = 20
which does have the claimed solution.
6. The quantity vector x0 must satisfy () (In A)x0 = b and the price vector p0 must satisfy ()
p0 (In A) = v . Multiplying () from the right by x0 yields v x0 = (p0 (In A))x0 = p0 ((In A)x0 ) =
p0 b.
Review Problems for Chapter 16
2. (a) 4 (b) 1. (Suggestion: Subtract row 1 from rows 2 and 3. Then subtract twice row 2 from row 3.
The resulting determinant has only one non-zero term in its third row.) (c) 1. (Suggestion: Use exactly
the same row operations as in (b).)
4. (a) |At | = t + 1, so At has an inverse iff t = 1.
(b) Multiplying the
given equation from the right by
0
0 1
A1 yields BA1 + X = I3 . Hence X = I3 BA1 = 0
0 1 .
2 1
0
2
4 t
6. The determinant of the coefcient matrix is
3
1
t
= 5t 2 45t + 40 = 5(t 1)(t 8).
t 2 7
4
So by Cramers rule, there is a unique solution iff t = 1 and t = 8.
8. (a) (In + aU)(In + bU) = In2
+ bU + aU
+ abU2 = In + (a + b + nab)U, because U2 = nU, as is easily
4 3 3
veried. (b) Note rst that 3 4 3 = I3 + 3U. Moreover, (a) implies that
3 3 4
4 3 3
(I3 + 3U)(I3 + bU) = I3 + (3 + 10b)U = I3 for b = 3/10. Thus the inverse of 3 4 3 is
3 3 4
7 3 3
1
I3 (3/10)U =
3
7 3 .
10
3 3
7
11 6
10. (a) |A| = 2. A2 2I2 =
= A, so A2 + cA = 2I2 if c = 1.
18 10
(b) If B2 = A, then |B|2 = |A| = 2, which is impossible.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
78
CHAPTER 16
12. (a) For a = 1 and a = 2, there is a unique solution. If a = 1, there is no solution. If a = 2, there are
innitely many solutions. (These are a special case of the results in (b).)
(b) Using Gaussian elimination (where we start by interchanging rows 1 and 3), we obtain the matrix
1
0
0
0
1
0
3
a2 + 6
a 2 + 3a 2
b3
b2 2b3
b1 b2 + (2 a)b3
2b 2a + 3
,
a(b 2)
y=
2a + b 9
,
b2
z=
2ab 2a 2b 3
,
a(b 2)
u=
7 2a
b2
CHAPTER 17
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
79
80
CHAPTER 17
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
must be zero. Then, of course, the primal can be solved from simultaneous equations. This is an important
technique for solving (and setting) examination questions! Next, it is shown that the KuhnTucker conditions
discussed in Chapter 14 can be applied to LP problems, and imply complementary slackness. This is important
in linking the results of Chapters 17 and 14. Finally, there is a brief discussion of what happens when some
constraints in the primal must hold with equality. Then the signs of the corresponding dual variables are no
longer constrained to be nonnegative.
17.1
2. (a) A graph shows that the solution is at the intersection of the lines 2x1 + 3x2 = 6 and x1 + x2 = 5.
Hence max = 98/5 for (x1 , x2 ) = (9/5, 16/5).
(b) The solution satises 2x1 + 3x2 = 13 and x1 + x2 = 6. Hence max = 49 for (x1 , x2 ) = (5, 1)
(c) The solution satises x1 3x2 = 0 and x2 = 2. Hence max = 10/3 for (x1 , x2 ) = (2, 2/3)
4. (a) No maximum exists. Consider Fig. M17.1.4. By increasing c, the dashed level curve x1 + x2 = c
moves to the north-east and so this function can take arbitrarily large values.
(b) Yes, the maximum is at P = (1, 0). The level curves are the same as in (a), but the direction of
increase is reversed.
x2
x1 + x2 = 1
4
x 1 + x2 = c
x1 + 3x2 = 3
3
2
1
1
x1
1
Figure M17.1.4
3x + 5y 3900
6. The LP problem is: max 700x + 1000y subject to
x 0, y 0
x + 3y 2100
2x + 2y 2200
A gure showing the admissible set and an appropriate level line for the criterion function will show that
the solution is at the point where the two lines 3x + 5y = 3900 and 2x + 2y = 2200 intersect. Solving
these equations yields x = 800 and y = 300. The rm should produce 800 sets of type A and 300 of
type B.
17.2
2. min 8u1 + 13u2 + 6u3 subject to
u1 + 2u2 + u3 8
2u1 + 3u2 + u3 9
u1 0, u2 0, u3 0
17.3
2. max 300x1 + 500x2 subject to
x1 0 , x2 0
The solution can be found graphically. It is x1 = 0, x2 = 320, and the value of the criterion function is
160 000, the same value found in Example 17.1.2 for the optimal value of the primal criterion function.
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
CHAPTER 17
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
81
17.5
2. (a) Figure M17.5.2 shows the relevant portion of the feasible set with the different constraints numbered,
as well as two dashed level curves for the criterion function Z = y1 + 2y2 . We see that the minimum is
attained at the point (y1 , y2 ) = (3, 2).
y2
(4)
10
(3)
5
y1 + 2y2 = Z0
(2)
(3, 2)
(1)
10
15
y1
Figure M17.5.2
x1 + x2 x3 + x4 1
, xj 0, j = 1, . . . , 4.
6x1 + x2 + x3 2x4 2
Because y1 and y2 are both positive, both constraints are satised with equality. Furthermore, the two last
constraints in the primal problem are satised with strict inequality at the optimum. Hence x3 = x4 = 0.
The system therefore reduces to the system x1 + x2 = 1, 6x1 + x2 = 2, so x1 = 1/5 and x2 = 4/5.
The maximum is thus at (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (1/5, 4/5, 0, 0).
(c) If the constraint is changed to y1 + 6y2 15.1, the solution to the primal is still at the intersection of
the lines (1) and (2) in Fig. M17.5.2, but with (1) shifted up slightly. The solution to the dual is completely
unchanged. The optimal values in both problems increase by (15.1 15) x1 = 0.02.
s.t.
x1 + 2x2 16
x1 2x2 6
2. (a) max x1 + x2 s.t.
x1 0, x2 0
2x
1 x2 8
4x1 5x2 15
The maximum value is 8 at (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 8).
(b) (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 ) = ( 21 (b + 1), 0, b, 0) for any b satisfying 0 b 1/5.
(c) The maximand for the dual becomes kx1 + x2 . The solution is unchanged provided that k 1/2.
82
TEST I ( Elementary Algebra)
A certain familiarity with elementary algebra is an essential prerequisite for reading the textbook (and for
understanding most modern economics texts). This test is designed for students and instructors to discover
whether the students have the proper background. (In a number of countries, many beginning economics
students background in elementary algebra appears to have become much weaker during the last few years.
In fact, lecturers using this test (or similar ones) have been shocked by the results, and have had to readjust
their courses.)
At the head of each problem, immediately after the number, the relevant sections of the introductory
chapters in the book are given in parentheses, followed in square brackets by the number of points for a
correct answer to each separate part of the problem. In a 2030 minute test, any student who scores less than
50 (out of 100) has serious problems with elementary algebra. Such students denitely need to review the
relevant section of Chapters 1 and 2, or consult other elementary material.
The correct answers are given on a separate page following the test.
219 217
219 + 217
(a) (x + 2y)2
(d)
(c) (a + b)(a b)
(1.2) [Points: 4] If the GNP of a certain country in 2000 was 8 billion dollars, write down an expression
for the GNP 6 years later if it increases by 5% each year.
(b) 9 z2
(c) p 3 q 4p 2 q 2 + 4pq 3
83
7
(1.4) [Points: (a) 2; (b) 2; (c) 2] Expand and simplify to a single fraction:
(a)
1 1
2 3
(b)
6a
a
3a
+
5
10 20
1 1
2 3
(c)
1 1
4 6
3
(a) 251/2 (b) (x 1/2 y 1/4 )4 (c) 27a 6 (d) p 1/5 (p 4/5 p 1/5 )
(2.1) [Points: (a) 2; (b) 2; (c) 2] Solve the following equations for the unknown x:
3
1
3
(a) x = 6
(b)
=
(c) 3 x = 2
5
x1
2x + 3
10
12
(b) x 2 2x 15 = 0
(c) 2P 2 = 2 3P
(2.4) [Points: (a) 3; (b) 4; (c) 4] Solve the following systems of equations:
3
3
+ =3
p q
1.5p 0.5q = 14
2x y = 5
(a)
(b)
(c)
3
1
x + 2y = 5
2.5p + 1.5q = 28
=7
p q
84
TEST II (Elementary Mathematics)
Students who now enter university or college courses in economics tend to have a wide range of mathematical backgrounds and aptitudes. At the low end, they may have no more than a shaky command of
elementary algebra. Or, at the high end, they may already have a ready facility with calculus, though
often it is some years since economics students took their last formal mathematics course. Experience
suggests therefore that right from the start of the course, it is very important that the instructor, as well
as each individual student, should get some impression of what the student knows well, what is vaguely
familiar, and what seems to be more or less forgotten or perhaps never learned at all.
The present test is meant to test the students actual knowledge in some elementary mathematical
topics of interest to economists. The level is nevertheless more advanced than for Test I and the topics
covered are discussed in the earlier chapters of the main text. The maximum total score is 100.
1
(c) 132 52 =
226 223
z
=
z =
226 + 223
9
y = x 2 + 2x + 4
(b) y = 2x 2 + 16x 14
(b) (x 4 + x) (x 2 1)
[Points: 3+3+3+3] Sketch the graph of a function f in each of the following cases:
(a) f (x) > 0 and f (x) > 0,
(b) f (x) > 0 and f (x) < 0
(c) f (x) < 0 and f (x) > 0,
(d) f (x) < 0 and f (x) < 0
Knut Sydster and Peter Hammond 2006
85
8
[Points: 3+3]
(a) The cost in dollars of extracting T tons of a mineral ore is given by C = f (T ). Give an economic
interpretation of the statement that f (1000) = 50.
(b) A consumer wants to buy a certain item at the lowest possible price. Let P (t) denote the lowest
price found after searching the market for t hours. What are the likely signs of P (t) and P (t)?
[Points: 2+2+2+2] Write down the general rules for differentiating the following:
(a) y = f (x) + g(x) y =
(b) y = f (x)g(x) y =
(c) y = f (x)/g(x) y =
(d) y = f (g(x)) y =
10
11
12 [Points: 2+2+2+2] In each of the following cases, decide whether the given formula is correct or not:
(a) x 2 dx = 13 x 3 + C
(b) [f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx
(c) f (x)g(x) dx = f (x) dx g(x) dx
b
(d) a x dx = b a
86
Answers to TEST I
7 3 72
73+2
75
=
=
= 754 = 71 = 7 (b) (5.5 3.5)3 = 23 = 8
4
4
4
7 7 7
2
217 (22 1)
2
8
219 217
3
2
=
=
(= 0.064) (d) 19
=
(c)
17
17
2
5
5
5
125
2 +2
2 (2 + 1)
5
1. (a)
4 2
2 2 = 25 (b) 11 % of 3500 is 3500 11/100 = 3500 0.11 = 385
2. (a) 4x
y = (2x y)
12)
=
25
=
5
(or
132 122 = 169 144, etc.)
2 = 13 12 = 1 is a SERIOUS mistake.)
(
132
122 = 132 12
3+ 2
( 3 + 2)( 3 + 2)
3+2 3 2+2
(d)
=5+2 6
=
=
32
3 2
( 3 2)( 3 + 2)
= =
(b) 20 is the common denominator, so
2 3
23 32
6 6
6
6a
4 6a
24a 2a + 3a
a
3a
2a
3a
25a
5a
=
+
=
=
=
5
10 20
20
20
20
20
20
4
1
1
6
4
2
2 3
12 12
12
1
1
1
1
= 1 = 2 (or 2 3 = 2( 4 6 ), so the ratio is 2).
(c) 1 1 = 3
2
4 6
12 12
12
3
3
1/2
1/2
1/4
8. (a) 25 = 5 (b) (x y
)4 = x (1/2)4 y (1/4)4 = x 2 y 1 (c) 27a 6 = 3 27 a 6 = 3a 2
(d) p 1/5 (p 4/5 p 1/5 ) = p1/5 p 4/5 p 1/5 p 1/5 = p1/5+4/5 p 1/51/5 = p 1
7. (a)
9. (a) 3x = 30, so x = 10
(b) 2x + 3 = 3(x 1), so x = 6. (Neither denominator is 0 when x = 6.)
(b) x = 3, x = 5
(c) P = 2 or P = 1/2
12. (a) x = 3, y = 1 (b) p = 10, q = 2 (c) Put x = 1/p, y = 1/q. Then 3x + 3y = 3 and
3x y = 7. The solution to this system is x = 2 and y = 1. But then p = 1/2 and q = 1.
87
Answers to TEST II
1. (a) 25 + 25 = 2 25 = 26 , so x = 6.
(b) 315 + 315 + 315 = 3 315 = 314 , so y = 14.
(b) (i) y = 2x 1
(ii) 2
3.
(ii) y = (b/a)x + b
y = x 2 + 2x + 4
y = x 2 + 2x + 4
5. (a)
y
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
(a)
y = f (x)
(b)
(c)
(d)
88
8. (a) The marginal cost is 50 when output is 1000 tons. (Or: The cost of extracting one ton more than
1000 tons is approximately 50 dollars.) (b) P (t) 0, because more search never leads to a higher
best price, and generally leads to a lower one. However, P (t) is likely to be positive, because the
longer you search the smaller gain in price you will obtain. (P (t) is decreasing and convex.)
9. (a) y = f (x) + g(x) y = f (x) + g (x)
(b) y = f (x)g(x) y = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)
f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x)
(c) y = f (x)/g(x) y =
(g(x))2
(d) y = f (g(x)) y = f (g(x))g (x)
x
1
y =
x+1
(x + 1)2
2
6
2
5
2
5
x
x
(d) y = (x + 5) y = 6(x + 5) 2x = 12x(x + 5) (e) y = e y = e
(f) y = ln x y = 1/x (g) y = 2x y = 2x ln 2 (h) y = x x y = x x (ln x + 1)
1 5
5x
y = x 4 (c) y =
11. (a) Correct. (b) Wrong. (Consider y = ex .) (c) Correct. (d) Wrong. (a could be an inection
point.) (e) Wrong. (The conditions are sufcient, but not necessary. For example, f (x) = x 4
has a maximum at x = 0 and yet f (0) = f (0) = 0.)
d
f (x) dx g(x) dx = f (x) g(x) dx +
12. (a) Correct.
(b) Correct. (c) Wrong, because dx
g(x) f (x) dx = f (x)g(x), except for very special functions f and g.
b
b
(d) Wrong, because a x dx =
a 21 x 2 = 21 (b2 a 2 ), which = b a only when a + b = 2.