An

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

On
Automation and Maintenance

At
JCB India, Ballabgarh
Final Semester Training
Submitted for the partial fulfillment for the award of
Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak
Session (2010-2014)
Submitted By:Pushpesh Sharma
10/EL078

Under the Guidance of

Training and Placement Head

(Mr. Prem Nandan Yadav)

(Mr. Rajeshwar Sahai)

Submitted to

(Wg. Cdr. Indrash Babbar)

B.S. ANANGPURIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT,

ALAMPUR, FARIDABAD

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Pushpesh Sharma of Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech Electronics and
Communication Engineering), has successfully completed Industrial Training in maintenance
department from JCB India, Ballabgarh for partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor
of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The Industrial Training report being
submitted by him is genuine work done by him and the same is being submitted for evaluation.

Signature

Company Executive with Seal

ii

PREFACE
Practical training in an industry is an essential part of an engineering curriculum towards making a
successful engineer, as in an industry only as student can realize the theory thought in classroom and
it also gives an exposure to modern technology. In the field of Electronics Computer engineering
there has been rapid development to support the ever increasing volume information, so Electronics
students has an opportunity during Training period to knowledge about the latest technologies. The
training period of 6/4 months is not much sufficient to take complete knowledge of technology used
but one is expected to identify components, the process flow in an industry for high efficiency and
about the knowledge of product technology. Practical knowledge means the visualization of the
knowledge, which we read in books. For this we perform experiments and get observations. Practical
knowledge is very important in every field. One must be familiar with the problems related to that
field so that we may solve them and became successful person. After achieving the proper goal of
life an Engineer has to enter in professional life. According to this life he has to serve an industry,
may be public or private sector or self-own. For the efficient work in the field he must be well aware
of practical knowledge as well as theoretical knowledge. To be a good Engineer, one must be aware
of the industrial environment & must know about management, working in industry, labor problems
etc., so we can tackle them successfully. Due to all the above reasons & to bridge the gap between
theory and practical, our engineering curriculum provides a practical training course of 6/4 months.
During this period a student in industry and gets all type of experience and knowledge about the
working and maintenance of various types of machinery.
Since time immemorial, a man has tried hard to bring the world as close to himself as possible. His
thirst for information is hard to quench so he has continuously tried to develop new technologies,
which have helped to reach the objective. The world we see today is a result of the continuous
research in the field of automation. All these technologies have come to existence because man
continued its endeavor towards the objective. This project report of mine on automation and
maintenance has been a small effort in reviewing the trends technologies prevailing. For this purpose,
no organization other than JCB India could have been a better choice. I have undergone 6 months of
training (in 8th semester) at JCB India, Ballabgarh. This report has been prepared on the basis of the
knowledge which I acquired during my 6/4 months (10-02-2014 to 10-06-2014) training at Company.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This training cannot be realized without help from numerous sources and people in the organization.
I take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude and respect to all those who helped
me throughout the duration of this training.
Without the bliss and euphoria of the accompany successful completion of any task would complete
without the expression of appreciation of simple gratitude to the people who made it possible. So,
with reverence and veneration honor, I acknowledge all those whos guidance and encouragement
has made this training successful.
This project report is the result of the dedication and encouragement of many individuals. My sincere
and heartfelt appreciation goes to all of them. Firstly I would like to thank my Director of our college
B.S.Anangpuria Institute of Technology and Management Mr. SS Tyagi and Head of our Department
Wg. Cdr. Indrash Babbar for giving us useful tips for our exposure to the corporate world. I would
also like to show my sincere gratitude to our training guide Mrs. Anju for giving us the useful
guidelines for making the report. I would also like to thank Mr. Prem Nandan Yadav, under whose
guidance I have successfully completed this report. I have endeavored to present this in most clear
and interesting way.
I express my heartfelt thanks and gratitude to JCB India for giving me an opportunity to undertake
this project and providing me with crucial feedback that influenced the development of this project.

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table No.

Title

Page No.

5.1

Preparatory commands (G-code)

26

5.2

Miscellaneous commands (M-code)

27

6.1

4-Bit gray and natural binary codes

34

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No.

Title

Page No.

3.1

A typical numerical control system for a milling machine

15

3.2

Right-hand coordinate system used in drill press and lathe

16

4.1

Cutter path between holes in a point-to-point system

17

4.2
4.3
4.4

4.5

(a) Continuous path cutting and (b) Position error caused by the
velocity error
Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling with
various paths
Types of interpolation (a) linear, (b) continuous path
approximated by incremental straight lines, and (c) circular
(a) Absolute versus incremental; in absolute positioning, the
move is specified by x = 6, y = 8; in incremental, the move is
specified by x=4, y=5 for the tool to be moved from (2, 3) to (6,
8) (b) Drilling 5-holes at different locations

18
18
19

19

4.6

Open loop control system

20

4.7

Closed loop control system

21

4.8

Optical Encoder (a) Device (b) Series of pulses emitted

22

4.9

Diagram showing the difference between accuracy and

repeatability

23

5.1

Direct Numerical Control (DNC) Machine

29

6.1

A rotary optical encoder

33

6.2

4-Bit binary code absolute encoder disk track patterns

34

6.3

Incremental encoder disk track patterns

35

6.4

Quadrature direction sensing and resolution enhancement.

(CW=clockwise, CCW=counter-clockwise)

36

7.1

PM sheet of Makino machine

45

8.1

Figure showing five-s

14

8.2

The PCDA cycle

56

vi

CONTENTS
Front Page

Certificate

II

Preface

III

Acknowledgement

IV

List of Tables

List of Figures

VI

Contents

VII

Chapter 1
1.1
Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION
About JCB

CNC MACHINE

2.1

Different components related to CNC machines

11

2.2

Application

14

Chapter 3

ELEMENTS OF A CNC

3.1

Part program

15

3.2

Machine Control Unit (MCU)

15

3.3

Machine tool

16

Chapter 4

PRINCIPLES OF CNC

4.1

Basic Length Unit (BLU)

17

4.2

Point-to-Point Systems

17

4.3

Continuous Path Systems

18

4.4

Interpolator

18

4.5

Incremental and Absolute systems

19

4.6

Open Loop Control Systems

20

4.7

Closed-loop Control Systems

21

4.8

Precision in CNC Machining

Chapter 5

4.8.1

Resolution

4.8.2

Accuracy

4.8.3

Repeatability

22

PART PROGRAMMING FOR CNC

5.1

Introduction

24

5.2

Machine Control Panel

28

5.3

Other Peripheral Devices

28

5.4

Direct Numerical Control (DNC)

29

5.5

Advantages and Disadvantages

30
vii

5.6

Chapter 6

Environmental Control for CNC Machines

32

Digital Encoders

6.1

Absolute encoder

33

6.2

Incremental encoder

35

Chapter 7

Theory of Maintenance

7.1

Total Productive Maintenance

37

7.2

Types of Maintenance

38

7.3

TPM History

40

7.4

OEE

42

7.5

Introduction of TPM in an organization

42

Chapter 8

Pillars of TPM

8.1

5S

44

8.2

JISHU HOZEN

46

8.3

KAIZEN

48

8.4

Planned Maintenance

50

8.5

Quality Maintenance

50

8.6

Training

52

8.7

Office TPM

52

8.8

Safety. Health and Environment

55

CONCLUSION

58

REFERENCES

59

viii

Chapter 1

JOSEPH CYRIL BAMFORD

FOUNDER 1916-2001
You know my motto from my
initials J.C. - Jamais Content that's
very, very much me. I am never
content.

THE JCB HERITAGE

What began in a garage of 12 feet by 15 feet back in 1945, today
manufactures over 300+ models of construction and agricultural
equipments on 4 different continents with bases in the UK, the
US, India, China and South America. JCB's world headquarters JCB IN INDIA
is one of the finest engineering factories in Europe and sells a full A subisdiary of J C Bamford
range of equipment in over 150 countries. A family run business Excavators Limited (JCB), JCB
founded by Joseph Cyril Bamford more than 65 years ago, is in

India, is the

known today for its unique products that exceed customers' construction

largest
equipment

expectations worldwide. Backed by an innovative and efficient manufacturer in India.

support system, JCB offers brilliant engineering solutions, superb
service with reliable back up and great ideas. They all combine
to create a guaranteed JCB worldwide performance standard.

JCB India is growing at an

enviable pace and surging ahead
with ambitious development and

Today JCB is one of the worlds largest construction equipment expansion plan.
manufacturers.
All this has been made possible through the launching of revolutionary products and adherence to
world-class JCB corporate identity norms. Today in India, JCB has machine park of over 1, 25,000
machine and one out of every two equipments sold in India is a JCB.JCB in India has 3 modern
manufacturing facilities in India:

JCB India headquarters- Ballabgarh, Haryana.

Fabrication -India Business Unit, Pune

Heavy line -India Business Unit, Pune

JCB in India has India's largest Parts & Technical Training Centre and India Design Centre also
Pune.Through these facilities, JCB offers a diverse range of unmatched Backhoe Loaders,
Wheeled Loaders, Excavators, Robot Skid Steer11Loaders, Compactors and Pick & Carry Crane.
The latest addition being JCB ecoMAX Engine.

JCB BACKHOE LOADER RANGE

JCB's advanced range of Backhoe Loaders include the 2DX, 3DX, 3DX-Xtra, 3DX Super and 4DX.
These are the machines that promise versatility and high performance with their fuel-efficient engines
and superb manoeuvrability. They epitomize strength and durability backed by powerful loader
performances and state-of-the art operator cabins.

JCB TRACKED EXCAVATOR RANGE

JCB India's finest Excavator range includes the JS81, JS 120 JS 140, JS200, JS200HD and JS210HD
all of which are suited to diverse weight requirements. Backed by powerful engines ranging from
76hp to 138hp, JCB excavators are suited to work on all terrains with powerful excavator ends and
smooth swing systems to enhance the performance on dual advantage of low fuel consumption and
high productivity.

JCB WHEEL LOADER RANGE

The options available for Wheeled Loaders are 3DXL, 430ZX and 432ZX. These powerful machines
are backed by engines ranging from 76hp to 150hp, promising superior performance with state-ofthe-art operator cabins and excellent loader options. These loaders are designed to economize on fuel
consumption and for higher productivity.

JCB TELEHANDLER RANGE

JCB Telescopic Handlers for material handling is symbol of power, performance and style. JCB
Telescopic handlers are specifically designed and tailored to operate with the high level of
productivity economically. It is a machine that features safety, reliability, operator's comfort, better
visibility and durability, making it a masterpiece that has captured the trust of customers world over.
Its versatile function facilitates various material handling applications and has high fuel economy
making it suitable machine for Indian Market.

JCB VIBROMAX-VIBRATORY COMPACTOR RANGE

The first vibratory soil compactor invented in Dusseldorf, Germany has come a long way since
1934.This machine became the first of a line of vibratory compaction rollers, plates and tampers
known around the world as JCB Vibromax. The name itself spells out its meaning- "Maximum
Vibration". The heavy equipment such as single drum compactors and vibratory tandem rollers has
been a success in the market, representing the majority of Vibromax sales while the light equipment
range is customized to offer its customers variety. Vibromax is a combination of high performance
and reliability with high operating economy and efficiency. Backed by best dealer network support
in the country, JCB Vibromax is set to create a benchmark and meet with success.

JCB LIFTALL- PICK 'n' CARRY CRANE

Yet another champion from the makers of India's most loved range of Backhoes-JCB Liftall. Liftall
offers an unmatched lifting capacity upto 12T. With a Load Movement of 22.8Tm and maximum
horizontal reach of 10.2 m, Liftall sets a new landmark. Thats not all. Kirloskar BSIII Diesel Engine
makes it a super-efficient machine as it offers excellent performance consuming the least fuel.

JCB ROBOT: SKID STEER RANGE

Robot Skid Steer Loader, 170 which come with a wide range of attachments to suit specific customer
needs. Easy to maintain and full service access at the ground level features the best manoeuvrability
options with high productivity and performance that spell convenience and reliability on wheels and
on tracks.

Hues of JCB in India

JCB India, with support of Lady Bamford Trust of UK, has been actively supporting the
economically weak people of the country. In the year 2000, the Trust adopted a Government school
at Jharssaintli, Haryana. Lady Bamford has taken personal interest in improving the condition of the
school and providing financial assistance as well as trained teachers. This noble gesture has increased
the number of students from 450 to 730 with remarkable decline in drop-outs.
JCB recently adopted 2 villages, Ladhiapur village in Haryana & Ambi village in Pune. The Trust
centers to the basic living requirements like drinking water, sanitation, primary health centers,
schools and source of livelihood.
JCB Joined global relief effort In India and Pakistan by donating 500,000 worth of machines to help
the rescue and clearing work after the disastrous earthquake wreaked havoc In the region In the year
2005. JCB has a history of making significant contribution to the quake relief expeditions, playing a
major role after Gujarat quake during 200l, and also in Izmit, Turkey in 1999 that claimed over
thousands of lives.

JCB helps in Leh rebuilding

JCB India had pledged two 3DX Backhoe Loaders and other supports to help in clean-up operation
following a devastating flood in Northern India, which claimed the lives of dozens of people.
Heavy rains led to flash floods and mudslides in the mountains of Leh .This is the North West of the
country. Besides the two Backhoe Loaders pledged to the Indian Ministry of Defence, JCB India also
donated 500 blankets to the disaster region and set up several free JCB Service Camps to ensure the
machines working on the Relief Camps were operational. The two Backhoes were used to repair The
Drukk School at Leh and to build new housing for victims of the disaster.

JCB Corporate Mission

Our mission is to grow our company by providing innovative, strong and high performance products
and solutions to meet our global customers needs.
We will support our world class products by providing superior customer care.
Our care extends to the environment and the community. We want to help build a better future for
our children, where hard work and dedication are given their just reward.

10

Chapter 2
CNC MACHINE

Different components related to CNC machine tools

Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:
1) Part program:
A part program is a series of coded instructions required to produce a part. It controls the
movement of the machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary functions such as spindle rotation
and coolant. The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.
2) Program input device:
The program input device is the means for part program to be entered into the CNC control. Three
commonly used program input devices are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and computer
via RS-232-C communication.
3) Machine Control Unit:
The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It is used to perform the following
functions:

To read the coded instructions.

To decode the coded instructions.

To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion

commands.

To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.

To receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.

To implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.
The CPU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the memory as part
program. This data is decoded and transformed into specific position control and velocity signals.
It also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle and whenever this does not match
with the programmed values, a corrective action was taken. All the compensation required for
machine acquires (like lead screw pitch error, tool wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU
depending upon the corresponding inputs made available to the system. The same will be taken
11

care of during the generation of control signals for the axis movement. Also, some basic safety
checks are built into the system through this unit and continuous necessary corrective actions will
be provided by CPU unit. Whenever the situation goes beyond control of the CPU, it takes the
final action of shutting down the system and in turn the machine.
4) Drive System:
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds
the control signals (position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals
are augmented to actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball leadscrews to position the
machine table.
The decoded position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU for the axis movement
forms the input to the servo control unit. This unit in turn generates suitable signals as command
values. The command values are converted by the servo drive units which are interfaced with
the axes and the spindle motors. The servo control unit receives the position feedback signals
for the actual movement of the machine tool axes from the feedback devices (like linear scales,
rotary encoders, revolvers, etc.)
5) Machine Tool:
CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools. Regardless of which type of
machine tool is controlled, it always has a slide table and a spindle to control of position and
speed. The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z
axis.
6) Feed Back System:
The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system. It uses position and speed
transducers to continuously monitor the position at which the cutting tool is located at any
particular instant. The MCU uses the difference between reference signals and feedback signals
to generate the control signals for correcting position and speed errors.
The present day computer can be considered as a direct consequence of the progress in the field
of numerical control of machine tools. A real breakthrough was achieved around 1965 when
numerical control machines were fitted with minicomputers which introduced the name
Computer Numerical Control. The first step in the process of implementing automation in any
industry is to manufacture parts or components through automation using machines and machine
tools with little human intervention. In order to meet the increasing demand to manufacture
complicated components of high accuracy in large quantities, sophisticated technological
equipment and machinery have been 24 CNC Machines developed. Production of these
12

components calls for machine tools which can be set up fairly rapidly without much attention.
The design and construction of Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) machines differs
greatly from that of conventional machine tools. This difference arises from the requirements of
higher performance levels. The CNC machines can be operated automatically using computers.
A CNC is specifically defined as The numerical control system where a dedicated, stored
program computer is used to perform some or all of the basic numerical control functions in
accordance with control programs stored in read & write memory of the computer by Electronic
Industries Association (EIA).

CNC is a microprocessor based control system that accepts a set of program instructions,
processes and sends output control information to a machine tool, accepts feedback information
acquired from a transducer placed on the machine tool and based on the instructions and feedback,
assures that proper motion, speed and operation occur. The information stored in the computer
can be read by automatic means and converted into electrical signals, which operate the
electrically controlled servo systems. Electrically controlled servo systems permits the slides of
a machine tool to be driven simultaneously and at the appropriate feeds and direction so that
complex shapes can be cut, often with a single operation and without the need to reorient the work
piece. Computer Numerically Control can be applied to milling machines, Lathe machines,
Grinding machines, Boring machines, Flame cutters, Drilling machines etc.
A CNC system basically consists of the following:

a) Central processing unit (CPU)

b) Servo control unit
c) Operator control panel
d) Machine control panel
e) Programmable logic controller
f) Other peripheral devices.
Some of the important parts of CNC machines are Machine structure, guide ways, feed drives,
spindle and Spindle bearings, measuring systems, controls, software and operator interface,
gauging, tool monitoring. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is one in which the functions and
motions of a machine tool are controlled by means of a prepared program containing coded
alphanumeric data. CNC can control the motions of the work piece or tool, the input parameters
such as feed, depth of cut, speed, and the functions such as turning spindle on/off, turning coolant
on/off.

13

Applications
The applications of CNC include both for machine tool as well as non-machine tool areas. In the
machine tool category, CNC is widely used for lathe, drill press, milling machine, grinding unit,
laser, sheet-metal press working machine, tube bending machine etc. Highly automated machine
tools such as turning centre and machining centre which change the cutting tools automatically
under CNC control have been developed. In the non-machine tool category, CNC applications
include welding machines (arc and resistance), coordinate measuring machine, electronic
assembly, tape laying and filament winding machines for composites etc.

Advantages and Limitations

The benefits of CNC are

1) High accuracy in manufacturing

2) Short production time
3) Greater manufacturing flexibility
4) Simpler fixturing
5) Contour machining (2 to 5 axis machining)
6) Reduced human error.
The drawbacks include high cost, maintenance, and the requirement of skilled part programmer.

14

Chapter 3
ELEMENTS OF A CNC
A CNC system consists of three basic components (Figure 2):

1. Part program
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool (lathe, drill press, milling machine etc.)
Part program
The part program is a detailed set of commands to be followed by the machine tool. Each
command specifies a position in the Cartesian coordinate system (x,y,z) or motion (work piece
travel or cutting tool travel), machining parameters and on/off function. Part programmers should
be well versed with machine tools, machining processes, effects of process variables, and
limitations of CNC controls. The part program is written manually or by using computer assisted
language such as APT (Automated Programming Tool).

Figure 3.1: A typical numerical control system for a milling machine

Machine Control Unit

The machine control unit (MCU) is a microcomputer that stores the program and executes the
commands into actions by the machine tool. The MCU consists of two main units: the data
processing unit (DPU) and the control loops unit (CLU). The DPU software includes control
15

system software, calculation algorithms, translation software that converts the part program into
a usable format for the MCU, interpolation algorithm to achieve smooth motion of the cutter,
editing of part program (in case of errors and changes). The DPU processes the data from the part
program and provides it to the CLU which operates the drives attached to the machine lead screws
and receives feedback signals on the actual position and velocity of each one of the axes. A driver
(dc motor) and a feedback device are attached to the lead screw. The CLU consists of the circuits
for position and velocity control loops, deceleration and backlash take up, function controls such
as spindle on/off.

Machine Tool
The machine tool could be one of the following: lathe, milling machine, laser, plasma, coordinate
measuring machine etc. Figure 3 shows that a right-hand coordinate system is used to describe
the motions of a machine tool. There are three linear axes (x,y,z), three rotational axes (i,j,k), and
other axes such as tilt (9) are possible. For example, a 5-axis machine implies any combination
of x,y,z,i,j,k and .

Figure 3.2: Right-hand coordinate system used in drill press and lathe

16

Chapter 4
PRINCIPLES OF CNC
Basic Length Unit (BLU)
Each BLU unit corresponds to the position resolution of the axis of motion. For example, 1 BLU
= 0.0001" means that the axis will move 0.0001" for every one electrical pulse received by the
motor. The BLU is also referred to as Bit (binary digit). Pulse = BLU = Bit

Point-to-Point Systems
Point-to-point systems are those that move the tool or the work piece from one point to another
and then the tool performs the required task. Upon completion, the tool (or work piece) moves
to the next position and the cycle is repeated (Figure 4). The simplest example for this type of
system is a drilling machine where the work piece moves. In this system, the feed rate and the
path of the cutting tool (or work piece) have no significance on the machining process. The
accuracy of positioning depends on the system's resolution in terms of BLU (basic length unit)
which is generally between 0 .001" and 0.0001.

Figure 4.1: Cutter path between holes in a point-to-point system

Continuous Path Systems (Straight cut and contouring systems)

These systems provide continuous path such that the tool can perform while the axes are moving,
enabling the system to generate angular surfaces, two-dimensional curves, or three-dimensional
contours. Example is a milling machine where such tasks are accomplished (Figure 5). Each axis
might move continuously at a different velocity. Velocity error is significant in affecting the
positions of the cutter (Figure 5). It is much more important in circular contour cutting where one

17

axis follows sine function while the other follows cosine function. Figure 6 illustrates point-topoint and continuous path for various machines.

Figure 4.2: (a) Continuous path cutting and (b) Position error caused by the velocity error

Figure 4.3: Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling with various paths.

Interpolator
The input speed of l in/sec in example 2 is converted into the velocity components by an
interpolator called the linear interpolator whose function is to provide the velocity signals to x
and y directions. Similarly we have circular and parabolic interpolators. See Figure 7.

18

Figure 4.4: Types of interpolation (a) linear, (b) continuous path approximated by incremental
straight lines, and (c) circular

Incremental and Absolute systems

CNC systems are further divided into incremental and absolute systems (Figure 8). In incremental
mode, the distance is measured from one point to the next. For example, if you want to drill five
holes at different locations, the x-position commands are x + 500, + 200, + 600, - 300, -700, -300.
An absolute system is one in which all the moving commands are referred from a reference point
(zero point or origin). For the above case, the x-position commands are x 500,700, 1300, 1000,
300, and 0. Both systems are incorporated in most CNC systems. For an inexperienced operator,
it is wise to use incremental mode.

Figure 4.5: (a) Absolute versus incremental; in absolute positioning, the move is specified by x = 6, y =
8; in incremental, the move is specified by x=4, y=5 for the tool to be moved from (2, 3) to (6, 8)
(b) Drilling 5-holes at different locations

19

The absolute system has two significant advantages over the incremental system:

Interruptions caused by, for example, tool breakage (or tool change, or checking the
parts), and would not affect the position at the interruption.

If a tool is to be replaced at some stage, the operator manually moves the table, exchanges the
tool, and has to return the table to the beginning of the segment in which the interruption has
occurred. In the absolute mode, the tool is automatically returned to the position. In incremental
mode, it is almost impossible to bring it precisely to that location unless you repeat the part
program

Easy change of dimensional data

The incremental mode has two advantages over the absolute mode.

Inspection of the program is easier because the sum of position commands for each axis
must be zero. A nonzero sum indicates an error. Such an inspection is impossible with
the absolute system.

Mirror image programming (for example, symmetrical geometry of the parts) is simple
by changing the signs of the position commands.

Open Loop Control Systems

The open-loop control means that there is no feedback and uses stepping motors for driving the
lead screw. A stepping motor is a device whose output shaft rotates through a fixed angle in
response to an input pulse (Figure 9). The accuracy of the system depends on the motor's ability
to step through the exact number. The frequency of the stepping motor depends on the load torque.
The higher the load torque, lower would be the frequency. Excessive load torque may occur in
motors due to the cutting forces in machine tools. Hence this system is more suitable for cases
where the tool force does not exist (Example: laser cutting).

Figure 4.6: Open loop control system

20

The stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses generated by the MCU. Each pulse
causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution. The fraction is expressed in terms of the
step angle, , given by
= 360/N, degrees where N = number of pulses required for one revolution
If the motor receives "n" number of pulses then the total angle,
A = n (360/N), degrees
In terms of the number of revolutions, it would be (n/N)
If there is a 1:1 gear ratio between the motor and the lead screw, then the lead screw has (n/N)
revolutions. If the pitch of lead screw is p (in/rev), then the distance travelled axially, say x,
x = p*(n/N)
can be used to achieve a specified x-increment in a point-to-point system.
The pulse frequency, f, in pulses/sec determines the travel speed of the tool or the work piece.
60 f = N (RPM) where N = number of pulses per revolution, RPM =
RPM of the lead screw
The travel speed, V, is then given by V = p (RPM) where p pitch in in/rev

Closed-loop Control Systems

Closed -loop NC systems are appropriate when there is a force resisting the movement of the
tool/work piece. Milling and turning are typical examples. In these systems (Figure 10) the DC
servomotors and feedback devices are used to ensure that the desired position is achieved. The
feedback sensor used is an optical encoder shown in Figure 11. The encoder consists of a light
source, a photo detector, and a disk containing a series of slots. The encoder is connected to the
lead screw. As the screw turns, the slots cause the light to be seen by the photo detector as a series
of flashes which are converted into an equivalent series of electrical pulses which are then used
to characterize the position and the speed. The equations remain essentially the same as openloop except that the angle between the slots in the disk is the step angle, .
Both the input to the control loop and the feedback signals are a sequence of pulses, each pulse
representing a BLU unit. The two sequences are correlated by a comparator and gives a signal,
by means of a digital-to-analog converter, (a signal representing the position error), to operate the
drive motor (DC servomotor).

21

Figure 4.7: Closed loop control system

Figure 4.8: Optical Encoder (a) Device (b) Series of pulses emitted

PRECISION IN CNC MACHINING

The combined characteristics of the machine tool and the control determine the precision of
positioning. Three critical measures of precision are:

Resolution

Accuracy

Repeatability

Control resolution (BLU) is the distance separating two adjacent points in the axis movement
(the smallest change in the position). The electromechanical components of the positioning
system that affect the resolution are the lead screw pitch, the gear ratio, and the step angle in the
stepping motor (open loop) or the angle between the slots in the encoder (closed-loop). The
control resolution for a 1:1 gear ratio of a stepped motor is,
Resolution = p/N where p = pitch, and N = 360/a
22

Features smaller than the control resolution could not be produced. The programming resolution
can not exceed the control resolution.

Accuracy of a CNC system depends on the resolution, the computer control algorithms, and the
machine inaccuracies. The inaccuracy due to the resolution is considered to be (1/2) BLU on the
average. The control algorithm inaccuracy is due to the rounding off the errors in the computer
which is insignificant. The machine inaccuracy could be due to several reasons (described below).
The designer minimizes this inaccuracy to be under (1/2) BLU and hence

Accuracy = (1/2) Resolution + Machining inaccuracy = BLU

Repeatability is a statistical term associated with accuracy. It refers to the capability of a

positioning system to return to a programmed point, and is measured in terms of the errors
associated with the programmed point. The deviation from the control point (error) usually
follows a normal distribution in which case the repeatability may be given as +/- 3a where a is
the standard deviation. The repeatability is always better than the accuracy. The mechanical
inaccuracy can be considered as the repeatability. Figure 12 shows the difference between the
accuracy and the repeatability.

Machining Inaccuracy
Cutting tool deflection, machine tool chatter, mechanical linkage between the lead screw and the
tool, and thermal deformations are the chief contributing factors. The lead screw transmits the
power to the table or tool holder by means of a nut that engages the lead screw. This will create
what is known as "backlash due to the friction between the screw and the nut. If the nut consists
of ball bearings, the friction is reduced. Thermal deformations are significant. For example, a
temperature difference of 1 C along 1000 mm can cause an error of 0.01 mm.

Figure 4.9: Diagram showing the difference between accuracy and repeatability

23

Chapter 5
PART PROGRAMMING FOR CNC
The transfer of an engineering blueprint of a product to a part program can be performed manually
using a calculator or with the assistance of a computer language. A part programmer must have
an extensive knowledge of the machining processes and the capabilities of the machine tools. In
this section, we describe how the part programmers execute manually the part programs.
First, the machining parameters are determined. Second, the optimal sequence of operations is
evaluated. Third, the tool path is calculated. Fourth, a program is written. Each line of the
program, referred to as a block, contains the required data for transfer from one point to the next.
A typical line for a program is given below. N100 G91
X -5.0 Y7 .0 F100 S200 T01 M03 (EOB) The
significance of each term is explained below.

Sequence Number, N
Consisting of typically three digits, its purpose is to identify the specific machining operation
through the block number particularly when testing a part program.

Preparatory Function, G
It prepares the MCU circuits to perform a specific operation. The G-codes (some) are shown in
Table 1. G91 implies incremental mode of operation.

Dimension Words

1. Distance dimension words, X,Y,Z

2. Circular dimension words, I,J,K for distances to the arc centre
3. Angular dimensions, A,B.C
While (1) and (3) are expressed either by incremental or absolute mode, (2) is always in given in
incremental mode. All angular dimensions are specified in revolutions or degrees. In the above
block, X moves a distance of 5 in. in the negative direction while Y moves a distance of 7 in. in
the positive direction. Other axes remain stationary. In some systems, actual distances are used.
In others, the dimension words are programmed in BLUs.

24

Feed rate, F
It is expressed in in/min or mm/min and, is used in contouring or point-to-point or straight cut
systems. For example, a feed rate of F100 implies 100 in/min or 100 mm/min. Feed rates are
independent of spindle speed.
In linear motions, the feed rate of the cutting tool is not corrected for the cutter radius. But in
circular motions, the feed rate should be corrected for the tool radius as follows:
F = [(part contour radius tool radius)/part contour radius] (required feed rate)
For cutting around the outside of a circle, the plus sign in the above equation is used, and the feed
rate is increased. For cutting around the inside of a circle, the minus sign is used, and the feed
rate is decreased.

Spindle speed, S
Programmed in rev/min, it is expressed as RPM or by a three-digit code number that is related to
the RPM.

Tool word, T
Consisting of a maximum of five digits, each cutting tool has a different code number. The tool
is automatically selected by the automatic tool changer when the code number is programmed in
a block.

Miscellaneous Function, M
Consisting of two digits, this word relates to the movement of the machine in terms of spindle
on/off, coolant on/off etc. shown in Table 2.

EOB
The EOB character is used at the end of each block to complete a line.

25

Preparatory commands (G-code)

G00

Point-to-point positioning

G01

Linear interpolation

G02

Clockwise circular interpolation

G03

Counter-clockwise circular interpolation

G04

Dwell

G05

Hold

G33

Thread cutting, constant lead

G40

Cancel tool nose radius compensation

G41

Tool nose radius compensation - left

G42

Tool nose radius compensation - right

G43

Cutter length compensation

G44

Cancel cutter length compensation

G70

Dimensions in inches

G71

Metric dimensions

G90

Absolute dimensions

G91

Incremental dimensions

G92

Datum offset
Table 5.1: Preparatory commands (G-code)

26

Miscellaneous commands (M-code)

M00

Program stop

M01

Optional stop

M02

End of program

M03

Spindle start clockwise

M04

Spindle start counter-clockwise

M05

Spindle stop

M06

Tool change

M07

Mist coolant on

M08

Flood coolant on

M09

Coolant off

M10

Clamp

M11

Unclamp

M13

Spindle clockwise, coolant on

M14

Spindle counter-clockwise, coolant on

M30

End of tape, rewind

Table 5.2: Miscellaneous commands (M-code)

27

Operator Control Panel

The Operator Control Panel provides control panel provides the user interface to facilitate a two
way communication between the user, CNC system and the machine tool. This consists of two
parts are Video display unit and Keyboard.

Machine Control Panel

It is the direct interface between the operator and the NC system, enabling the operation of the
machine through the CNC system. During program execution, the CNC controls the axis the motion,
spindle function or tool function on a machine tool, depending upon the part program stored in the
memory. Prior to the starting of the machining process, machine should first be prepared with some
specific takes like, establishing a correct reference point, loading the system memory with the
required part program, loading and checking of tool offsets, zero offsets, etc. Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC)
A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically as replacement for hard wired relay
control panels. They were basically introduced as replacement for hard wired relay panels. They
developed to be re-programmed without hardware changes when requirements were altered and
thus are re-usable. PLCs are now available with increased functions, more memory and larger
input/output capabilities. In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine
or a process. The CPU receives input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs
and drives the output connection to a computer for hierarchical control are done through CPU.

Other Peripheral Devices

These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment, programming units,
printer, tape reader interface, etc.

CNC Concept
A CNC system may be characterized in terms of three major elements: hardware, software and
information.

Hardware
Hardware includes the microprocessors that effect control system functions and peripheral
devices for data communication, machine tool interfacing and machine tool status monitoring.

Software
28

Software includes the programs that are executed by the system microprocessors and various
types of software associated with CNC.

Information
Information regarding the dynamic characteristics of the machine and many other information
pertaining to the process.
When any of these unreliable components fails, the diagnostics subsystem would automatically
disconnect the faulty component from the system and activate the redundant component in place
of faulty one so that newly installed component can perform its function.

DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL (DNC) MACHINES

Direct Numerical Control can be defined as a type of manufacturing system in which several NC
or CNC machines are controlled remotely from a Host/Main frame computer or direct numerical
control (DNC) control of multiple machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer through
direct connection.

Figure 5.1: Direct Numerical Control (DNC) Machine

A DNC is specifically defined as A system connecting a set of numerically controlled machines

to a common memory for part program or machine program storage with provision for on-demand
29

distribution of data to machines by Electronic Industries Association (EIA). In DNC, several NC

machines are directly controlled by a computer, eliminating substantial hardware from the
individual controller of each machine tool. The part-program is downloaded to the machines
directly (thus omitting the tape reader) from the computer memory. The basic DNC system
requires following basic component are Main frame computer, Memory, Communication
network, NC machine tool. The communication network can be done either through connecting
the remotely located computer, with lengthy cables to the individual machine control directly or
connecting the main frame computer with a small computer at individual operators station known
as satellite computer. DNC system is expensive and is preferably used in large organizations. The
combination of DNC/CNC makes possible to eliminate the use of programme as the input media
for CNC machines. The DNC computer downloads the program directly to the CNC computer
memory. This reduces the amount of communication required between the central computer and
each machine tool.

Advantages of DNC
a) The computer can be remotely located, even a thousand miles away.
b) The computer can program simultaneously many NC machines.
ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES
a) High Repeatability and Precision, e.g. Aircraft parts.
b) Volume of production is very high.
c) Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined, e.g. Turbines.
d) Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.
e) Safer, higher productivity, better quality.
f) Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times.
g) Easier to program.
h) Easy storage of existing programs.
i) Avoids human errors.
j) Usually generates closer tolerances than manual machines.
k) Program editing at the machine tool.
l) Control systems upgrades possible.
m) Option -resident CAM system at machine tool.
n) Tool path verification.

30

DISADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

a)
b)
c)
d)

Costly setup, skilled operators.

Computers, programming knowledge required.
Maintenance is difficult.
Machines have to be installed in air conditioned places.

PARTS SUITABLE FOR CNC MACHINES

The following parts are usually made in practice on the CNC Machines:

a) Aerospace equipment.
b) Automobile Parts.
c) Complex shapes.
d) Electronic industry uses CNC e.g. Printed circuit board.
e) Electrical industry uses CNC e.g. Coil winding.
f) For small to medium batch quantity.
g) Where the set-ups are very large.
h) Where the tool storage is a problem.
i) Where much metal needs to be removed.
j) When the part geometry is so complex.
k) The operations are very complex.
l) For parts subjected to regularly design changes.
m) When the inspection is required 100%.
n) When lead time does not permit the conventional tooling manufacture.
o) When the machining time is very less as compared to down.
p) Where tool storage is a problem.
q) Where repetitive operations are required on the work.

31

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR CNC MACHINES

There are various factors, which are very much important to maintain proper environmental
conditions. CNC machines are very costly and complex in design, so great care is necessary for
these machines in handling as well as up keeping. For proper working of these machines, the
following environmental conditions are to be maintained Well air circulation.

a) Working temperature should be within control limits.

b) Space should not be congested but should be quite open.
c) Electrical power supply should be regulated.
d) There should be proper disposal point for scrap.
e) There should not be presence of noisy source near to the machine.
f) There should not be presence of harmful chemicals near to the machine.
g) Proper lighting to the system.
h) The machine should be protected from the moisture.
i) There should not be presence of vibrating source near to the machine.
j) Power supply should be regulated.
k) Floor should be cleaned free from oily and greased.
l) Trained person should operate the machine.
m) Dust free floor space and environment.
n) Sufficient supply of coolant required during machining.

32

Chapter 6
Digital Encoders
A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses. By
counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute
position measurements. Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most
common type is rotary. Rotary encoders are manufactured in two basic forms: the absolute
encoder where a unique digital word corresponds to each rotational position of the shaft, and the
incremental encoder, which produces digital pulses as the shaft rotates, allowing measurement of
relative position of shaft. Most rotary encoders are composed of a glass or plastic code disk with
a photographically deposited radial pattern organized in tracks. As radial lines in each track
interrupt the beam between a photo emitter-detector pair, digital pulses are produced.

Figure 6.1: A rotary optical encoder

Absolute encoder
The optical disk of the absolute encoder is designed to produce a digital word that distinguishes
N distinct positions of the shaft. For example, if there are 8 tracks, the encoder is capable of
producing 256 distinct positions or an angular resolution of 1.406 (360/256) degrees. The most
common types of numerical encoding used in the absolute encoder are gray and binary codes. To
illustrate the action of an absolute encoder, the gray code and natural binary code disk track
patterns for a simple 4-track (4-bit) encoder are illustrated in Fig 2 and 3. The linear patterns and
associated timing diagrams are what the photo detectors sense as the code disk circular tracks
rotate with the shaft. The output bit codes for both coding schemes are listed in Table 1.

33

Figure 6.2: 4-Bit binary code absolute encoder disk track patterns

Decimal code

Rotation range (deg.)

0-22.5

22.5-45

45-67.5

10

11

67.5-90

11

10

90-112.5

100

110

112.5-135

101

111

135-157.5

110

101

15.75-180

111

100

180-202.5

1000

1100

202.5-225

1001

1101

10

225-247.5

1010

1111

11

247.5-270

1011

1110

12

270-292.5

1100

1010

13

292.5-315

1101

1011

14

315-337.5

1110

1001

337.5-360

1111

1000

15

Binary code Gray code

Table 6.1: 4-Bit gray and natural binary codes

34

The gray code is designed so that only one track (one bit) will change state for each count
transition, unlike the binary code where multiple tracks (bits) change at certain count transitions.
This effect can be seen clearly in Table 1. For the gray code, the uncertainty during a transition
is only one count, unlike with the binary code, where the uncertainty could be multiple counts.
Since the gray code provides data with the least uncertainty but the natural binary code is the
preferred choice for direct interface to computers and other digital devices, a circuit to convert
from gray to binary code is desirable. Figure 4 shows a simple circuit that utilizes exclusive OR
gates (XOR) to perform this function.For a gray code to binary code conversion of any number
of bits N, the most signficant bits (MSB) of the binary and gray code are always identical, and
for each other bit, the binary bit is the exlcusive OR (XOR) combination of adjacent gray code
bits.

Incremental encoder
The incremental encoder, sometimes called a relative encoder, is simpler in design than the
absolute encoder. It consists of two tracks and two sensors whose outputs are called channels A
and B. As the shaft rotates, pulse trains occur on these channels at a frequency proportional to the
shaft speed, and the phase relationship between the signals yields the direction of rotation. The
code disk pattern and output signals A and B are illustrated in Figure 5. By counting the number
of pulses and knowing the resolution of the disk, the angular motion can be measured. The A and
B channels are used to determine the direction of rotation by assessing which channels "leads"
the other. The signals from the two channels are a 1/4 cycle out of phase with each other and are
known as quadrature signals. Often a third output channel, called INDEX, yields one pulse per
revolution, which is useful in counting full revolutions. It is also useful as a reference to define a
home base or zero position.

Figure 6.3: Incremental encoder disk track patterns

35

Figure 14 illustrates two separate tracks for the A and B channels, but a more common
configuration uses a single track with the A and B sensors offset a 1/4 cycle on the track to yield
the same signal pattern. A single-track code disk is simpler and cheaper to manufacture.
The quadrature signals A and B can be decoded to yield the direction of rotation as shown in
Figure 6. Decoding transitions of A and B by using sequential logic circuits in different ways can
provide three different resolutions of the output pulses: 1X, 2X, 4X. 1X resolution only provides
a single pulse for each cycle in one of the signals A or B, 4X resolution provides a pulse at every
edge transition in the two signals A and B providing four times the 1X resolution. The direction
of rotation (clockwise or counter-clockwise) is determined by the level of one signal during an
edge transition of the second signal. For example, in the 1X mode, A= with B =1 implies a
clockwise pulse, and B= with A=1 implies a counter-clockwise pulse. If we only had a single
output channel A or B, it would be impossible to determine the direction of rotation. Furthermore,
shaft jitter around an edge transition in the single signal would result in erroneous pulses.

Figure 6.4: Quadrature direction sensing and resolution enhancement. (CW=clockwise,

CCW=counter-clockwise)

36

Chapter 7
Theory of Maintenance
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
It can be considered as the medical science of machines. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is
a maintenance program which involves a newly defined concept for maintaining plants and
equipment. The goal of the TPM program is to markedly increase production while, at the same time,
increasing employee morale and job satisfaction.
TPM brings maintenance into focus as a necessary and vitally important part of the business. It is no
longer regarded as a non-profit activity. Down time for maintenance is scheduled as a part of the
manufacturing day and, in some cases, as an integral part of the manufacturing process. The goal is
to hold emergency and unscheduled maintenance to a minimum.

Why TPM?
TPM was introduced to achieve the following objectives. The important ones are listed below:

Avoid wastage in a quickly changing economic environment.

Producing goods without reducing product quality.

Reduce cost.

Produce a low batch quantity at the earliest possible time.

Goods send to the customers must be non-defective.

Similarities and differences between TQM and TPM:

The TPM program closely resembles the popular Total Quality Management (TQM) program. Many
of the tools such as employee empowerment, benchmarking, documentation, etc. used in TQM are
used to implement and optimize TPM. Following are the similarities between the two:

Total commitment to the program by upper level management is required in both

programmers.

Employees must be empowered to initiate corrective action, and

A long range outlook must be accepted as TPM may take a year or more to implement and
is an on-going process. Changes in employee mind-set toward their job responsibilities must
take place as well.
37

The differences between TQM and TPM is summarized below:

Category TQM TPM Object Quality (Output and effects) Equipment (Input and cause)
Mains of attaining goal systematize the management. It is software oriented Employees
participation and it is hardware oriented Target Quality for PPME limitation of losses and
wastes.

Types of maintenance:
1. Breakdown maintenance:
It means that people waits until equipment fails and repair it. Such a thing could be used when
the equipment failure does not significantly affect the operation or production or generate any
significant loss other than repair cost.
2. Preventive maintenance (1951):
It is a daily maintenance (cleaning, inspection, oiling and re-tightening), design to retain the healthy
condition of equipment and prevent failure through the prevention of deterioration, periodic
inspection or equipment condition diagnosis, to measure deterioration. It is further divided into
periodic maintenance and predictive maintenance. Just like human life is extended by preventive
medicine, the equipment service life can be prolonged by doing preventive maintenance.
a. Periodic maintenance (Time based maintenance - TBM):
Time based maintenance consists of periodically inspecting, servicing and cleaning equipment and
replacing parts to prevent sudden failure and process problems.
b. Predictive maintenance:
This is a method in which the service life of important part is predicted based on inspection or
diagnosis, in order to use the parts to the limit of their service life. Compared to periodic maintenance,
predictive maintenance is condition based maintenance. It manages trend values, by measuring and
analyzing data about deterioration and employs a surveillance system, designed to monitor conditions
through an on-line system.

38

Figure 7.1: PM sheet of Makino machine

39

3. Corrective maintenance (1957):

It improves equipment and its components so that preventive maintenance can be carried out reliably.
Equipment with design weakness must be redesigned to improve reliability or improving
maintainability
4. Maintenance prevention (1960):
It indicates the design of a new equipment. Weakness of current machines are sufficiently studied
(on site information leading to failure prevention, easier maintenance and prevents of defects, safety
and ease of manufacturing) and are incorporated before commissioning a new equipment.

TPM - History:
TPM is an innovative Japanese concept. The origin of TPM can be traced back to 1951 when
preventive maintenance was introduced in Japan. However the concept of preventive maintenance
was taken from USA. Nippondenso was the first company to introduce plant wide preventive
maintenance in 1960. Preventive maintenance is the concept wherein, operators produced goods
using machines and the maintenance group was dedicated with work of maintaining those machines,
however with the automation of Nippondenso, maintenance became a problem as more maintenance
personnel were required. So the management decided that the routine maintenance of equipment
would be carried out by the operators. (This is Autonomous maintenance, one of the features of
TPM). Maintenance group took up only essential maintenance works.
Thus Nippondenso which already followed preventive maintenance also added Autonomous
maintenance done by production operators. The maintenance crew went in the equipment
modification for improving reliability. The modifications were made or incorporated in new
equipment. This lead to maintenance prevention. Thus preventive maintenance along
with Maintenance prevention and Maintainability Improvement gave birth to Productive
maintenance. The aim of productive maintenance was to maximize plant and equipment
effectiveness to achieve optimum life cycle cost of production equipment.
By then Nippon Denso had made quality circles, involving the employees participation. Thus all
employees took part in implementing Productive maintenance. Based on these developments
Nippondenso was awarded the distinguished plant prize for developing and implementing TPM, by
the Japanese Institute of Plant Engineers (JIPE). Thus Nippondenso of the Toyota group became the
first company to obtain the TPM certification.

TPM Targets:
I.

Obtain Minimum 80% OPE.

40

II.

Obtain Minimum 90% OEE (Overall Equipment Effectiveness)

III.

Run the machines even during lunch. (Lunch is for operators and not for machines!)

IV.

Operate in a manner, so that there are no customer complaints.

V.
VI.

Reduce the manufacturing cost by 30%.

Achieve 100% success in delivering the goods as required by the customer.

VII.

Maintain an accident free environment.

VIII.

Increase the suggestions by 3 times. Develop Multi-skilled and flexible workers.

Motives of TPM

Adoption of life cycle approach for improving the overall performance of production
equipment.

Improving productivity by highly motivated workers which is achieved by job enlargement.

The use of voluntary small group activities for identifying the cause of failure, possible plant
and equipment modifications.

Uniqueness of TPM

The major difference between TPM and other concepts is that the operators are also made to
involve in the maintenance process. The concept of "I (Production operators) Operate, You
(Maintenance department) fix" is not followed. TPM Objectives Achieve Zero Defects, Zero
Breakdown and Zero accidents in all functional areas of the organization.

Involve people in all levels of organization.

Form different teams to reduce defects and Self Maintenance.

Direct benefits of TPM

Increase productivity and OPE (Overall Plant Efficiency) by 1.5 or 2 times.

Rectify customer complaints.

Reduce the manufacturing cost by 30%.

Satisfy the customers needs by 100 % (Delivering the right quantity at the right time, in the
required quality).

Reduce accidents.

Follow pollution control measures.

Indirect benefits of TPM

Higher confidence level among the employees.

Keep the work place clean, neat and attractive.

Favorable change in the attitude of the operators.

41

Achieve goals by working as team.

Horizontal deployment of a new concept in all areas of the organization.

Share knowledge and experience.

The workers get a feeling of owning the machine.

OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency)

OEE can be defined by the equation given below:
OEE = A x PE x Q
Where,
A - Availability of the machine. Availability is proportion of time machine is actually available out
of time it should be available.
A = (MTBF - MTTR) / MTBF.
MTBF - Mean Time between Failures = (Total Running Time) / Number of Failures.
MTTR - Mean Time to Repair.
PE - Performance Efficiency. It is given by RE X SE.
Rate efficiency (RE): Actual average cycle time is slower than design cycle time because of jams,
etc. Output is reduced because of jams
Speed efficiency (SE): Actual cycle time is slower than design cycle time machine output is reduced
because it is running at reduced speed.
Q - Refers to quality rate. Which is percentage of good parts out of total produced sometimes called
"yield".

Steps in introduction of TPM in an organization:

A. Step - PREPARATORY STAGE
1. Announcement by Management to all about TPM introduction in the organization:
Proper understanding, commitment and active involvement of the top management in needed for this
step. Senior management should have awareness programmes, after which announcement is made to
all. Publish it in the house magazine and put it in the notice board. Send a letter to all concerned
individuals if required.

42

2. Initial education and propaganda for TPM:

Training is to be done based on the need. Some need intensive training and some just an awareness.
Take people who matters to places where TPM already successfully implemented.
3. Setting up TPM and departmental committees:
TPM includes improvement, autonomous maintenance, quality maintenance etc., as part of it. When
committees are set up it should take care of all those needs.
4. Establishing the TPM working system and target:
Now each area is benchmarked and fix up a target for achievement.
5. A master plan for institutionalizing:
Next step is implementation leading to institutionalizing wherein TPM becomes an organizational
culture. Achieving PM award is the proof of reaching a satisfactory level.
B. STEP - INTRODUCTION STAGE
This is a ceremony and we should invite all. Suppliers as they should know that we want quality
supply from them. Related companies and affiliated companies who can be our customers, sisters
concerns etc. Some may learn from us and some can help us and customers will get the
communication from us that we care for quality output.
C. STAGE - IMPLEMENTATION
In this stage eight activities are carried which are called eight pillars in the development of TPM
activity.
Of these four activities are for establishing the system for production efficiency, one for initial control
system of new products and equipment, one for improving the efficiency of administration and are
for control of safety, sanitation as working environment.
D. STAGE - INSTITUTIONALISING STAGE
By all their activities one would has reached maturity stage. Now is the time for applying for PM
award. Also think of challenging level to which you can take this movement.
Organization Structure for TPM Implementation:

43

Chapter 8
Pillars of TPM
1. PILLAR - 5S:
TPM starts with 5S. Problems cannot be clearly seen when the work place is unorganized. Cleaning
and organizing the workplace helps the team to uncover problems. Making problems visible is the
first step of improvement.
Japanese Term

English Translation Equivalent 'S' term

Seiri

Organisation Sort

Seiton

Tidiness Systematise

Seiso

Cleaning Sweep

Seiketsu

Standardisation Standardise

Shitsuke

Discipline Self Discipline

SEIRI - Sort out:

This means sorting and organizing the items as critical, important, frequently used items, useless, or
items that are not need as of now. Unwanted items can be salvaged. Critical items should be kept for
use nearby and items that are not be used in near future, should be stored in some place. For this step,
the worth of the item should be decided based on utility and not cost. As a result of this step, the
search time is reduced.
Priority Frequency of Use How to use Low Less than once per year, Once per year<Throw away,
Store away from the workplace Average At least 2/6 months, Once per month, Once per week

44

Store together but offline High Once Per Day Locate at the workplace.

Figure 8.1: Figure showing five-s

SEITON - Organise:
The concept here is that "Each items has a place, and only one place". The items should be placed
back after usage at the same place. To identify items easily, name plates and coloured tags has to be
used. Vertical racks can be used for this purpose, and heavy items occupy the bottom position in the
racks.
SEISO - Shine the workplace:
This involves cleaning the work place free of burrs, grease, oil, waste, scrap etc. No loosely hanging
wires or oil leakage from machines.
SEIKETSU - Standardization:
Employees has to discuss together and decide on standards for keeping the work place / Machines /
pathways neat and clean. This standards are implemented for whole organization and are tested /
inspected randomly.
SHITSUKE - Self-discipline:

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Considering 5S as a way of life and bring about self-discipline among the employees of the
organization. This includes wearing badges, following work procedures, punctuality, dedication to
the organization etc.

2. PILLAR - JISHU HOZEN (Autonomous maintenance):

This pillar is geared towards developing operators to be able to take care of small maintenance tasks,
thus freeing up the skilled maintenance people to spend time on more value added activity and
technical repairs. The operators are responsible for upkeep of their equipment to prevent it from
deteriorating policy:

Uninterrupted operation of equipment.

Flexible operators to operate and maintain other equipment.

Eliminating the defects at source through active employee participation.

Stepwise implementation of JH activities.

JISHU HOZEN Targets:

Prevent the occurrence of 1A / 1B because of JH.

Reduce oil consumption by 50%

Reduce process time by 50%

Increase use of JH by 50%

Steps in JISHU HOZEN:

Preparation of employees.

Initial clean-up of machines.

Take counter measures

Fix tentative JH standards

General inspection

Autonomous inspection

Standardization and

Autonomous management.

Each of the above mentioned steps is discussed in detail below.

Train the Employees:

Educate the employees about TPM, Its advantages, JH advantages and Steps in JH. Educate the
employees about abnormalities in equipment.

Initial clean-up of machines:

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Supervisor and technician should discuss and set a date for implementing step1. Arrange all items
needed for cleaning. On the arranged date, employees should clean the equipment completely with
the help of maintenance department. Dust, stains, oils and grease has to be removed.
Following are the things that has to be taken care while cleaning. They are Oil leakage, loose wires,
unfastened nits and bolts and worn out parts.
After clean up problems are categorized and suitably tagged. White tags is place where problems can
be solved by operators. Pink tag is placed where the aid of maintenance department is needed.
Contents of tag is transferred to a register. Make note of area which were inaccessible. Finally close
the open parts of the machine and run the machine.

Counter Measures :

Inaccessible regions had to be reached easily. E.g. If there are many screw to open a fly wheel door,
hinge door can be used. Instead of opening a door for inspecting the machine, acrylic sheets can be
used. To prevent work out of machine parts necessary action must be taken. Machine parts should
be modified to prevent accumulation of dirt and dust.

Tentative Standard :

JH schedule has to be made and followed strictly. Schedule should be made regarding cleaning,
inspection and lubrication and it also should include details like when, what and how.

General Inspection :

The employees are trained in disciplines like Pneumatics, electrical, hydraulics, lubricant and
coolant, drives, bolts, nuts and Safety. This is necessary to improve the technical skills of employees
and to use inspection manuals correctly. After acquiring this new knowledge the employees should
share this with others. By acquiring this new technical knowledge, the operators are now well aware
of machine parts.

Autonomous Inspection :

New methods of cleaning and lubricating are used. Each employee prepares his own autonomous
chart / schedule in consultation with supervisor. Parts which have never given any problem or part
which don't need any inspection are removed from list permanently based on experience. Including
good quality machine parts. This avoid defects due to poor JH. Inspection that is made in preventive
maintenance is included in JH. The frequency of clean-up and inspection is reduced based on
experience.

Standardization:

Up to the previous stem only the machinery / equipment was the concentration. However in this step
the surroundings of machinery are organized. Necessary items should be organized, such that there
is no searching and searching time is reduced. Work environment is modified such that there is no
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difficulty in getting any item. Everybody should follow the work instructions strictly. Necessary
spares for equipment is planned and procured.

Autonomous Management:

OEE and OPE and other TPM targets must be achieved by continuous improve through Kaizen.
PDCA (Plan, Do, Check and Act) cycle must be implemented for Kaizen.

3. PILLAR - KAIZEN:
"Kai" means change, and "Zen" means good (for the better). Basically kaizen is for small
improvements, but carried out on a continual basis and involve all people in the organization. Kaizen
is opposite to big spectacular innovations. Kaizen requires no or little investment. The principle
behind is that "a very large number of small improvements are more effective in an organizational
environment than a few improvements of large value. This pillar is aimed at reducing losses in the
workplace that affect our efficiencies. By using a detailed and thorough procedure we eliminate
losses in a systematic method using various Kaizen tools. These activities are not limited to
production areas and can be implemented in administrative areas as well.
Kaizen Policy:
Practice concepts of zero losses in every sphere of activity. Relentless pursuit to achieve cost
reduction targets in all resources. Relentless pursuit to improve over all plant equipment
effectiveness. Extensive use of PM analysis as a tool for eliminating losses. Focus of easy handling
of operators.
Kaizen Target:
Achieve and sustain zero loses with respect to minor stops, measurement and adjustments, defects
and unavoidable downtimes. It also aims to achieve 30% manufacturing cost reduction.
Tools used in Kaizen:

PM analysis

Why - Why analysis

Summary of losses

Kaizen register

Kaizen summary sheet.

The objective of TPM is maximization of equipment effectiveness. TPM aims at maximization of

machine utilization and not merely machine availability maximization. As one of the pillars of TPM
activities, Kaizen pursues efficient equipment, operator and material and energy utilization that is
extremes of productivity and aims at achieving substantial effects. Kaizen activities try to thoroughly
eliminate 16 major losses.
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16 Major losses in an organisation:

Loss

Category

Failure losses - Breakdown loss

Setup / adjustment losses

Cutting blade loss

Startup loss

Minor stoppage / idling loss.

Speed loss - operating at low speeds.

Defect / rework loss

Scheduled downtime loss

Losses that impede equipment efficiency Management loss

Operating motion loss

Line organization loss

Logistic loss

Measurement and adjustment loss

Loses that impede human work efficiency Energy loss

Die, jig and tool breakage loss

Yield loss.

Loses that impede effective use of production resources Classification of losses:

Aspect

Sporadic Loss

Chronic Loss

Causation Causes for this failure can be easily traced. Cause-effect relationship is simple to
trace.

This loss cannot be easily identified and solved. Even if various counter measures are applied

Remedy Easy to establish a remedial measure

This type of losses are caused because of hidden defects in machine, equipment and methods.

Impact / Loss A single loss can be costly

A single cause is rare - a combination of causes trends to be a rule

Frequency of occurrence:
The frequency of occurrence is low and occasional. The frequency of loss is more. Corrective action
usually the line personnel in the production can attend to this problem. Specialists in process
engineering, quality assurance and maintenance people are required.

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4. PILLAR - PLANNED MAINTENANCE:

It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipment producing defect free products for total
customer satisfaction. This breaks maintenance down into 4 "families" or groups which was defined
earlier.

Preventive Maintenance

Breakdown Maintenance

Corrective Maintenance

Maintenance Prevention

With Planned Maintenance we evolve our efforts from a reactive to a proactive method and use
trained maintenance staff to help train the operators to better maintain their equipment.
Policy:

Achieve and sustain availability of machines.

Optimum maintenance cost.

Reduces spares inventory.

Improve reliability and maintainability of machines.

Target:

Zero equipment failure and break down.

Improve reliability and maintainability by 50 %

Reduce maintenance cost by 20 %

Ensure availability of spares all the time.

Six steps in planned maintenance:

Equipment evaluation and recoding present status.

Restore deterioration and improve weakness.

Building up information management system.

Prepare time based information system, select equipment, parts and members and map out
plan.

Prepare predictive maintenance system by introducing equipment diagnostic techniques and

Evaluation of planned maintenance.

5. PILLAR - QUALITY MAINTENANCE:

It is aimed towards customer delight through highest quality through defect free manufacturing.
Focus is on eliminating non-conformances in a systematic manner, much like Focused Improvement.
We gain understanding of what parts of the equipment affect product quality and begin to eliminate
current quality concerns, then move to potential quality concerns. Transition is from reactive to
proactive (Quality Control to Quality Assurance).
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QM activities is to set equipment conditions that preclude quality defects, based on the basic concept
of maintaining perfect equipment to maintain perfect quality of products. The condition are checked
and measure in time series to very that measure values are within standard values to prevent defects.
The transition of measured values is watched to predict possibilities of defects occurring and to take
counter measures beforehand.
Policy:

Defect free conditions and control of equipment.

QM activities to support quality assurance.

Focus of prevention of defects at source

Focus on poka-yoke. ( fool proof system )

In-line detection and segregation of defects.

Effective implementation of operator quality assurance.

Target:

Achieve and sustain customer complaints at zero

Reduce in-process defects by 50 %

Reduce cost of quality by 50 %.

Data requirements:
Quality defects are classified as customer end defects and in house defects. For customer-end data,
we have to get data on:

Customer end line rejection

Field complaints.

In-house, data include data related to products and data related to process

Data related to product:

Product wise defects

Severity of the defect and its contribution - major/minor

Location of the defect with reference to the layout

Magnitude and frequency of its occurrence at each stage of measurement

Occurrence trend in beginning and the end of each production/process/changes. (Like pattern
change, ladle/furnace lining etc.)

Occurrence trend with respect to restoration of breakdown/modifications/periodical

replacement of quality components.

Data related to processes:

The operating condition for individual sub-process related to men, method, material and
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machine.

The standard settings/conditions of the sub-process

The actual record of the settings/conditions during the defect occurrence.

6. PILLAR - TRAINING:
It is aimed to have multi-skilled revitalized employees whose morale is high and who has eager to
come to work and perform all required functions effectively and independently. Education is given
to operators to upgrade their skill. It is not sufficient know only "Know-How" by they should also
learn "Know-why". By experience they gain, "Know-How" to overcome a problem what to be done.
This they do without knowing the root cause of the problem and why they are doing so. Hence it
become necessary to train them on knowing "Know-why". The employees should be trained to
achieve the four phases of skill. The goal is to create a factory full of experts. The different phase of
skills are:
1. Phase: Do not know.
2. Phase: Know the theory but cannot do.
3. Phase: Can do but cannot teach
4. Phase: Can do and also teach.
Policy:

Focus on improvement of knowledge, skills and techniques.

Creating a training environment for self-learning based on felt needs.

Training curriculum / tools /assessment etc. conductive to employee revitalization

Training to remove employee fatigue and make work enjoyable.

Target:

Achieve and sustain downtime due to want men at zero on critical machines.

Achieve and sustain zero losses due to lack of knowledge / skills / techniques

Aim for 100 % participation in suggestion scheme.

Steps in Educating and training activities:

Setting policies and priorities and checking present status of education and training.

Establish of training system for operation and maintenance skill up gradation.

Training the employees for upgrading the operation and maintenance skills.

Preparation of training calendar.

Kick-off of the system for training.

Evaluation of activities and study of future approach.

7. PILLAR - OFFICE TPM:

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Office TPM should be started after activating four other pillars of TPM (JH, KK, QM, and PM).
Office TPM must be followed to improve productivity, efficiency in the administrative functions and
identify and eliminate losses. This includes analysing processes and procedures towards increased
office automation. Office TPM addresses twelve major losses. They are:

Processing loss (Cost loss including in areas such as procurement, accounts, marketing, sales
leading to high inventories)

Communication loss

idle loss

Set-up loss

Accuracy loss

Office equipment breakdown Communication channel breakdown, telephone and fax lines
Time spent on retrieval of information on availability of correct on line stock status Customer
complaints due to logistics Expenses on emergency dispatches/purchases

How to start office TPM?

A senior person from one of the support functions e.g. Head of Finance, MIS, Purchase etc. should
be heading the sub-committee. Members representing all support functions and people from
Production & Quality should be included in subcommittee. TPM co-ordinate plans and guides the
subcommittee. Providing awareness about office TPM to all support departments. Helping them to
identify P, Q, C, D, S, and M in each function in relation to plant performance. Identify the scope for
improvement in each function. Collect relevant data. Help them to solve problems in their circles.
Make up an activity board where progress is monitored on both sides - results and actions along with
Kaizens. Fan out to cover all employees and circles in all functions.
Kobetsu Kaizen topics for Office TPM:

Inventory reduction

Lead time reduction of critical processes

Motion & space losses

Retrieval time reduction.

Equalizing the work load

Improving the office efficiency by eliminating the time loss on retrieval of information, by
achieving or breakdown of office equipment like telephone and fax lines.

Office TPM and its Benefits:

Involvement of all people in support functions for focusing on better plant performance

Better utilized work area

Reduce repetitive work

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Reduced inventory levels in all parts of the supply chain

Reduced administrative costs

educed inventory carrying cost

Reduction in number of files

Reduction of overhead costs (to include cost of non-production/non capital equipment)

Productivity of people in support functions

Reduction in breakdown of office equipment

Reduction of customer complaints due to logistics

Reduction in expenses due to emergency dispatches/purchases

Reduced manpower

Clean and pleasant work environment.

P Q C D S M in Office TPM:

P - Production output lost due to want of material, Manpower productivity, Production output
lost due to want of tools.

Q - Mistakes in preparation of cheques, bills, invoices, payroll, Customer returns/warranty

attributable to BOPs, Rejection/rework in BOP's/job work, Office area rework.

C - Buying cost/unit produced, Cost of logistics - inbound/outbound, Cost of carrying

inventory, Cost of communication, Demurrage costs.

D - Logistics losses (Delay in loading/unloading)

Delay in delivery due to any of the support functions

Delay in payments to suppliers

Delay in information

Safety in material handling/stores/logistics, Safety of soft and hard data.

M - Number of kaizens in office areas.

How office TPM supports plant TPM:

Office TPM supports the plant, initially in doing Jishu Hozen of the machines (after getting training
of Jishu Hozen), as in Jishu Hozen at the Initial stages machines are more and manpower is less, so
the help of commercial departments can be taken, for this Office TPM can eliminate the lodes on line
for no material and logistics.
Extension of office TPM to suppliers and distributors:
This is essential, but only after we have done as much as possible internally. With suppliers it will
lead to on-time delivery, improved 'in-coming' quality and cost reduction. With distributors it will
lead to accurate demand generation, improved secondary distribution and reduction in damages
during storage and handling. In any case we will have to teach them based on our experience and
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practice and highlight gaps in the system which affect both sides. In case of some of the larger
companies, they have started to support clusters of suppliers.

8. PILLAR - SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT:

Target:

Zero accident

Zero health damage

Zero fires

In this area focus is on to create a safe workplace and a surrounding area that is not damaged by our
process or procedures. This pillar will play an active role in each of the other pillars on a regular
basis.
A committee is constituted for this pillar which comprises representative of officers as well as
workers. The committee is headed by senior vice President (Technical). Utmost importance to Safety
is given in the plant. Manager (Safety) is looking after functions related to safety. To create awareness
among employees various competitions like safety slogans, Quiz, Drama, Posters, etc. related to
safety can be organized at regular intervals.

Kaizen
Kaizen (), Japanese for "improvement" or "change for the best", refers to philosophy or practices
that focus upon continuous improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, business
management or any process. It has been applied in healthcare, psychotherapy, life-coaching,
government, banking, and other industries. When used in the business sense and applied to the
workplace, kaizen refers to activities that continually improve all functions, and involves all
employees from the CEO to the assembly line workers. It also applies to processes, such as
purchasing and logistics that cross organizational boundaries into the supply chain. By improving
standardized activities and processes, kaizen aims to eliminate waste (see lean manufacturing).
Kaizen was first implemented in several Japanese businesses after the Second World War, influenced
in part by American business and quality management teachers who visited the country. It has since
spread throughout the world and is now being implemented in environments outside of business and
productivity.

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The Toyota Production System is known for kaizen, where all line personnel are expected to stop
their moving production line in case of any abnormality and, along with their supervisor, suggest an
improvement to resolve the abnormality which may initiate a kaizen.
The cycle of kaizen activity can be defined as:

Standardize an operation and activities,

Measure the operation (find cycle time and amount of in-process inventory).

Gauge measurements against requirements.

Innovate to meet requirements and increase productivity.

Standardize the new, improved operations.

Continue cycle ad infinitum.

This is also known as the Shewhart cycle, Deming cycle, or PDCA. Other techniques used in
conjunction with PDCA include 5 Whys, which is a form of root cause analysis in which the user

Figure 8.2: The PCDA cycle

asks "why" a failure occurred five successive times, basing each subsequent question on the answer
to the previous. There are normally a series of root causes stemming from one problem, and they can
be visualized using fishbone diagrams or tables.
Masaaki Imai made the term famous in his book Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success.
Apart from business applications of the method, both Anthony Robbins and Robert Maurer have
popularized the kaizen principles into personal development principles. In the book One Small Step
Can Change Your life: The Kaizen Way, and CD set The Kaizen Way to Success, Maurer looks at
how individuals can take a kaizen approach in both their personal and professional lives.
In the Toyota Way Fieldbook, Liker and Meier discuss the kaizen blitz and kaizen burst (or kaizen
event) approaches to continuous improvement. A kaizen blitz, or rapid improvement, is a focused
activity on a particular process or activity. The basic concept is to identify and quickly remove waste.

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Another approach is that of the kaizen burst, a specific kaizen activity on a particular process in the
value stream.

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Conclusion
Today, with competition in industry at an all-time high, TPM may be the only thing that stands
between success and total failure for some companies. It has been proven to be a program that works.
It can be adapted to work not only in industrial plants, but in construction, building maintenance,
transportation, and in a variety of other situations. Employees must be educated and convinced that
TPM is not just another "program of the month" and that management is totally committed to the
program and the extended time frame necessary for full implementation. If everyone involved in a
TPM program does his or her part, an unusually high rate of return compared to resources invested
may be expected.

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REFERENCES

Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems, Histand & Alciatore, 1999

McGraw Hill.

http://nptel.ac.in/

http://www.jcb.com/

http://www.jcbindia.com/

http://www.makino.com/horizontal-machining-4-axis/a81/

http://www.makino.com/engineering-services-automation/

http://www.makino.com/engineering-services/machining-application-services/

http://www.makino.com/engineering-services/machine-tool-automation/

http://www.makino.com/customer-support/training/online-training/

http://www.automation.siemens.com/mcms/mc-systems/en/automation-systems/cncsinumerik/sinumerik-controls/sinumerik-840/sinumerik-840d/pages/sinumerik-840d.aspx

http://www.automation.siemens.com/mcms/mc-systems/en/automation-systems/cncsinumerik/sinumerik-controls/sinumerik-840/sinumerik-840d-sl/pages/sinumerik-840dsl.aspx

http://www.industry.usa.siemens.com/drives/us/en/cnc-for-machine-tool-solutions/cnccontrollers/sinumerik-840d/pages/sinumerik-840d.aspx

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