Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Akhenaten
1.1
1.2
1.3
Religious policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
1.4.1
1.5
International relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
1.7
Implementation of Atenism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
Speculative theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.8.1
10
1.8.2
Possible illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.8.3
First individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.8.4
Smenkhkare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
In the arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.9.1
Plays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.9.2
Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.9.3
Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.9.4
Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.9.5
Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.10 Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
14
14
1.12.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.12.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
17
18
19
2.1
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.2
19
2.3
Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.9
ii
CONTENTS
2.5
20
21
3.1
Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.2
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
23
4.1
Plot introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2
Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.3
23
4.4
Release details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Amarna
24
5.1
Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.2
City of Akhetaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.2.1
25
26
5.3.1
Religious life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.4
Amarna art-style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.5
27
5.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
5.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
5.8
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
5.3
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ankhesenamun
30
6.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
6.2
Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
6.3
31
6.4
Mummy KV21A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
6.5
KV63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
6.6
In contemporary media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
6.7
Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
6.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
6.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit
33
7.1
Proposed parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
7.1.1
33
7.1.2
33
7.1.3
33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
7.2
CONTENTS
iii
34
8.1
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.2
Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.3
34
8.4
Conicting theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.6
References
35
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Egyptian
36
9.1
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
9.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
38
10.1 Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
10.2 Cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
40
10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
40
41
42
11.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
11.3 Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
44
12.1 In education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
44
44
44
45
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
45
13 Kiya
46
46
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
47
iv
CONTENTS
13.5 Gallery of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
13.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
48
14 KV55
49
49
14.1.1 KVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
49
49
14.2.2 Entranceway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
50
14.2.4 Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
50
14.3 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
52
52
53
14.3.4 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
54
54
14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
55
15 Meketaten
57
15.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
15.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
58
15.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
16 Meritaten
59
16.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
16.2 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
16.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
60
17 Neferneferuaten Tasherit
61
17.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
17.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
62
17.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
18 Neferneferure
18.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
63
CONTENTS
18.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
63
64
18.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
19 Nefertiti
65
19.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
19.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
19.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
67
67
19.4 Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
68
68
69
19.6.1 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
19.6.2 Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
19.6.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
19.6.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
19.6.5 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
19.7 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
70
20 Parennefer
71
20.1 Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
20.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
21 La Reine Soleil
72
21.1 Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
21.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
72
73
22.1 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
22.2 Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
73
73
74
22.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
23 Setepenre (princess)
23.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
75
vi
CONTENTS
23.2 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
75
23.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
24 Smenkhkare
76
76
24.2 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
24.3 Co-regent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
24.3.1 Neferneferuaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
24.3.2 Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
79
80
80
24.6.1 Nefertiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
24.6.2 Meritaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
24.6.3 Ankhesenamun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
24.7 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
81
82
82
24.8.3 Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
24.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
24.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
24.11Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
24.12Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
87
25.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
87
25.3 Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
87
25.5 References
87
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26 Temple of Amenhotep IV
89
89
26.1.1 Gempaaten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
89
26.1.3 Teni-menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
89
26.2.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
90
27 Thutmose (sculptor)
91
CONTENTS
vii
91
91
27.3 Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
27.4 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
27.4.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
92
28 TT188
93
93
93
28.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
29 3199 Nefertiti
29.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30 Nefertiti Bust
94
94
95
30.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
30.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
30.1.2 Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
96
30.2.1 Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
96
30.2.3 CT scans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
97
97
30.4 Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
98
98
99
99
30.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
102
viii
CONTENTS
32 Atenism
105
109
113
114
127
CONTENTS
ix
37 Tutankhamun
128
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
140
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
145
147
CONTENTS
41 Alashiya
148
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
150
153
154
156
157
158
159
167
CONTENTS
xi
168
170
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
175
177
178
180
xii
CONTENTS
55.2.2 Letter no. 196: title: Unheard-of deeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
55.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
55.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
56 Burna-Buriash II
182
186
187
190
194
CONTENTS
xiii
201
202
205
207
208
209
210
211
213
xiv
CONTENTS
69.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
70 Neferkheperuhesekheper
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
222
223
225
CONTENTS
xv
229
231
232
233
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
235
236
237
238
239
89 Mahu (noble)
240
241
xvi
CONTENTS
90.2 Tomb 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
90.3 Tomb 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
90.4 Tomb 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
90.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
91 Southern Tomb 11
242
243
244
245
246
247
Chapter 1
Akhenaten
1.1 Early reign as Amenhotep IV
In February 2014, Egyptian Ministry for Antiquities announced what it called conclusive evidence that Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least 8 years. The
evidence came from the inscriptions found in the Luxor
tomb of Vizier Amenhotep-Huy.[22][23] A team of Spanish archeologists have been working at this tomb.
1
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
Memphis Apy (or Ipy) to the Pharaoh. The documents
were found in Gurob and are dated to regnal year 5, third
month of the Growing Season, day 19.[25]
3
mid-action (in traditional art, a pharaohs divine nature
was expressed by repose, even immobility). The depictions of action may correspond to the emphasis on the
active, creative nurturing of the Aten emphasized in the
Great Hymn to the Aten and elsewhere.
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
chin, and the limbs are light and long. In 2007, Zahi
Hawass and a team of researchers made CT Scan images of Mummy 61074. They have concluded that the
elongated skull, cheek bones, cleft palate, and impacted
wisdom tooth suggest that the mummy is the father of
Tutankhamun, and thus is Akhenaten.
1.4.1
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
May my brother cause me no distress. May he
send me much gold in order that my brother
[with the gold and m]any [good]s, may honor
me. (EA 27)[33]
7
ily, shall die by the axe of the king. So perform
your service for the king, your lord, and you
will live. You yourself know that the king does
not fail when he rages against all of Canaan.
And when you wrote saying, 'May the king, my
Lord, give me leave this year, and then I will go
next year to the king, my Lord. (ie: to Egypt)
If this is impossible, I will send my son in my
place' - the king, your Lord, let you o this
year in accordance with what you said. Come
yourself, or send your son [now], and you will
see the king at whose sight all lands live. (EA
162)[40]
Head of Akhenaten
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
atens death.
Akhenaten planned to relocate Egyptian burials on the
East side of the Nile (sunrise) rather than on the West side
(sunset), in the Royal Wadi in Akhetaten. His body was
removed after the court returned to Thebes, and recent
genetic tests have conrmed that the body found buried
in tomb KV55 was the father of Tutankhamun, and is
therefore most probably Akhenaten,[48] although this is
Similarly, although it is accepted that Akhenaten himself died in Year 17 of his reign, the question of whether
Smenkhkare became co-regent perhaps two or three
years earlier or enjoyed a brief independent reign is
unclear.[50] If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole Pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than
a year. The next successor was Neferneferuaten, a female Pharaoh who reigned in Egypt for two years and one
month.[51] She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tutankhaten (later, Tutankhamun), with the country being
administered by the chief vizier, and future Pharaoh, Ay.
Tutankhamun was believed to be a younger brother of
Smenkhkare and a son of Akhenaten, and possibly Kiya
although one scholar has suggested that Tutankhamun
may have been a son of Smenkhkare instead. DNA
Aten.'[54] Akhenatens fth year also marked the beginning of construction on his new capital, Akhetaten or
'Horizon of Aten', at the site known today as Amarna.
Very soon afterwards, he centralized Egyptian religious
practices in Akhetaten, though construction of the city
seems to have continued for several more years. In honor
of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of
some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient
Egypt. In these new temples, Aten was worshipped in
the open sunlight, rather than in dark temple enclosures,
as had been the previous custom. Akhenaten is also believed to have composed the Great Hymn to the Aten.
Initially, Akhenaten presented Aten as a variant of the
familiar supreme deity Amun-Re (itself the result of an
earlier rise to prominence of the cult of Amun, resulting in Amun becoming merged with the sun god Ra), in
an attempt to put his ideas in a familiar Egyptian religious context. However, by Year 9 of his reign, Akhenaten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god,
but the only god, and that he, Akhenaten, was the only
intermediary between Aten and his people. He ordered
the defacing of Amuns temples throughout Egypt and,
in a number of instances, inscriptions of the plural 'gods
were also removed.
Atens name is also written dierently after Year 9, to
emphasize the radicalism of the new regime, which included a ban on images, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in
hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who
by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god,
but rather a universal deity. Representations of the Aten
were always accompanied with a sort of hieroglyphic
footnote, stating that the representation of the sun as
All-encompassing Creator was to be taken as just that:
a representation of something that, by its very nature as
something transcending creation, cannot be fully or adequately represented by any one part of that creation.
10
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
idea that Akhenaten is the real character for the mythical
Moses,[66] Ahmarna the place as a literary misinterpretation of God raining an unknown fruit called manna while
the Jews were wandering in the desert[66] and the concept
of a deity directing a group to a promised place which is
the main theme in both stories.[66]
Ahmed Osman has claimed that Akhenatens maternal
grandfather Yuya was the same person as the Biblical
Joseph. Yuya held the title Overseer of the Cattle of
Min at Akhmin during his life.[67]
1.8.2
Possible illness
11
All of these symptoms arguably sometimes appear in depictions of Akhenaten and of his children. Recent CT
scans of Tutankhamun report a cleft palate and a fairly
long head, as well as an abnormal curvature of the spine
and fusion of the upper vertebrae, a condition associated with scoliosis, all conditions associated with Marfans syndrome. However, DNA tests on Tutankhamun,
in 2010, proved negative for Marfan Syndrome.[82][83]
More recently, Homocystinuria was suggested as a possible diagnosis.[84] Patients suering from homocystinuria
have Marfan habitus, however, as an autosomal recessive
disease it seems to t better into Akhenatens family tree Akhenatens parents, Amenhotep III and Tiye, were most
probably healthy, and Marfan Syndrome was ruled out
following DNA tests on Tutankhamun in 2010.[82]
However, Dominic Montserrat in Akhenaten: History,
Fantasy and Ancient Egypt states that there is now a
broad consensus among Egyptologists that the exaggerated forms of Akhenatens physical portrayal... are not to
be read literally.[60] Montserrat and others[85] argue that
the body-shape relates to some form of religious symbolism. Because the god Aten was referred to as the
mother and father of all humankind it has been suggested that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in
artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the god. This
required a symbolic gathering of all the attributes of
the creator god into the physical body of the king himself, which will display on earth the Atens multiple
life-giving functions.[60] Akhenaten did refer to himself
as The Unique One of Re, and he may have used his
control of artistic expression to distance himself from the
common people, though such a radical departure from the
idealised traditional representation of the image of the
Pharaoh would be truly extraordinary.
Another unfounded claim was made by Immanuel Velikovsky, who hypothesized an incestuous relationship
with his mother, Tiye. Velikovsky also posited that
Akhenaten had swollen legs. Based on this, he identied Akhenaten as the history behind the Oedipus myth,
Oedipus being Greek for swollen feet, and moved the
setting from the Greek Thebes to the Egyptian Thebes.
As part of his argument, Velikovsky uses the fact that
Akhenaten viciously carried out a campaign to erase the
name of his father, which he argues could have developed into Oedipus killing his father.[86] This point was
disproved, in that Akhenaten mummied and buried his
father in the honorable traditional Egyptian fashion prior
to beginning his monotheistic revolution. Furthermore,
an autopsy and genetic evidence in 2014 proved that his
son Tutankhamun were the product of a brother-sister
marriage, not a parent-child pairing.[87][88]
Recently a surgeon at Imperial College London (Hutan
Ashraan) has analysed the early death of Akhenaten
and the premature deaths of other Eighteenth dynasty
Pharaohs (including Tutankhamun and Thutmose IV).
He identies that their early deaths were likely a result of a Familial Temporal Epilepsy. This would ac-
12
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
count for the untimely death of Akhenaten, his abnor- Gabolde[96] has led to a a fair degree of consensus[97]
mal endocrine body shape on sculptures and can also ex- that Neferneferuaten was a female ruler apart from
plain Akhenatens religious conviction due to this type Smenkhkare.
of epilepsys association with intense spiritual visions and
religiosity.[89]
First individual
Historian James Henry Breasted [90] considered Akhenaten to be the rst individual in history, as well as the
rst monotheist, romantic, and scientist.
In 1899, Flinders Petrie opined,
If this were a new religion, invented to satisfy
our modern scientic conceptions, we could not
nd a aw in the correctness of this view of the
energy of the solar system. How much Akhenaten understood, we cannot say, but he certainly
bounded forward in his views and symbolism
to a position which we cannot logically improve
upon at the present day. Not a rag of superstition or of falsity can be found clinging to this
new worship evolved out of the old Aton of Heliopolis, the sole Lord of the universe.[91]
Henry Hall contended that the pharaoh was the rst example of the scientic mind.[92]
In Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet, Nicholas Reeves
construes the pharaohs religious reformations as attempts at the centralization of his power and solidication
of his role as divine monarch.[93]
1.8.4
Smenkhkare
13
Lucile Morrison: The Lost Queen of Egypt (Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1937), although this young
adult novel is about Akhenatens daughter, spelled
'Ankhsenpaaten', later 'Ankhsenamon', he appears
as a character until his death in chapter 16.
1.9.3 Music
Ikhnaton is referenced in the title of a section of the
epic progressive rock song "Suppers Ready" by the
English rock band Genesis on their album Foxtrot
(1972). The section is named Ikhnaton and Itsacon
and their band of Merry Men.
Philip Glass: opera, Akhnaten: An Opera in Three
Acts (1983; CBS Records, 1987)
Akhenaten, track on Julian Cope's 1992 album
Jehovahkill.
Akhnaton, name of one of the members of the
French rap group IAM; also records under this name
and produces other rappers under this name.
Akhenaten is mentioned in the song lyrics to Dream
of Amarna (Written in December 1998) on the
demo album compact disc, The Aten Shines Again
by Leo-Neferuaten Boyle (2002).
Son Of The Sun by Swedish Symphonic Metal
band Therion on the album Sirius B (2004).
Cast Down the Heretic by the death metal band
Nile on the album Annihilation of the Wicked
(2005).
Sadness of Echnaton Losing the World Child by
Tangerine Dream, appearing rst on the album One
Times One (2007).
Cursing Akhenaten by the metalcore band After
The Burial on the album Rareform (2008).
Roy Campbell, Jr., The Akhenaten Suite - A Modern
Jazz Epic[100]
Akhenaten is featured on the album cover of Those
Whom the Gods Detest by the band Nile (2009).
Night Enchanted by the Trans-Siberian Orchestra
on the 2009 album Night Castle.
Akhenaton Symphony
(2014).[101]
by
Otaclio
Melgao
14
1.9.4
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
Film
1.9.5
Other
Anu-
The Secret World, main antagonist of the Egypt sto[18] Bickerstae, D; The Long is dead. How Long Lived the
ryline mission (Black Sun, Red Sand).
King? in Kmt vol 22, n 2, Summer 2010
1.10 Ancestry
Notes
15
[51] Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, pp.207 & 493
[52] Pocket Guides: Egypt History, p.37, Dorling Kindersley, London 1996.(the Neferneferuaten part is taken from
Wikipedia Nefertiti entry)
[53] Nicholas Reeves. Book Review: Rolf Krauss, Das Ende
der Amarnazeit (Hildesheimer gyptologische Beitrge,
1978)". Retrieved 2008-10-02.
[54] David (1998), p.125
[55] Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and
Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2000, ISBN 0-415-18549-1,
pp.36.
[32] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), p.154
16
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
[79] Burridge, A., (1995) Did Akhenaten Suer From Marfans Syndrome?" (Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter
No. 3, September 1995)
1.12.2 Bibliography
Jrgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen gypten. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, (1997)
17
18
CHAPTER 1. AKHENATEN
Chapter 2
2.1 Biography
Redford received his B.A., M.A. and Ph.D from McGill
University and the University of Toronto, and was an Assistant/Associate Professor (19621969) and full Professor (19691998) at the latter. He moved to Pennsylvania
State University in 1998.
2.3 Publications
20
2.4 References
[1] Princeton University Press Press Reviews, retrieved 6th
June 2009
[2] Donald B. Redford, Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times, Princeton University Press 1992 pp.408-429,
pp.409-410.
[3] Nicholas Kendall (director). The Lost Pharaoh: The
Search for Akhenaten (requires Adobe Flash). Documentary lm. National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved
13 September 2012.
Chapter 3
3.2 Characters
Akhenaten
Nefertiti
Ay
Tey
High Priest of Amun
Bento
Haremhab
Bek
Tadukhipa
Toto
Tey
Mutnedjmet
Meri-Ra
Mae
Pharaoh Akhenaten
Maho
Nakht
22
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Amarna
5.2 City of Akhetaten
Royal Wadi
Workmens village
Tomb of Akhenaten
Northern tombs
Southern tombs
Stelae U
Desert altars
5.1 Name
Maru-Aten
Northern Palace
North City
Kom el-Nana
The name Amarna comes from the Beni Amran tribe that Stelae H
lived in the region and founded a few settlements. The Great Aten Temple
ancient Egyptian name was Akhetaten.
(This site should be distinguished from Tell Amarna in The area of the city was eectively a virgin site, and it was
in this city that the Akhetaten described as the Atens
Syria, a Halaf period archaeological tell.[5] )
24
25
26
CHAPTER 5. AMARNA
of Meritaten, his daughter.[17]
City outskirts
Surrounding the city and marking its extent, the
Boundary Stelae (each a rectangle of carved rock on the
clis on both sides of the Nile) describing the founding of
the city are a primary source of information about it.[18]
North City
5.3 Life
in
Amarna/Akhetaten
ancient
Central City
Most of the important ceremonial and administrative
buildings were located in the central city. Here the Great
Temple of the Aten and the Small Aten Temple were used
for religious functions and between these the Great Royal
Palace and Royal Residence were the ceremonial residence of the King and Royal Family, and were linked by a
bridge or ramp.[13] Located behind the Royal Residence
was the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh, where the
Amarna Letters were found.[14]
This area was probably the rst area to be completed, and
had at least two phases of construction.[11]
Southern suburbs
To the south of the city was the area now referred to as
the Southern Suburbs. It contained the estates of many of
the citys powerful nobles, including Nakhtpaaten (Chief
Minister), Ranefer (General), Panehesy (High Priest of
the Aten) and Ramose (Master of Horses). This area also
held the studio of the sculptor Thutmose, where the fa- Tutankamun Amarna portrait. Altes Museum, Berlin
mous bust of Nefertiti was found in 1912.[15]
Further to the south of the city was Kom el-Nana, an
enclosure, usually referred to as a sun-shade, and was
probably built as a sun-temple.,[16] and then the MaruAten, which was palace or sun-temple originally thought
to have been constructed for Akhenaten's queen Kiya, but
on her death her name and images were altered to those
27
5.3.1
Religious life
28
After this European exploration continued in 1824 when
Sir John Gardiner Wilkinson explored and mapped the
city remains. The copyist Robert Hay and his surveyor
G. Laver visited the locality and uncovered several of the
Southern Tombs from sand drifts, recording the reliefs
in 1833. The copies made by Hay and Laver languish
largely unpublished in the British Library, where an ongoing project to identify their locations is underway.[24]
The Prussian expedition led by Richard Lepsius visited
the site in 1843 and 1845, and recorded the visible monuments and topography of Amarna in two separate visits over a total of twelve days, using drawings and paper squeezes. The results were ultimately published in
Denkmler aus gypten und thiopien between 1849 to
1913, including an improved map of the city.[23] Despite being somewhat limited in accuracy, the engraved
Denkmler plates formed the basis for scholastic knowledge and interpretation of many of the scenes and inscriptions in the private tombs and some of the Boundary Stelae for the rest of the century. The records made by these
early explorers teams are of immense importance since
many of these remains were later destroyed or otherwise
lost.
CHAPTER 5. AMARNA
and South suburbs of the city. The famous bust of
Nefertiti, now in Berlins gyptisches Museum, was discovered amongst other sculptural artefacts in the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. The outbreak of the First
World War in August 1914 terminated the German excavations.
From 1921 to 1936 an Egypt Exploration Society expedition returned to excavation at Amarna under the direction of T.E. Peet, Sir Leonard Woolley, Henri Frankfort,
Stephen Glanville[28] and John Pendlebury. The renewed
investigations were focused on religious and royal structures.
During the 1960s the Egyptian Antiquities Organization
(now the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities) undertook a number of excavations at Amarna.
Amarna Letters
5.7 Notes
[1] The Ocial Website of the Amarna Project. Archived
from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-1001.
[2] David (1998), p. 125
[3] Google Maps Satellite image. Google. Retrieved 200810-01.
[4] Middle Egypt Survey Project 2006. Amarna Project.
2006. Archived from the original on 22 June 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
[5] http://www.academia.edu/1032531/Tell_Amarna_in_
the_General_Framework_of_the_Halaf_Period
[6] Grundon (2007), p.89
[7] Excavating Amarna. Archaeology.org. 2006-09-27.
Archived from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved
2007-06-06.
[8] Aldred (1988), p.47
5.8 References
Aldred, Cyril (1988).
Akhenaten: King of
Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN
9780500050484. OCLC 17997212.
David, Rosalie (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient
Egypt. Facts on File.
29
de Garis Davies, Norman (19031908). The Rock
Tombs of El Amarna. Part 16. London: EES.
Eyma, Aayko (ed.) (2003). A Delta-Man in Yebu.
Universal-Publishers.
Grundon, Imogen (2007). The Rash Adventurer, A
Life of John Pendlebury. London: Libri.
Hess, Richard S. (1996). Amarna Personal Names.
Winona Lake, IN: Dissertations of the American
Schools of Oriental Research - DASOR, 9.
Kemp, Barry (2012). The City of Akhenaten and
Nefertiti. Amarna and its People. Thames and Hudson, London.
Martin, G. T. (1974, 1989). The Royal Tomb at el'Amarna. 2 vols. London: EES. Check date values
in: |date= (help)
Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
0-8018-4251-4.
Redford, Donald (1984). Akhenaten: The Heretic
King. Princeton.
Waterson, Barbara (1999).
Egypts Age of Revolution.
Amarna:
Ancient
Chapter 6
Ankhesenamun
See also: Family tree of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt sun-god, characterised as the suns disc.
Ankhesenamun (n-s-n-imn, Her Life Is of Amun";
c. 1348 after 1322 BC) was a queen of the Eighteenth
Dynasty of Egypt. Born as Ankhesenpaaten, she
was the third of six known daughters of the Egyptian
Pharaoh Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti,
and became the Great Royal Wife of her half-brother
Tutankhamun.[1] The change in her name reects the
changes in Ancient Egyptian religion during her lifetime
after her fathers death. Her youth is well documented in
the ancient reliefs and paintings of the reign of her parents. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun shared the same
father but Tuts mother has recently been established by
genetic evidence as one of Akhenatens sisters, a daughter
(so far unidentied) of Amenhotep III.
30
31
subjects (translated by some as 'servants) is most likely
a reference to the Grand Vizier Ay[10] who was pressuring
the young widow to marry him and legitimise his claim to
the throne of Egypt (which she eventually did). This also
might explain why she describes herself as 'afraid', especially considering the popular (but not widely accepted)
theory that Ay had a hand in her husbands death.[11] A
CT scan taken in 2005 shows that he had badly broken his
leg shortly before his death, and that the leg had become
infected. DNA analysis conducted in 2010 showed the
presence of malaria in his system. It is believed that these
two conditions, malaria and leiomyomata, combined, led
to his death.[12]
32
CHAPTER 6. ANKHESENAMUN
as the narrator in The Last Heiress: A Novel of Tutankhamuns Queen by Stephanie Liaci.
in the Belgian series, Het Huis Anubis, as The Vengeful Wife of Tutankhamun.
Her name is used as the love of Imhotep, the titular mummy in the original 1932 lm The Mummy,
which was made after the publicity surrounding the
discovery of Tutankhamuns tomb. She is portrayed
by Zita Johann. In the 1999 remake The Mummy
and its sequel The Mummy Returns she is played by
Patricia Velasquez. In the 1932 lm, her name is
spelled Ankh-es-en-amon. In the 1999 lm, it is
spelled Anck-su-namun.
The novel Pillar of Fire by Judith Tarr deals in large
part with the life of Ankhesenamun.
in P.C. Doherty's Akhenaten trilogy where she is implicated in Tutankhamuns death and is to marry a
Hittite Prince.
as a major character in The Murder of King Tut, a
murder mystery based on speculation about her husbands death by James Patterson and Martin Dugard.
as a major character in Tutankhamun: the Book of
Shadows, by Nick Drake.
6.7 Ancestry
6.8 References
[1] Dodson, Aidan; Dyan Hilton (2004). The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 148.
Chapter 7
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit (or Ankhesenpaaten-ta- Kiyas daughter, who might have been Beketaten, more
sherit, Ankhesenpaaten the Younger) was an ancient commonly thought to be Tiye's child.[4] [5] [6]
Egyptian princess of the 18th dynasty.
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit and another princess,
Meritaten Tasherit are two small princesses who
appear in scenes dating to the later part of the reign of
Akhenaten. The titles of at least one of the princess
is of the form "[...-ta]sherit, born of [...], born of the
Kings Great Wife [...]. The inscription is damaged
and the name of the mother and grandmother of the
princesses has not been preserved.[1] [2] Ankhesenpaaten
Tasherit has been known to archaeologists since 1938,
when a talatat with her picture and name was found in
Hermopolis.
7.2 References
7.1.1
7.1.2
[4] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.148
[5] Dr. Marc Gabolde: The End of the Amarna Period
[6] Kramer, Enigmatic Kiya in A. K. Eyma ed., A Deltaman in Yebu, uPublish.com 2003, ISBN 1-58112-564-X,
p.54
Chapter 8
8.1 Description
The statues were divided into three categories based on
size, the largest of which were 12.75 metres (over 41 feet)
tall and the smallest, 8.55 metres (about 28 feet).[1] The
pharaoh is depicted with a distorted physique not present
elsewhere in the artwork of Ancient Egypt. He is portrayed with a protruding stomach, thin arms, and exaggerated facial features, such as a long nose, hanging chin
and thick lips.[2] One statue in particular has been the subject of much debate as it represents the king apparently
nude and lacking genitals.[3] There are various theories
about the destruction of the statues, one of which suggest that his elder coregent, Amenophis III, had the statues dismantled and covered up.[4] A second theory suggests that Akhenaten himself had the statues torn down
with a change of planning in the construction of the Aten
temple.[4]
covering more.[2] Unfortunately, the only things discovered there by Chevrier were the foundations of a wall angled southwest and twenty-eight stone bases, which he assumed were the pedestals of the fallen statues.[2]
8.2 Discovery
34
8.6. REFERENCES
35
8.6 References
[1] Wineld Smith, Ray and Donald B. Redford. The Akhenaten Temple Project, Vol. 1: Initial Discoveries. Warminster Aris & Phillipps, 1976
[2] Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten: King of Egypt.
Thames and Hudson, 1988
London:
Chapter 9
The Egyptian
This article is about a historical novel. For the lm based three historical gures: herself, rst wife of Horemheb
on the novel, see The Egyptian (lm). For other uses, and, by him, mother of Ramesses I. Historical Horemheb
see Egyptian (disambiguation).
died childless.
The Egyptian (Sinuhe egyptilinen, Sinuhe the Egyptian)
is a historical novel by Mika Waltari. It was rst published
in Finnish in 1945, and in an abridged English translation by Naomi Walford in 1949, apparently from Swedish
rather than Finnish.[1] So far, it is the only Finnish novel to
be adapted into a Hollywood lm, which it was, in 1954.
The Egyptian is the rst and the most successful, of Waltaris great historical novels. It is set in Ancient Egypt,
mostly during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten of the
18th Dynasty, whom some have claimed to be the rst
monotheistic ruler in the world.[2]
Although Waltari employed some poetic license in combining the biographies of Sinuhe and Akhenaten, he was
otherwise much concerned about the historical accuracy
of his detailed description of ancient Egyptian life and
carried out considerable research into the subject. The
result has been praised not only by readers but also by
Egyptologists.
Waltari had long been interested in Akhenaten and wrote
a play about him which was staged in Helsinki in 1938.
World War II provided the nal impulse for exploring the
subject in a novel which, although depicting events that
took place over 3,300 years ago, in fact reects the contemporary feelings of disillusionment and war-weariness
and carries a pessimistic message of the essential sameness of human nature throughout the ages. The threatening King Suppiluliuma has many of the overtones of
Hitler.[3]
The protagonist of the novel is the ctional character Sinuhe, the royal physician, who tells the story in exile after Akhenatens fall and death. Apart from incidents in
Egypt, the novel charts Sinuhes travels in then Egyptiandominated Syria (Levant), in Mitanni, Babylon, Minoan
Crete, and among the Hittites.
Such a message evoked a wide response in readers in the
The main character of the novel is named after a character aftermath of the World War, and the book became an
in an ancient Egyptian text commonly known as The Story international bestseller, topping the bestseller lists in the
of Sinuhe. The original story dates to a time long before USA in 1949. It remained the most sold foreign novel in
that of Akhenaten: texts are known from as early as the the US before its place was taken over by The Name of the
Rose, by Umberto Eco. The Egyptian has been translated
12th dynasty.
into 40 languages.
Supporting historical characters include the old Pharaoh
Amenhotep III and his conniving favorite wife, Tiy;
the wife of Akhenaten, Nefertiti; the listless young 9.1 Editions
Tutankhamun (King Tut), who succeeded as Pharaoh
after Akhenatens downfall; and the two common-born
ISBN 1-55652-441-2, English translation by Naomi
successors who were, according to this author, integral
Walford, Independent Pub Group 2002
parts of the rise and fall of the Amarna heresy of Akhenaten: the priest and later Pharaoh Ay and the warrior ISBN 80-85637-00-6, Czech translation by Marta
general and then nally Pharaoh, Horemheb. Though
Hellmuthov, imon & imon 1993 (7th ed.)
never appearing onstage, throughout the book the Hittite
ISBN 87-00-19188-4, Danish translation by Inger
King Suppiluliuma I appears as a brooding threatening
Husted Kvan, Gyldendal 2007
gure of a completely ruthless conqueror and tyrannical ruler. Other historical gures, the protagonist has
ISBN 964-407-174-3, Persian translation by Zabidirect dealings with, are: Aziru (ruler of Amurru kinghollah Mansuri, Zarrin 1985[=1364 H.sh]
dom), Thutmose (sculptor), Burna-Buriash II (Babylonian king), and, under a dierent name, Zannanza, son of
ISBN 83-07-01108-6, Polish translation by ZygSuppiluliuma I. Zannanzas bride is a collage of at least
munt anowski, Czytelnik 1962 (ISBN is for the
36
9.2. REFERENCES
37
1987 edition)
ISBN 85-319-0057-3, Portuguese translation by
Jos Geraldo Vieira, Belo Horizonte 2002
ISBN 91-46-16279-8, Swedish translation by Ole
Torvalds, Wahlstrm & Widstrand 1993
OCLC 492858623, Estonian translation
Johannes Aavik, Orto Publishing House 1954
by
9.2 References
[1] Swedish Book Review
[2] Wilson, Colin (2000). The Mammoth Encyclopedia
of the Unsolved. Carroll & Graf. p. 98. ISBN
0786707933.
[3] Abe Brown,"Hitlers ctional avatars, p. 53
Chapter 10
10.1 Plot
The Egyptian tells the story of Sinuhe (Edmund Purdom),
a struggling physician in 18th dynasty Egypt (14th Century BC.) who is thrown by chance into contact with the
pharaoh Akhnaton (Michael Wilding). He rises to and
falls from great prosperity, wanders the world, and becomes increasingly drawn towards a new religion spreading throughout Egypt. His companions throughout are his
lover, a shy tavern maid named Merit (Jean Simmons),
and his corrupt but likable servant, Kaptah (Peter Ustinov).
For the next ten years Sinuhe and Kaptah wander the
known world, where Sinuhes superior Egyptian medical training gives him an excellent reputation as healer.
Sinuhe nally saves enough money from his fees to return home; he buys his way back into the favor of the
court with a precious piece of military intelligence he
While out lion hunting with his sturdy friend Horemheb learned abroad, informing Horemheb (now commander
(Victor Mature), Sinuhe discovers Egypts newly ascen- of the Egyptian army) that the barbarian Hittites plan to
dant pharaoh Akhnaton, who has sought the solitude of attack the country with superior iron weapons.
the desert in the midst of a religious epiphany. While Akhnaton is in any case ready to forgive Sinuhe, acpraying, the ruler is stricken with an epileptic seizure, cording to his religions doctrine of mercy and pacism.
with which Sinuhe is able to help him. The grateful These qualities have made Aten-worship extremely popuAkhnaton makes his savior court physician and gives lar amid the common people, including Merit, with whom
Horemheb a post in the Royal Guard, a career previously Sinuhe is reunited. He nds that she bore him a son
denied to him by low birth. His new eminence gives Sin- named Thoth (Tommy Rettig) (a result of their night touhe an inside look at Akhnatons reign, which is made gether many years ago), who shares his fathers interest in
extraordinary by the rulers devotion to a new religion medicine.
that he feels has been divinely revealed to him. This faith
rejects Egypts traditional gods in favor of monotheistic Meanwhile the priests of the old gods have been fomentworship of the sun, referred to as Aten. Akhnaton intends ing hate crimes against the Atens devotees, and now urge
to promote Atenism throughout Egypt, which earns him Sinuhe to help them kill Akhnaton and put Horemheb on
the hatred of the countrys corrupt and politically active the throne instead. The physician is privately given extra inducement by the princess Baketamun (Gene Tiertraditional priesthood.
ney); she reveals that he is actually the son of the previLife in court does not prove to be good for Sinuhe; it drags ous pharaoh by a concubine, discarded at birth because of
him away from his previous ambition of helping the poor the jealousy of the old queen and raised by foster parents.
while falling obsessively in love with a Babylonian cour38
10.3. PRODUCTION
39
The princess now suggests that Sinuhe could poison both 10.3 Production
Akhnaton and Horemheb and rule Egypt himself (with
her at his side).
The script was based on the Waltari novel of the same
Sinuhe is still reluctant to perform this evil deed until the name. It is elaborated in the book, but not the lm,
Egyptian army mounts a full attack on worshipers of the that Sinuhe was named by his mother from The Story
Aten. Kaptah manages to smuggle Thoth out the country, of Sinuhe, which does include references to Aten but
but Merit is killed while seeking refuge at the new gods was written many centuries before the 18th dynasty. The
altar. In his grief Sinuhe blames Akhnaton for the whole use of the Cross of Life ankh to represent Akhnatons
mess and administers poison to him at their next meeting. new religion reects a popular and esoteric belief in
The pharaoh realizes what has been done, but accepts his the 1950s that monotheistic Atenism was a sort of protofate. He still believes his faith was true, but that he has Christianity. While the ankh has no known connection
understood it imperfectly; future generations will be able to the modern cross,[4] the principal symbol of Aten was
not an ankh but a solar disk emitting rays, though the
to spread the same faith better than he.
rays usually ended with a hand holding out an ankh to
Enlightened by Akhnatons dying words, Sinuhe allows
the worshipers. The sun-disk is seen only twice; when we
Horemheb to become pharaoh as he is still indignant that
rst meet Akhnaton in the desert, he has painted it on a
his old friend had considered murdering him and has berock, and Sinuhe says Look! He worships the face of the
gun to preaching the same ideals Akhnaton believed in his
sun. It appears again as part of the wall painting above
nal moments. Banished to the shores of Red Sea, Sinuhe
Akhnatons throne. With that said, the ankh was used in
spends his remaining days inspired by the glimpse of anthe original novel. Likewise, Akhnatons dying revelation
other world he has been aorded through Akhnaton and
that God is much more than the face of the sun is actually
died of old age after writing down his life story in hopes
found among Waltaris best-known writings.[5]
that it may be found by Thoth or his descendants. The
lm concludes with a caption reading, These things hap- Some of the sets, costumes, and props from this lm were
pened thirteen centuries before the birth of Jesus Christ. bought and re-used by Cecil B. DeMille for The Ten Commandments. As the events in that story take place seventy years after those in The Egyptian, this re-use creates an unintended sense of continuity. The commentary
10.2 Cast
track on the Ten Commandments DVD points out many of
these re-uses. Only three actors, Mimi Gibson, Michael
Ansara and John Carradine, and a handful of extras, ap Edmund Purdom as Sinuhe
peared in both pictures. The Prince Aly Khan was a consultant during lming, he was engaged to Gene Tierney.
Victor Mature as Horemheb
Marlon Brando was to star as Sinuhe, but did not like the
script and dropped out at the last minute. Farley Granger
Jean Simmons as Merit
was the next choice and considered the role, but then decided he was not interested after having just moved to
Bella Darvi as Nefer
New York. Dirk Bogarde was then oered the role but
also turned it down. Finally it was handed to young up Gene Tierney as Baketamon
and-coming contract actor Edmund Purdom.
Michael Wilding as Akhenaten
Peter Ustinov as Kaptah
Judith Evelyn as Taia
Henry Daniell as Mekere
Marilyn Monroe coveted the role of Nefer, only to discover that it was earmarked for the protegee (mistress) of
producer Darryl F. Zanuck, Bella Darvi. This would be
the second of only three American lms featuring Darvi,
who returned to Europe and later committed suicide.
10.4 Music
40
10.6 References
[1] Aubrey Solomon, Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate
and Financial History, Scarecrow Press, 1989 p248
[2] Aubrey Solomon, Twentieth Century Fox: A Corporate
and Financial History, Scarecrow Press, 1989 p225
[3] 'The Top Box-Oce Hits of 1954', Variety Weekly, January 5, 1955
[4] Taylor Ellison, The Ancient Ankh, part of the Tour Egypt
background material, website found 2009-01-03.
[5] The Worship of Aten, part of the Tour Egypt background
material, webpage found 2009-01-03.
Chapter 11
42
11.2 Analysis
Analyses of the poem are divided between those considering it as a work of literature, and those considering its
political and socio-religious intentions.
James Henry Breasted considered Akhenaten to be the
rst monotheist and scientist in history. In 1899, Flinders
Petrie wrote:
43
[5] Pritchard, James B., ed., The Ancient Near East - Volume
1: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1958, pp. 227-230.
[6] Lichtheim, Miriam (2nd Ref. Ed. 2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom. University of California Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0520248434.
Check date values in: |date= (help)
[7] Sir Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (edit. 1899), Vol. II,
p. 214.
[8] Lichtheim, Miriam (2nd Ref. Ed. 2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom. University
of California Press. ISBN 978-0520248434. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
In his book Reections on the Psalms, C.S. Lewis compared the Hymn to the Psalms of the Judaeo-Christian
canon, as did Breasted (who broke them up into stanzas
to resemble Western poems).[13] Miriam Lichtheim com- [9] H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East (1913), p.
599.
mented about an alleged resemblance with Psalm 104
saying that The resemblances are, however, more likely [10] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fanto be the result of the generic similarity between Egyptasy and Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 978tian hymns and biblical psalms. A specic literary inter0415301862.
dependence is not probable.[14]
11.3 Adaptations
The Hymn to the Aten was set to music by Philip Glass
in his opera Akhnaten.
11.5 References
[1] Wilkinson, Toby (2011). The Rise and Fall of Ancient
Egypt. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 289290. ISBN 9781408810026.
[2] Darnell>, John. Tutankhamuns Armies: Battle and Conquest During Ancient Egypts Late Eighteenth Dynasty. p.
41. ISBN 978-0471743583.
[3] Lichtheim, Miriam (2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature:
Volume II: The New Kingdom. University of California
Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0520248434.
[4] Brewer, Douglas j.; Emily Teeter (2 edition (22 Feb
2007)). Egypt and the Egyptians. Cambridge University
Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-521-85150-3. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[11] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9780415301862.
[12] John Baines (1998). The Dawn of the Amarna Age. In
David O'Connor, Eric Cline. Amenhotep III: Perspectives
on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. p. 281.
[13] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 9780415301862.
[14] Lichtheim, Miriam (2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature:
Volume II: The New Kingdom. University of California
Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0520248434.
Chapter 12
12.1 In education
The lm uses interviews of historians, re-creations
through computer CGI, location footage, and
archaeological and scientic evidence to tell the story of
these Egyptian monarchs.[2] It has been made available
for instructional use by A&E,[3] and is now being used
in anthropology and archaeology courses at colleges
and universities, such as the University of Vermont,[2]
San Francisco State University,[4] Oriental Institute of
Chicago,[5] University of Pennsylvania,[6] and University
of California, Berkeley,[7] as well as smaller colleges
such as Blue Ridge Community College.[8] It is available
in public libraries across the United States,[1][9][10][11]
and in archives such as La Bibliographie nationale
franaise.[12]
Part 2
44
12.6 References
[1] Marmot Library Network, video listings, accessed 01-182009
[2]
University of Vermont, CAMPUS USE INSTRUCTIONAL: The Greatest Pharaohs, accessed 01-18-2009
45
Chapter 13
Kiya
Kiya was one of the wives of the Egyptian Pharaoh
Akhenaten. Little is known about her, and her actions
and roles are poorly documented in the historical record,
in contrast to those of Akhenatens rst (and chief) royal
wife, Nefertiti. Her unusual name suggests that she
may originally have been a Mitanni princess.[1] Surviving evidence demonstrates that Kiya was an important
gure at Akhenatens court during the middle years of
his reign, when she bore him a daughter.[2][3] She disappears from history a few years before her royal husbands
death. In previous years, she was thought to be mother of
Tutankhamun, but recent DNA evidence suggests this is
unlikely.
The name Kiya itself is cause for debate. It has been suggested that it is a pet form, rather than a full name, and
as such could be a contraction of a foreign name, such as
the Mitanni name "Tadukhipa, referring to the daughter of King Tushratta. Tadukhipa married Amenhotep
III at the very end of his reign, and the Amarna Letters indicate that she was a nubile young woman at that
time.[4] In particular, Amarna Letters 27 through 29 conrm that Tadukhipa became one of Akhenatens wives.
Thus some Egyptologists have proposed that Tadukhipa
and Kiya might be the same person.[2]
Akhenaten and his family were based in Thebes for the
rst four years of his reign, establishing the new capital
However there is no conrming evidence that Kiya was
[5]
anything but a native Egyptian. In fact, Cyril Aldred city at Amarna in Year 5. Kiya is not attested during this
proposed that her unusual name is actually a variant of early period. Only after the move to Amarna does she
the Ancient Egyptian word for monkey, making it un- emerge through inscriptional evidence as one of Akhenatens wives.
necessary to assume a foreign origin for her.[6]
In inscriptions, Kiya is given the titles of The Favorite
and The Greatly Beloved, but never of Heiress or
"Great Royal Wife", which suggests that she was not of
royal Egyptian blood. Her full titles read, The wife and
greatly beloved of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Living in Truth, Lord of the Two Lands, Neferkheperure
Waenre, the Goodly Child of the Living Aten, who shall
be living for ever and ever, Kiya. All artifacts relating to
Kiya derive from Amarna, Akhenatens short-lived capital city, or from Tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings.
Kiyas name appeared prominently in the temple installation known as the Maru-Aten, at the southern edge of the
city, according to epigraphic studies.[2] The inscriptions
in the Maru-Aten were eventually recarved to replace the
name and titles of Kiya with those of Akhenatens eldest
daughter, Meritaten.[2]
One or more sunshades or side-chapels in the citys
largest temple to the Aten, the Per-Aten, also originally
bore the name of Kiya. These sunshades were later
reinscribed for Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten, the third
46
47
equipment that was prepared against her death. If her
disappearance resulted from disgrace or exile, the answer
would be no. On the other hand, if she died in good
standing with Akhenaten, she probably would have received a lavish burial appropriate to her station. In the
latter case, a likely site for her interment would be the
Amarna Royal Tomb, which includes a suite of three
chambers evidently used to house female members of
Akhenatens family.[16] At least two and possibly as many
as three dierent individuals were interred in this suite,
including Akhenatens daughter Meketaten, the only one
whose name survives.[16] Two of the chambers originally
included painted plaster reliefs depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti, certain of their daughters, and other mourners
lamenting the deceased.[16] Some Egyptologists have suggested that one of these scenes of mourning refers to Kiya,
although no specic evidence supports this claim.[17]
48
Talatat with the picture of Kiya and a child, a ray of [13] Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D,
Hasan N, Ahmed A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F,
Aten extends toward them
Close-up of an Egyptian alabaster canopic jar
thought to depict a likeness of Kiya, from tomb
KV55 - on display at the Metropolitan Museum of
Art
An Amarna relief depicting a woman undergoing
a purication ritual, while the gure has been partially re-carved, the large earrings and style of wig
are thought to be representative of Queen Kiya - on
display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
13.6 References
[1] Reeves, C. Nicholas. New Light on Kiya from Texts in the
British Museum, p.100 The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 74 (1988)
[2] William J. Murnane. Texts from the Amarna Period in
Egypt. Edited by E.S. Meltzer. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1995. (ISBN 1-55540-966-0) Page 9, pp
9093, pp 210211.
[3] Aidan Dodson. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press, 2009. (ISBN
978-977-416-304-3) Page 17.
[4] The Amarna Letters. Edited and translated by William L.
Moran. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1992. (ISBN 0-8018-4251-4) Two Mitanni princesses,
Gilukhipa and Tadukhipa, are referenced in a series of
letters, EA 19-29.
[5] Jacobus Van Dijk, The Noble Lady of Mitanni and Other
Royal Favourites of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Essays on
Ancient Egypt in Honour of Herman te Velde, Groningen,
1997, pp. 3537.
[6] Cyril Aldred. Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Thames &
Hudson, 1991. (ISBN 0-500-27621-8) Page 286.
[7] Dennis Forbes, The Lady Wearing Large Earings: Royal
Wife Kiya, Nefertitis Rival, KMT. volume 17, number 3
(Fall 2006), p. 28.
[8] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p. 155.
[9] Marc Gabolde. The End of the Amarna Period. Last
updated 2009-11-05. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/
ancient/egyptians/amarna_01.shtml)
[10] William J. Murnane. Texts from the Amarna Period in
Egypt. Edited by E.S. Meltzer. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1995. (ISBN 1-55540-966-0) Page 243.
[11] Cyril Aldred. Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Thames &
Hudson, 1991. (ISBN 0-500-27621-8) Page 205.
[12] Bell, M.R. An Armchair Excavation of KV 55. JARCE
27 (1990) Pages 9899.
Chapter 14
KV55
Coordinates: 2544N 3236E / 25.733N 32.600E
KV55 is a tomb in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. It
was discovered by Edward R. Ayrton in 1907 while he
was working in the Valley for Theodore M. Davis. It has
long been speculated, as well as much-disputed, that the
body found in this tomb was that of the famous Pharaoh
Akhenaten, who moved the capital to Akhetaten (modern
day Amarna). The results of genetic and other scientic
tests published in February 2010 have conrmed that the
person buried there was both the son of Amenhotep III
as well as the father of Tutankhamun. Furthermore, the
study established that the age of this person at the time of
his death was consistent with that of Akhenatens; thereby
making it almost certain that it is Akhenatens body.[1]
49
50
Ja
14.2.4 Corridor
14.2.2
Entranceway
The walls of the burial chamber were plastered but otherwise undecorated. This plastering seems to have been
done some years after the cutting of the tomb, and repairs
are evident.[6] Rubble ll from the corridor had spread
down into the chamber, partially covering its oor with
debris. Elsewhere in the burial chamber, the oor and
numerous objects were covered with fragments of plaster
fallen from the walls and stones fallen from the ceiling.[19]
14.2.3
14.3. INTERPRETATION
51
of furniture, a silver head of a goose, pall-discs of
gilded copper, and a statue plinth.
Some wooden objects in the burial chamber seem to have
suered water damage, most notably the con, bier, and
boxes; however, the elements of the gilded shrine appear to have been reasonably solid.[22] Moisture is also
the likely cause of the discoloration visible on some of
the faience objects, although other, similar objects appear unaected.[22]
14.3 Interpretation
One of the four Egyptian alabaster canopic jars found in KV55,
depicting what is thought to be the likeness of Queen Kiya.
52
arrangement of artefacts, and she suggests that the im- together with the queens mummy at some later point.[33]
pression of chaos might be due to the collapse of wooden
objects caused by falling plaster and stone.[19] The cemented chips and stains in the corridor indicate that wa- 14.3.2 Con, canopic jars and magical
ter entered the tomb along the corridor ceiling, but the
bricks
amount of water might not have been great, and most
damage could have been caused by increased humidity
rather than direct contact with water. Bell also suggested
that the moisture under the mummy might have resulted
from rainfall shortly after the tombs opening in 1907.
Other damage to wooden objects might result from an
insect attack.[22]
14.3.1
A recent reconstruction of the shrine,[28] based on photographic evidence, drawings, eyewitness descriptions,
and two surviving planks on display in Cairo, indicate
that it resembled Tutankhamuns second and third shrines
in general appearance and size. The presence of copper rosettes indicate that a funeral pall was draped on
a frame associated with the shrine, also comparable to
Tutankhamuns shrines.[29] However, the decoration and
inscriptions on the shrine are markedly dierent from
those of Tutankhamun: the decoration was dominated by
large oering scenes rather than a multitude of smaller
mythological scenes; the text was far more brief, and
seems primarily concerned with titles, names, and the
shrines dedication, rather than with excerpts from funerary books; and the interior of the shrine was uninscribed
and undecorated.[30]
The text on the shrine states that it was made by Akhenaten for his mother Tiye. With one exception, the names
of Akhenaten were erased and in some places were replaced by those of Amenhotep III in ink.[29] The text also
refers to the House of the Aten in Akhetaten, perhaps
indicating that the shrine was made and originally used in
Amarna.[22] The decoration, which appears to have been
very similar on all sides of the shrine, features Akhenaten and Tiye making oerings to the Aten, with a focus
on the king rather than his mother. As with his names,
Akhenatens gure was erased from the scenes, with one
exception.[31]
The orderly arrangement of the shrine parts inside the
tomb seems to indicate that it once stood up, fully assembled, with its doors facing south, and that it was later
dismantled inside the tomb.[32] It appears that only a single shrine was used in KV55, rather than a suite of four
nested shrines as in the tomb of Tutankhamun.[29]
The presence of a shrine dedicated to Tiye is usually
seen as evidence that Tiyes mummy once reposed inside the shrine in KV55. Other objects inscribed with
her name (such as the piece of furniture) and with those
of Amenhotep III are also seen as belonging to her funerary equipment. The seal impressions found near the
east wall might indicate further items that were removed
When KV55 was initially opened, Theodore Davis believed that he had found the tomb of Queen Tiye. However, it was quickly recognized that the human remains
interred there were male. Georges Daressy further deduced that the gilded con found in the tomb was originally made for a woman and only later adapted to accommodate a king, through alterations to its inscriptions
and the addition of a false beard, a uraeus, and the royal
scepters (crook and ail).[34] The identity of the cons
original owner has been a matter of much discussion over
the years, with Tiye, Nefertiti, Meketaten, and Meritaten
all proposed as candidates.[35] It is now widely accepted
that the con was originally intended for Akhenaten's
secondary wife Kiya.[36] It is also recognized that the four
canopic jars discovered near the con belonged to Kiya,
and that the female heads on the jars stoppers portray
her. Like the con, the canopic jars were altered for the
14.3. INTERPRETATION
53
burial of a king through the erasure of Kiyas titulary and male, with wide hips, a pendent chin and distorted crathe addition of a royal uraeus to each portrait head.[36]
nium brought on by chronic hydrocephalus.[3] The age
[3]
All personal names inscribed on the con and the of death he estimated as being around 25 years alcanopic jars were excised in antiquity, rendering the iden- though he later suggested the possibility that the body had
syndrome which delayed normal
tity of the human remains inside the con a matter of suered from Frlichs
[5]
skeletal
maturation.
These
results were seen to support
long debate. Over the past century, the chief candidates
the
initial
claims
by
Weigall,
Maspero and Smith, based
for this individual have been either Akhenaten himself or
on
other
evidence
found
in
the
tomb (see above) that the
Smenkhkare, another male member of the Amarna royal
body was that of Akhenaten.[5]
[37][38][39]
family.
Evidence that the occupant of the con was Akhenaten Later re-examinations of the remains conrmed Smiths
to
is provided by the four magical bricks found inside the original identication of the mummy as belonging
[44]
a
young
male
(although
with
feminine
trends)
but
tomb. Two were inscribed in hieratic, but they are poorly
preserved and the name of their owner is lost. The other pushed[45]the estimated age of death back to around 20
These re-examinations also indicated that the
two, however, are of better quality, with hieroglyphic in- years.
body
showed
no signs of delayed maturation[46] and
scriptions naming the Osiris Neferkheprure Waenre, a refof unusual shape, it cererence to Akhenatens nomen.[40] The fact that all four that, while the skull was
[44]
tainly
wasn't
abnormal,
and
showed no indication
bricks were orientated correctly and that three of them
[5]
of
hydrocephalus.
Reconstruction
of the facial feawere positioned in close association with the con sugtures
of
the
skull
also
indicated
that
there was no
gests that they were intended as a set and were made for
resemblance
with
Akhenatens
representation
on his
[41]
the cons nal occupant,
who would therefore be
[44][46]
monuments.
It
must
be
remembered
though,
that
Akhenaten.
Akhenatens representations are highly stylised. After
the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun a close resemblance was noted between his mummy and the body
14.3.3 The identication of the mummy
found in KV55 and later tests showed both shared the
same blood-group (A2) and serum antigen (MN), all of
which suggests Tutankhamun and the individual found
in KV55 were closely related to each other,[45] either as
father and son, or brothers. Based on these results it
was concluded that the KV55 body was too young to be
Akhenaten and they were seen to support the claim that
the mummy was that of Smenkhkare, an idea rst proposed by Rex Engelbach in 1931.[5]
Before February 2010, it was pointed out that the reliability of methods to assess the age of death for mummies
in general was uncertain.[47] For these reasons the correctness of the age estimates was repeatedly called into
question.[48][49][33][50] This opinion found support in the
analysis of the skeletal remains which had indicated an
age of death around 35 years (based on dentition) or even
later (based on anthropological standards and new X-rays
of the long bones).[51][52] Some examinations placed the
mummy at 2025 years at death, while others assessed
the mummy as 35 years. The archaeological, inscripProle view of the skull recovered from KV55
tional and now genetic evidence indicate that the ancient
Egyptians who buried (and later desecrated) the body in
The mummy found in the tomb was however at rst iden- KV55 believed this to be Akhenatens.[33][53][1]
tied as belonging to a woman by two visiting physicians who examined the remains in situ. This led Davis
to conclude he had found the mummy of queen Tiye 14.3.4 Reconstruction
and he therefore published his account of the discovery as The Tomb of Queen Tiyi.[3] As possible reasons The deposit as it was found in KV55 presents a mixture
for this initial identication the (typical female) posi- of chronological and religious anomalies.[41] Objects intion of the mummys arms,[42] post-mortem damage to scribed with Amenhotep IIIs nomen and prenomen might
the pelvic bones[43] and the absence of male genitalia[16] be contemporary with that kings reign and could be inhave been suggested. But when anatomist Grafton El- terpreted as possessions of Queen Tiye. Other items inliot Smith examined the skull and bones in Cairo a few scribed with Tiyes name (such as the shrine and furnimonths later he concluded that they were those of a young ture elements) also clearly belonged to her. Akhenatens
54
14.6 References
[1] Hawass, Zahi et al. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamuns Family The Journal of the American Medical Association p.644
[2] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications. 1990), p.v
[3] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications. 1990), p.vii.
[4] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings, (Keegan Paul, 1990), p
. 335-336
[5] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications. 1990), p.ix.
[6] KV 55 Tiye(?) or Akhenaten(?)". The Theban Mapping
Project. Retrieved 2011-06-11.
[7] Davis (1990), p.v.
[8] Reeves (1990), p.172
[9] Bell (1990) p. 137
[10] Reeves, N., Wilkinson, R.H., The Complete Valley of the
Kings, (Thames & Hudson. 1997), p.121
[11] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p.7.
[12] Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990) p.
42
[13] Weigall, A.E.P.B., The Treasury of Ancient Egypt (Rand
McNally and Company, 1912) p.208
55
[14] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p.vi.
[38] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 205
[40] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990),
p. 58
[41] Bell, M.R., An Armchair Excavation of KV 55, JARCE
27 (1990), p. 134
[42] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p.44-49
[43] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 199
[44] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 201
[45] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 201-202
[46] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p. xi
[47] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky p. 14 and
following
[48] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 202
[49] Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul, 1990)
p. 49
[50] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky p.16
[51] Reeves, C.N, Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 84
[52] Fletcher, Joann, The Search for Nefertiti (William Morrow, 2004) p.180
[53] Gabolde, M., Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky
[36] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p. xii
[37] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p. viii, p. xiv
56
Filer, Joyce M. (2002). Anatomy of a Mummy.
Archaeology (March/April): 2629.
Gabolde, M. Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky.
Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J.
Murnane.
Reeves, C.N. (1990). Valley of the Kings. Keegan
Paul.
Reeves, C.N. (2005). Akhenaten: Egypts False
Prophet. Thames & Hudson.
Reeves, C.N.; Wilkinson, R.H. (1997). The Complete Valley of the Kings. Thames & Hudson.
Romer, J. (1981). Valley of the Kings. Henry Holt.
Rose, Mark (2002). Whos Buried in Tomb 55.
Archaeology (March/April): 2226.
Weigall, A.E.P.B. (1912). The Treasury of Ancient
Egypt. Rand McNally and Company.
Chapter 15
Meketaten
Although little is known about her, she is frequently depicted with her sisters accompanying her royal parents in
the rst two thirds of Akhenatens seventeen-year reign.
15.1 Family
Meketaten was the second daughter born to Akhenaten
and Nefertiti. She had an older sister named Meritaten
and four younger sisters named Ankhesenpaaten,
Neferneferuaten Tasherit, Neferneferure and Setepenre.
Tutankhaten was a half-brother.[1]
15.2 Life
Meketatens approximate year of birth is in or before year
4 of Akhenaten.[2] Meketaten is rst depicted on the walls
of the Hut-benben temple dedicated to her mother Nefertiti in Thebes. Meketaten appears behind her older sister Meritaten in some of the later inscriptions, thought
to date to year 4 or later.[3] Further arguments to suggest
Meketaten was born in or before year 4 come from the
fact that her gure was added to one of the boundary stela
recording events in year 4 and carved in year 5.[4]
57
58
Meketaten under the canopy, on the wall paintings of the Chamber . In front of her: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Meritaten, Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.
15.4 References
[1] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3
[2] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
[3] Redford, Donald B. Akhenaten: The Heretic King.
Princeton University Press. 1987. ISBN 978-0-69100217-0
[4] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3
[5] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 155540-966-0
Chapter 16
Meritaten
Meritaten also spelled Merytaten or Meryetaten (14th
century BC) was an ancient Egyptian queen of the
eighteenth dynasty, who held the position of Great Royal
Wife to Pharaoh Smenkhkare, who may have been a
brother or son of Akhenaten. Her name means She
who is beloved of Aten"; Aten being the sun-god her
father worshipped; Meritaten also may have served as
pharaoh in her own right under the name, Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten.[1]
16.1 Family
Pharaoh Akhenaten (center) and his family adoring the Aten solar disk. The next gure leftmost is Meritaten, the daughter of
Akhenaten, adorned in a double-feather crown.
60
lady in several places, among them in the Northern Palace
and in the Maru-Aten. This had been misinterpreted
as evidence of Nefertitis disgrace and banishment from
the royal court, but more recently the erased inscriptions
turned out to be the name of Kiya, one of Akhenatens
secondary wives, disproving that interpretation.[1]
According to some scholars such as J.P. Allen,
Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare ruled together with
Meritaten, but in the year following Akhenatens death
Smenkhkare himself died. These Egyptologists suggest
that Meritaten was the 'kings daughter' Akenkeres who
is recorded in Manethos Epitome to have assumed the
throne for herself as the female king Neferneferuaten.
Neferneferuaten is assigned a reign of 2 years and
1 month and is placed in Manethos account as the
immediate predecessor of Rathothis, who is believed to
be Tutankhamun.
16.3 References
[1] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,
Thames & Hudson, pg 136-137
[2] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.142-157
Chapter 17
Neferneferuaten Tasherit
For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see
Neferneferuaten (disambiguation).
Neferneferuaten Tasherit or Neferneferuaten junior
(14th century BCE) was an Ancient Egyptian princess
of the 18th dynasty and the fourth daughter of Pharaoh
Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti.
17.1 Family
Neferneferuaten was born between ca. year 8[1] and
9[2] of her fathers reign. She was the fourth of six
known daughters of the royal couple. It is likely that she
was born in Akhetaten, the capital founded by her father. Her name Neferneferuaten (Beauty of the Beauties of Aten or Most Beautiful One of Aten) is the
exact copy of the name Nefertiti took in the 5th regnal
year. (Ta-sherit simply means the younger one).[1]
From left to right: Setepenre, Neferneferure, and Neferneferuaten
She had three older sisters named Meritaten, Meketaten,
Tasherit at the Durbar in year 12.
and Ankhesenpaaten and two younger sisters named
Neferneferure and Setepenre.[3]
are shown.[4][5] In the reward scene in the tomb of Meryre
II, Neferneferuaten Tasherit is shown with four of her sisters (only Setepenre in absent).[5]
17.2 Life
One of the earliest depictions of Neferneferuaten Tasherit
is in a fresco from the Kings House in Amarna. She is
depicted sitting on a pillow with her sister Neferneferure.
The fresco is dated to ca. year 9 of Akhenaten, and the
entire family is depicted, including the baby Setepenre.[1]
62
owers.[4]
Neferneferuaten Tasherit is shown with her sisters
Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten mourning the death of
Meketaten in ca. year 14 in the Royal Tomb in Amarna.
Her younger sisters Neferneferure and Setepenre are not
present in this scene.[1][5]
Meketaten under the canopy, on the wall paintings of the Chamber . In front of her: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Meritaten, Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.
17.4 References
[1] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
[2] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8
[3] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3
[4] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 155540-966-0
[5] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3
[6] J.P. Allen, The Amarna Succession, p. 14.
Chapter 18
Neferneferure
Neferneferure (14th century BCE) was an Ancient
Egyptian princess of the 18th dynasty. She was the fth
of six known daughters of Pharaoh Akhenaten and Great
Royal Wife Nefertiti.
18.1 Family
Neferneferure (her name means Beauty of the Beauties of Re or Most Beautiful One of Re) was born in
or before the 8th regnal year of her father Akhenaten
in the city of Akhetaten.[1] She had four older sisters named Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten and
Neferneferuaten Tasherit, as well as a younger sister
named Setepenre.[2]
18.2 Life
18.3 Death and burial
Neferneferure probably died in the 13th or 14th regnal
year, possibly in the plague that swept across Egypt during this time. She is absent from one scene and her
name was plastered over in another scene in the Royal
Tomb in Amarna. To be specic, on Wall C of the
chamber of the Royal Tomb her name was mentioned
among the ve princesses (the list excluded the youngest,
Setepenre, who was possibly dead by this time), but was
later covered by plaster. On Wall B of the chamber
she is missing from the scene which shows her parents
and three elder sisters Meritaten, Ankhesenpaaten and
Neferneferuaten Tasherit mourning the dead second
princess, Meketaten. This suggests that she is likely to
have died shortly before the decoration of these chambers was nished.[1] It is possible that Neferneferure was
actually buried in chamber of the royal tomb.[2]
Alternatively she may have been buried in Tomb 29 in
Amarna.[4] This theory is based on an amphora handle bearing an inscription mentioning the inner (burial)
chamber of Neferneferure.[3] If Neferneferure was buried
One of the earliest depictions of Neferneferure is in a in tomb 29, then this may mean the Royal Tomb was alfresco from the Kings House in Amarna. She is de- ready sealed at the time of her burial and that she may
picted sitting on a pillow with her sister Neferneferuaten have died after the death her father Akhenaten.[5]
From left to right: Setepenre, Neferneferure, and Neferneferuaten
Tasherit at the Durbar in year 12.
63
64
18.5 References
[1] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
[2] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3
[3] Murnane, William J., Texts from the Amarna Period
in Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 155540-966-0
[4] Reeves, Nicholas. Akhenaten: Egypts False Prophet.
Thames & Hudson. 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7
[5] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8
[6] T.G.H. James, Tutankhamun, White Star, 2000 (Barnes
and Noble Books 2002), ISBN 1-58663-742-8
Chapter 19
Nefertiti
This article is about the Ancient Egyptian Queen Nefertiti. For other uses, see Nefertiti (disambiguation).
For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see
Neferneferuaten (disambiguation).
Neferneferuaten Nefertiti (/nftit/[1] ) (ca. 1370 BC
ca. 1330 BC) was the Great Royal Wife (chief consort) of Akhenaten, an Egyptian Pharaoh. Nefertiti and
her husband were known for a religious revolution, in
which they worshiped one god only, Aten, or the sun disc.
Akhenaten and Nefertiti were responsible for the creation
of a whole new religion which changed the ways of religion within Egypt. With her husband, she reigned at
what was arguably the wealthiest period of Ancient Egyptian history.[2] Some scholars believe that Nefertiti ruled
briey as Neferneferuaten after her husbands death and
before the accession of Tutankhamun, although this identication is a matter of ongoing debate.[3]
Nefertiti had many titles including Hereditary Princess
(iryt-p`t); Great of Praises (wrt-hzwt); Lady of Grace
(nbt-im3t), Sweet of Love (bnrt-mrwt); Lady of The Two
Lands (nbt-t3wy); Main Kings Wife, his beloved (hmtniswt-3t meryt.f); Great Kings Wife, his beloved (hmtniswt-wrt meryt.f), Lady of all Women (hnwt-hmwtnbwt); and Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt (hnwtShmw-mhw).[4]
The exact dates of when Nefertiti was married to Akhenaten and later promoted to queenship are uncertain.
She was made famous by her bust, now in Berlins Neues Their six known daughters (and estimated years of birth)
Museum, shown to the right. The bust is one of the most were:[6][7]
copied works of ancient Egypt. It was attributed to the
sculptor Thutmose, and it was found in his workshop.
Meritaten: No later than year 1, possibly later beThe bust is notable for exemplifying the understanding
came Pharaoh Nefernferuaten.
Ancient Egyptians had regarding realistic facial proportions.
Meketaten: Year 4.
Ankhesenpaaten, also known as Ankhesenamen,
later queen of Tutankhamun
19.1 Family
See also : Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family
Tree
Nefertiti, Egyptian Nfr.t-jy.tj, original pronunciation approximately Nafteta, for (the beauty has come). Nefertitis parentage is not known with certainty, but one often
cited theory is that she was the daughter of Ay, later to
65
Neferneferure: Year 9.
Setepenre: Year 11.
66
19.3. DEATH
67
Great Royal Palace in the center of the city and possibly Further information: Amarna succession
at the Northern Palace as well. Nefertiti and the rest of
the royal family feature prominently in the scenes at the
palaces and in the tombs of the nobles. Nefertitis steward during this time was an ocial named Meryre II. He
would have been in charge of running her household.[3][7] 19.3.1 Old Theories
Inscriptions in the tombs of Huya and Meryre II dated to
Year 12, 2nd month of Peret, Day 8 show a large foreign
tribute. The people of Kharu (the north) and Kush (the
south) are shown bringing gifts of gold and precious items
to Akhenaten and Nefertiti. In the tomb of Meryre II,
Nefertitis steward, the royal couple is shown seated in a
kiosk with their six daughters in attendance.[3][7] This is
one of the last times princess Meketaten is shown alive.
Two representations of Nefertiti that were excavated by
Flinders Petrie appear to show Nefertiti in the middle to
later part of Akhenatens reign 'after the exaggerated style
of the early years had relaxed somewhat'.[10] One is a
small piece on limestone and is a preliminary sketch of
Nefertiti wearing her distinctive tall crown with carving
began around the mouth, chin, ear and tab of the crown.
Another is a small inlay head (Petrie Museum Number
UC103) modeled from reddish-brown quartzite that was
clearly intended to t into a larger composition.
Meketaten may have died in year 13 or 14. Nefertiti,
Akhenaten, and three princesses are shown mourning
her.[11] Nefertiti disappears from the scene soon after
that.[7]
19.3 Death
68
19.4 Burial
There are many theories regarding her death and burial
but, to date, the mummy of this famous queen, her parents or her children has not been found or formally identied. In 1898, archeologist Victor Loret found two female
mummies inside the tomb of Amenhotep II in KV35 in
the Valley of the Kings. These two mummies, named
'The Elder Lady' and 'The Younger Lady', were likely
candidates of her remains.
The KMT suggested in 2001 that the Elder Lady may be
Nefertitis body.[19] It was argued that the evidence suggests that the mummy is around her mid-thirties or early
forties, Nefertitis guessed age of death. More evidence
to support this identication was that the mummys teeth
look like that of a 29-38 year old, Nefertitis most likely
age of death. Also, unnished busts of Nefertiti appear
to resemble the mummys face, though other suggestions
included Ankhesenamun.
Due to recent age tests on the mummys teeth, it eventually became apparent that the 'Elder Lady' is in fact
Queen Tiye, mother of Akhenaten and that the DNA of
the mummy is a close, if not direct, match to the lock of
hair found in Tutankhamuns tomb. The lock of hair was
found in a conette bearing an inscription naming Queen
Tiye.[20] Results have discovered that she was the daughter of Yuya and Thuya, who were the parents of Queen
Tiye, thus ruling her out as Nefertiti.[20]
19.4.1
Younger Lady
Locavara, generally dismiss Fletchers claims as unsubstantiated. They say that ancient mummies are almost impossible to identify as a particular person without DNA.
As bodies of Nefertitis parents or children have never
been identied, her conclusive identication is impossible. Any circumstantial evidence, such as hairstyle and
arm position, is not reliable enough to pinpoint a single,
specic historical person. The cause of damage to the
mummy can only be speculated upon, and the alleged revenge is an unsubstantiated theory. Bent arms, contrary
to Fletchers claims, were not reserved to pharaohs; this
was also used for other members of the royal family. The
wig found near the mummy is of unknown origin, and
cannot be conclusively linked to that specic body. Finally, the 18th dynasty was one of the largest and most
prosperous dynasties of ancient Egypt. A female royal
mummy could be any of a hundred royal wives or daughters from the 18th dynastys more than 200 years on the
throne.
In addition, there was controversy about both the age and
sex of the mummy. On June 12, 2003, Egyptian archaeologist Dr. Zahi Hawass, head of Egypts Supreme
Council for Antiquities, also dismissed the claim, citing
insucient evidence. On August 30, 2003, Reuters further quoted Hawass: I'm sure that this mummy is not
a female, and Dr Fletcher has broken the rules and
therefore, at least until we have reviewed the situation
with her university, she must be banned from working in
Egypt.[21] On dierent occasions, Hawass has claimed
that the mummy is female and male.[22]
In a more recent research eort led by Hawass, the
mummy was put through CT scan analysis. Researchers
concluded that she may be Tutankhamuns biological
mother, an unnamed daughter of Amenhotep III and
Queen Tiye, not Nefertiti. Fragments of shattered bone
were found in the sinus, and blood clots were found. The
theory that the damage was inicted post-mummication
was rejected, and a murder scenario was deemed more
likely. The broken-o bent forearm found near the
mummy, which had been proposed to have belonged to
mummy, was conclusively shown not to actually belong
to it. Scholars think that, after Tutankhamun returned
Egypt to the traditional religion, he moved his closest relatives: father, grandmother, and biological mother, to the
Valley of the Kings to be buried with him (according to
the list of gurines and drawings in his tomb).
19.7. GALLERY
69
myths, theology, and facts to nd the Doomsday Key
and Saint Malachy's original and complete book of
Doomsday Prophecies. They ultimately nd the key
in a canopic jar, held by a preserved body in a glass
casket bearing the inscription: Here lies Meritaten,
daughter of King Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti.
She who crossed the seas and brought the sun god
Ra to these cold lands.[23]
The Egyptian (1945) is an historical novel by Mika
Waltari
19.6.4 Music
Nefertiti (1967) is a studio album by American jazz
musician Miles Davis
Nefertiti (2014), a classical ballet by American composer John Craton
Portrait study of Nefertiti
Film
19.6.2
Games
19.6.3
Literature
19.7 Gallery
Granite head statue of Nefertiti. The securing post
at head apex, allows for dierent hairstyles to adorn
the head, Altes Museum, Berlin.
Head statue of Nefertiti, Altes Museum, Berlin.
70
Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Louvre Museum, Paris.
Nefertiti presenting an image of the goddess Maat
to the Aten, Brooklyn Museum.
Talatat representing Nefertiti worshipping the Aten,
Royal Ontario Museum.
19.8 References
[1] Nefertit or Nofretete. Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
[2] RE Freed, S D'Auria, YJ Markowitz, (1999) Pharaohs of
the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamen (Museum
of Fine Arts, Leiden)
[3] Dodson, Aidan, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation.
The American University in Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN
978-977-416-304-3
[4] Grajetzki, Ancient Egyptian Queens: A Hieroglyphic
Dictionary, Golden House Publications, London, 2005,
ISBN 978-0-9547218-9-3
Chapter 20
Parennefer
The Ancient Egyptian noble Parennefer was
Akhenaten's close advisor before he came to the
throne, and in later times served as his Royal Butler,
an oce which brought him into intimate contact with
the king. His titles include The Kings Cup Bearer,
Washer of the Kings Hands, Chief Craftsman, and
Overseer of All the Works in the Mansion of Aten.
He was instrumental in imposing the "Amarna style in
architecture.[1]
20.1 Tombs
Parennefer had two tombs constructed for him, an unnished one in Thebes, (TT188), which was a precursor
of the Amarna rock tombs[2] An inscription in this tomb
stresses that one had to pay ones due to all the gods, although the Aten was to be treated preferentially.[3] The
tomb also witnesses some of the changes in the world
view occurring under Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, e.g.
the royal ka, which had been anthropomorphic became
more abstract, a development culminating in the complete abandonment of anthropomorphic depictions of the
ka at Akhetaten.[4]
He built a second tomb at Akhetaten, in the Southern
group of tombs, where he is shown being rewarded by
Akhenaten with many gold collars.[5]
20.2 References
[1] Michael Rice, Whos Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge
2001, ISBN 0-415-15448-0, p.146
[2] Dieter Arnold, The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture, I.B.Tauris 2003, ISBN 1-86064-465-1, p.171
[3] Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Cornell University Press 1999, ISBN 0-8014-8725-0, p.48
[4] David P. Silverman, David O'Connor, Ancient Egyptian
Kingship, Brill 1995, ISBN 90-04-05402-2, p.72
[5] Brian Molyneaux, The Cultural Life of Images: Visual
Representation in Archaeology, Routledge 1997, ISBN 0415-10675-3, p.118
71
Chapter 21
La Reine Soleil
La Reine Soleil (The Sun Queen) is a French animated
feature lm (French/Hungarian/Belgian co-production)
made by Philippe Leclerc. It was released in France on
4 April 2007. The animation was created by the Hungarian company Cinemon studios and special eects were
created by Greykid Pictures, which was also responsible
for compositing and some of the animation. The story is
based on the novel La Reine Soleil by Christian Jacq.[1]
21.1 Plot
In Ancient Egypt, during the monotheistic regime of
Akhenaten, Akhesa is a beautiful princess, 14 years of
age. An impetuous young girl, Akhesa rebels against her
fathers dictats. She refuses to live conned in the royal
palace and wants to discover why her mother, Queen
Nefertiti, has been exiled on the island of Elephantine.
Assisted by her half-brother prince Tutankhaten, or
Tut, Akhesa ees the court in hopes of nding her
mother. In deance of danger the two teenagers travel
down the Nile to the burning-hot desert dunes, courageously facing the mercenary Zannanza and priests of
Amun Ra, who are conspiring to overthrow the pharaoh
because of his rejection of their god. With innocence
their only weapon, Akhesa and Tut overcome many hardships, and encounter an extraordinary destiny.
21.2 References
[1] La Reine soleil, uniFrance
72
Chapter 22
22.2 Decoration
Reconstructed sarcophagus
73
74
22.6 References
[1] Amarna Royal Tomb. UCL. Retrieved 2006-12-19.
Chapter 23
Setepenre (princess)
Setepenre (Sotepenre) was an ancient Egyptian princess her sixth birthday. Since she is not shown on Wall B in
of the 18th dynasty; sixth and last daughter of Pharaoh Room , where the royal family mourns the death of
Akhenaten and his chief queen Nefertiti.[1]
the second princess Meketaten, it is likely that she predeceased Meketaten as well, perhaps before he construction
of the royal tomb was advanced enough to allow burial.
She was possibly the rst of the princesses to die.[2] It is
23.1 Family
possible that her body was later moved to Room of the
Royal Tomb.[4]
Setepenre (her name means (Chosen of Re)) was born
around the 9th[2] to 11th year of her father Akhenaten in
the city of Akhetaten.[3] She had ve older sisters named
Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten, Neferneferuaten 23.4 References
Tasherit, and Neferneferure.[4]
[1] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.156
23.2 Life
One of the earliest depictions of Setepenre is in a fresco
from the Kings House in Amarna. She is depicted sitting on her mother Nefertiti's lap. The fresco is much
damaged and only a small hand of Setepenre remains The
fresco is dated to ca. year 9 of Akhenaten, and the entire
family is depicted.[2][3]
The next time the six princesses appeared together was in
Year 12, on the eighth day of the second month of winter, during the so-called reception of foreign tributes.
This event was depicted in the Amarna tombs of Meryre
II and Huya. In the tomb of Meryre II, Akhenaten and
Nefertiti are shown seated in a kiosk, receiving tribute
from foreign lands. The daughters of the royal couple are
shown standing behind their parents. Setepenre is the last
daughter in the lower register. She is standing right behind her sister Neferneferure, who is holding a gazelle.
Setepenre is shown reaching over to pet the gazelle.[5]
Chapter 24
Smenkhkare
Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Djeser Kheperu (sometimes spelled Smenkhare, Smenkare or Smenkhkara) was
a short lived Pharaoh in the late Eighteenth Dynasty. His
names translate as 'Living are the Forms of Re' and 'Vigorous is the Soul of Re - Holy of Forms.[1] His reign
was during the Amarna Period, a time when Akhenaten
sought to impose new religious views. He is to be distinguished from the king who was female and used the name
Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten but included epithets in
both cartouche.
76
24.2. EVIDENCE
By the start of the 21st Century, a a fair degree of
consensus[8] emerged that Neferneferuaten was a female
king and Smenkhkare a separate male king, particularly
among specialists of the period[9] (the public and the internet still often commingle the two unwittingly and otherwise). Almost as important, when presented with just
the name Ankhkheperure, it is now widely accepted that
the use of epithets indicates Neferneferuaten while no epithets indicates Smenkhkare.[10]
24.2 Evidence
Aside from the Meryre tomb depiction already mentioned there are several pieces of evidence which establish
Smenkhkare as king.
A calcite globular vase from the tomb of
Tutankhamun bears the full double cartouche of
Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of
Smenkhkare. This is the only object to carry both
names side by side.[11]
A single wine docket, 'Year 1, wine of the house
of Smenkhkare', indicates he probably had a short
reign.[12] Another dated to Year 1 from 'The House
of Smenkhkare (deceased)'[13] was originally taken
to indicate that he died during the harvest of his rst
year; more recently it has been proposed to mean his
estate was still producing wine in the rst year of his
successor.
77
Line drawings of a block depicting the nearly complete names of King Smenkhkare and Meritaten as
Great Royal Wife were recorded before the block
was lost.
Flinders Petrie documented 5 rings bearing
the name 'Ankhkheperure' and 3 more bearing
'Smenkhkare' in excavations of the palace.[14]
One example is Item UC23800 in the Petrie
Museum which clearly shows the djeser and
kherperu elements of and a portion of the 'ka'
glyph. Pendlebury found more when the town was
cleared.[15]
A ring bearing his name is found at Malqata in
Thebes.
Perhaps the most magnicent was a vast hall more
than 125 metres square and including over 500 pillars. This late addition to the central palace has
been known as the Hall of Rejoicing, Coronation
Hall or simply Smenkhkare Hall because a number
of bricks stamped Ankhkheperure in the House of
Rejoicing in the Aten were found at the site.[16]
Indisputable images for Smenkhkare are rare. Aside
from the tomb of Meryre II, the image to the right
showing an Amarna king and queen in a garden
is often attributed to him. It is completely without inscription, but since they do not look like Tutankhaten or his queen, they are often assumed to
be Smenkhkare and Meritaten, but Akhenaten and
Nefertiti are sometimes put forth as well.
An inscription in the tomb of Pairi, TT139, by the
other Ankhkheperure (Neferneferuaten), mentions
a functioning Amen 'temple of Ankhkheperure'.[17]
Several items from the tomb of Tutankhamun bear the
name of Smenkhkare:
A linen garment decorated with 39 gold daisies
along with 47 other sequins bearing the prenomen
of Smenkhkare alongside Meritatens name.
Carter number 101s is a linen shawl with the name
Ankhkheperure
A compound bow (Carter 48h) and the mummy
bands (Carter 256b) were both reworked for Tut.[18]
78
One such stele (Berlin #17813 or a higher resolution image) depicts 2 royal gures in a familiar, if not intimate,
pose. One gure wears the double crown, while the other,
slightly more feminine one, wears the Khepresh or blue
crown. However, the set of 3 empty cartouche can only
account for the names of a king and queen. This has been
interpreted to mean that Nefertiti may have at one point
been something like a coregent as indicated by the crown,
Since his reign was brief, and that he may never have but not entitled to full pharoanic honors such as the doubeen more than co-regent, the evidence for Smenkhkare ble cartouche.[24]
is not plentiful. But nor is it quite as insubstantial as it is Another stella, Berlin 25574 clearly depicts Akhenaten
sometimes made out to be. It certainly amounts to more and Nefertiti in her familiar at top crown. Above them
than just 'a few rings and a wine docket' or that he 'ap- are 4 empty cartouches - enough for 2 kings - one of
pears only at the very end of Ahkenatons reign in a few which seems to have been squeezed in. Nicholas Reeves
monuments[20] as is too often portrayed.
sees this as an important item in the case for Nefertiti
As the evidence came to light in bits and pieces at a
time when Smenkhkare was assumed to have also used
the name Neferneferuaten perhaps at the start of his sole
reign, it sometimes deed logic. For instance, when
the mortuary wine docket surfaced from the 'House of
Smenkhkare (deceased)', it seemed to appear that he
changed his name back before he died.
24.3 Co-regent
Perhaps the most important stela has the opposite condition and could tell us much more if it was not so badly
damaged. In 1891, a private stela was found which is now
in the Petrie Museum, U.C.410, sometimes called the
Coregency Stela. On this stela, most of the scene is missing but the inscriptions can be read. It depicts the double
cartouche of Akhenaten alongside that of Ankhkheperure
mery-Waenre Neferneferuaten Akhet-en-hyes ('eective
for her husband'). The inscription originally bore the single cartouche of Nefertiti, which was erased along with a
To make matters more confusing, he has competition as reference to Meritaten to make room for the double car[26]
the prime candidate as Akhenatens coregent and succes- touche of King Neferneferuaten.
sor, the female Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten.
The identity of King Neferneferuaten is a matter of de-
24.3.1
Neferneferuaten
bate. Initially, Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were assumed to be the same person, primarily on the basis of the
repeated throne name. Today the leading candidates are
Nefertiti or Meritaten.
79
The name Neferneferuaten is a much more recent addition to the picture. Much of the evidence for her has had
to be resurrected from erased inscriptions and she has
become accepted as an individual by most Egyptologists
only within the last 20 years. As a newcomer, many synoptic references such as encyclopedia, museum chronologies, atlases and king lists don't even mention her. In her
case, the Pairi inscription oers a clear indication of a
sole reign with a coregency being more a matter of interpretation.
Gaboldes Meritaten theory has the problem of the various private stelae depicting the female coregent with
Akhenaten who would be dead by the time of her rule.
He suggests these are retrospective, but since they are private cult stela, this would require a number of people to
get the same idea to commission a retrospective, commemorative stela at the same time. Allen notes that the
everyday interaction portrayed in them more likely indicates two living people.[22]
As a result Egyptologists divide on the identity of Akhenatens coregent and his successor.
80
would be one of the best ways to make amends with the
cult of Amen. If seen as her temple it is no help xing the
succession order, but also eliminates the sole reference to
Smenkhkare after the reign of Akhenaten.
24.6.1 Nefertiti
81
24.6.3
Ankhesenamun
In support of Ankhesenamun, is the idea that Tutankhamun 'lie in state' for some time. The Hittite sources
indicate he died in the fall, but a cornower pectoral indicates he was not buried until April or May.[45] As such,
there may have been time for the letter writing and travel.
Ankhesenamun is made more plausible if she had the
backing of Ay or Horemheb, or both. Against her, is the
simpler explanation that the delay in burial was the result
of his unexpected death and unnished tomb.
Details for the Dakhamunzu/Zannanza aair are entirely
from Hittite sources written many years after the events.
There is the possibility that Mursili is revising history to
some extent, placing full responsibility for the asco on
the Egyptians[46] leaving the details unreliable.
24.7 Reign
The sole regnal date (year 1) attested for Smenkhkare
comes from a wine docket from the house of
Smenkhkare. This date might however refer either to the
reign of Smenkhkare or his successor, but it is doubtful
he ruled for more than year.[47] As already noted, Dodson views Smenkhkare as Akhenatens coregent for about
a year beginning about Year 13 who did not have a sole
reign,[48] while Allen depicts Smenkhkare as successor to
Neferneferuaten.[30]
82
to Smenkhkare, nor is his name found there. The tomb the same rare blood type.[58] Taken together, the KV55
is certainly not betting any king, but even less so for mummy was assumed to be the father or brother of TuAkhenaten.
tankhamun. Brother seemed more likely since the age
would only be old enough to plausibly father a child at
the upper extremes.
24.8.1
opathology, Baker takes issue with the identication of the skeletonized mummy KV55 as
Tutankhamuns father, Akhenaten. The authors [Hawass et al in JAMA] place this individuals age at the time of death at 35-45,
despite producing no evidence that repudiates
well-known prior examinations citing the age
in the 18-26 range.
24.9. SUMMARY
These earlier analyses documented with
written descriptions, photographs and radiographs show a pattern of fused and unfused epiphyses (caps on ends of growing
bones) throughout the skeleton, indicating a
man much younger than Akhenaten is believed
to have been at the time of his death. Baker
also uses a photograph of the pubic symphysis
of the pelvis to narrow the age of KV55 to 1823 based on recent techniques used in osteology and forensic anthropology.[70]
83
greeting gift of copper, explaining that a plague had killed
o many of his copper miners.[72] Something similar may
well have struck Amarna, if not Egypt.
After the capital moved from Amarna, Akhenatens successor could have been faced with a severe shortage of
tombs for royal reburials.[73] Smenkhkare would be in
a particularly bad situation. Since he died young and
reigned so briey he would not have had time to make
and accumulate the grave goods betting a king. In the
end, the tomb seems to have been simply sealed up with
the mummy and whatever was available.[73]
24.10 References
[1] Clayton,P., Chronicle of the Pharaohs (Thames and Hudson, 2006) p.120
[2] de Garies Davies, N. 1905. The Rock Tombs of El
Amarna, Part II: The Tombs of Panehesy and Meryra II.
84
[31] Allen, James P. (1994). Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Gttinger Miszellen 141. pp. 7-17
[52] Davis, T.M., The Tomb of Queen Tiyi, (KMT Communications, 1990) p. viii, p. xiv
24.11. GALLERY
85
24.11 Gallery
A royal vulture pectoral which was found placed on
the head of the KV55 mummy.
A feminine gure assumed to be Nefertiti, wearing
the Kheperesh or Blue Crown of a king pours a
libation for Akhenaten.
24.12 Bibliography
Aldred, Cyril; Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames &
Hudson, 1988)
[63] News from the Valley of the Kings: DNA Shows that
KV55 Mummy Probably Not Akhenaten. Kv64.info.
2010-03-02. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
Giles, Frederick. J.; The Amarna Age: Egypt (Australian Centre for Egyptology, 2001)
Habicht, Michael E.: Semenchkare - PhantomKnig(in) von Achet-Aton (epubli, Berlin 2014).
ISBN 978-3844281699
O'Connor, D and Cline, E, (eds); Amenhotep III:
perspectives on his reign (1998) University of Michigan Press
Dayr al-Barsha Project; Press Release, Dec 2012;
Online English Press Release
Gabolde, Marc. DAkhenaton Tout-nkhamon
(1998) Paris
Hawass, Z., Y. Gad, et al. Ancestry and Pathology
in King Tutankhamuns Family (2010) in Journal of
the American medical Association 303/7.
86
Hornung, E., 1999, Akhenaten and the Religion of
Light, Cornell University
Hornung, E. 2006: The New Kingdom, in E. Hornung, R. Krauss and D.A. Warburton, eds., Ancient
Egyptian Chronology (HdO I/83), Leiden Boston.
Krauss, Rolf; Das Ende der Amarnazeit (The End
of the Amarna Period); 1978, Hildesheim
Petrie, W M Flinders; Tell el Amarna (1894)
Pendlebury J., Samson, J. et al.; City of Akhenaten,
Part III (1951)
Murnane, W.; Ancient Egyptian Coregencies, (1977)
Murnane, W.; Texts from the Amarna Period,
(1995)
Miller, J; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity
of Nibhururiya in Altoriental. Forsch. 34 (2007)
Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts false Prophet
(Thames and Hudson; 2001)
Reeves, C.N., The Valley of the Kings (Kegan Paul,
1990)
Reeves, C.N., The Complete Tutankhamun: The
King - The Tomb - The Royal Treasure. London:
Thames and Hudson; 1990.
Wente, E; Who Was Who Among the Royal Mummies?; (1995), Oriental Institute, Chicago
Chapter 25
25.1 Description
25.3 Bibliography
25.5 References
87
88
Chapter 26
Temple of Amenhotep IV
The structures within the Temple of Amenhotep IV at
Karnak in Luxor, Egypt, were used during the rst four
years of the reign of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten,
when he still referred to himself as Amenhotep IV, although they may have been constructed at the end of the
reign of Amenhotep III, and completed by his son, the
future Akhenaten. [1]
26.1.3 Teni-menu
26.1.1
The walls of the Teni-menu were reused in the Ninth Pylon of the main Karnak temple. They have since been
identied and reassembled like a giant puzzle and are
partly exhibited in the Luxor museum. The scenes show
residential, administrative and royal temples and solar Jubilee scenes of the rst Sed-festival, Akhenaten was probably celebrating at the same time as his father, and when
the Queen Tiye attended.
Gempaaten
89
90
26.2.2
Further reading
Chapter 27
Thutmose (sculptor)
The Kings Favourite and Master of Works, the Sculptor
Thutmose" (also spelled Djhutmose and Thutmosis),
ourished 1350 BC, is thought to have been the ocial
court sculptor of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten in the
latter part of his reign. A German archaeological expedition digging in Akhenatens deserted city of Akhetaton,
at Amarna, found a ruined house and studio complex (labeled P47.1-3)[1] in early December 1912;[2] the building
was identied as that of Thutmose based on an ivory horse
blinker found in a rubbish pit in the courtyard inscribed
with his name and job title.[3] Since it gave his occupation as sculptor and the building was clearly a sculpture
workshop, it seemed a logical connection.
92
27.3 Tomb
In 1996 the French Egyptologist Alain Zivie discovered at
Saqqara the decorated rock cut tomb of the head of the
painters in the place of truth, Thutmose. The tomb dates
to the time shortly after the Amarna Period. Although
the title of the Thutmose in Saqqara is slightly dierent
from the title of the Thutmose known from Amarna, it
seems likely that they refer to the same person and that the
dierent titles represent dierent stages in his career.[7]
27.4 Footnotes
[1] Located at 273811N 305347E / 27.63639N
30.89639E
[2] Krauss. (2008) p. 47.
[3] Reeves. (2005) p. 157.
[4] Sweeney. (2004) p. 67.
[5] Sweeney. (2004) p. 79.
[6] Tyldesley (2006). p. 126-127.
[7] Alain Zivie: La tombe de Thoutmes, directeur des peintres
dans la Place de Mat, 2013
27.4.1
Bibliography
Dodson, Aidan (2009). Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian
Counter-Reformation. The American University in
Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-416-304-3.
Krauss, Rolf (2008). Why Nefertiti Went to
Berlin. KMT 19 (3): 4453.
Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of
Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05145-3.
Sweeney, Deborah (2004). Forever Young? The
Representation of Older and Ageing Women in Ancient Egyptian Art. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (American Research Center
in Egypt) 41: 6784. doi:10.2307/20297188.
Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (Thames
and Hudson, 1988), pp. 59.
Rita E. Freed, Yvonne J. Markowitz, Sue H.
D'Auria, Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten - Nefertiti - Tutankhamen (Museum of Fine Arts, 1999),
pp. 123126.
Chapter 28
TT188
Tomb TT188, located in the necropolis of El-Khokha in 28.2 Other Tomb
Thebes in Egypt, is the tomb of the Steward and Kings
Cupbearer Parennefer.[1][2] It has been excavated by the Parennefer also had a tomb (no 7) constructed at
Akhenaten Temple Project.
Amarna.[7]
It is one of the few tombs in the Theban necropolis that
was carved and decorated solely during the early years
of the rule of Akhenaten.[3] The tomb is decorated with 28.3 References
sculpted scenes, some of which were painted. The scenes
were all badly damaged and the name of Parennefer [1] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
was carefully removed. The decoration includes harvest
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), pp 91-92, ISBN 0-500scenes, the presentation of temple-staves at the inaugura27621-8
tion of Akhenaten, and an award scene showing Parennefer before the royal couple. In the tomb Akhenaten [2] Porter, Bertha and Moss, Rosalind, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Statues,
goes by his initial name Amenhotep (IV).[1][4]
The scenes in the tomb may be the rst to show
Queen Nefertiti. An unnamed royal woman accompanies Akhenaten as he worships the Aten and sits besides
the king in a scene showiwing Parennefer before his king
and queen. The queen is thought to be Nefertiti.[5]
The scenes in the tomb of Parennefer show some of the
earliest examples of Amarna style depictions. The gures show the rounded form that will become typical in
Amarna art, and courtiers are shown bending from the
waist with their arms hanging down.[6]
Mummies, cons and other remains show that the tomb
was later reused during the 21st and 22nd dynasties, and
robber tunnels have led the way to new and unrecorded
tombs, whose entrances cannot be located from outside.
Chapter 29
3199 Nefertiti
3199 Nefertiti (1982 RA) is a near-Earth Amor asteroid
discovered on September 13, 1982 by husband and wife
team Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at Palomar. It was
named after the Egyptian queen Nefertiti, mother-in-law
of Tutankhamun.
94
Chapter 30
Nefertiti Bust
The Nefertiti Bust is a 3,300-year-old painted limestone
bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian
Pharaoh Akhenaten, and one of the most copied works of
ancient Egypt. Owing to the work, Nefertiti has become
one of the most famous women of the ancient world, and
an icon of feminine beauty. The work is believed to have
been crafted in 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose.
A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt
discovered the Nefertiti bust in 1912 in Thutmoses workshop in Amarna, Egypt. It has been kept at several locations in Germany since its discovery, including a salt
mine in Merkers-Kieselbach, the Dahlem museum (then
in West Berlin), the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg
and the Altes Museum. It is currently on display at the restored and recently re-opened Neues Museum in Berlin, A house altar (c. 1350 BC) depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and
three of their daughters. Note Nefertiti wears a crown similar to
where it was displayed before World War II.
that depicted on the bust.
30.1 History
30.1.1
Background
30.1.2 Discovery
The Nefertiti bust was found on 6 December 1912 at
Amarna by the German Oriental Company (Deutsche
Orient-Gesellschaft DOG), led by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt. It was found in what had been
the sculptor Thutmoses workshop, along with other unnished busts of Nefertiti.[7][8] Borchardts diary provides
the main written account of the nd; he remarks, Suddenly we had in our hands the most alive Egyptian artwork. You cannot describe it with words. You must see
it.[9]
95
96
Nefertiti bust
30.2.1 Colors
A 1924 document found in the archives of the German
Oriental Company recalls the 20 January 1913 meeting
between Ludwig Borchardt and a senior Egyptian ocial
to discuss the division of the archeological nds of 1912
between Germany and Egypt. According to the secretary
of the German Oriental Company (who was the author of
the document and who was present at the meeting), Borchardt wanted to save the bust for us.[1][10] Borchardt
is suspected of having concealed the busts real value,[11]
although he denied doing so.[12]
While Philipp Vandenberg describes the coup as adven Yellow: orpiment (arsenic sulde)
turous and beyond comparison,[13] Time magazine lists
Green: powdered frit, colored with copper and iron
it among the Top 10 Plundered Artifacts.[14] Borchardt
oxide
showed the Egyptian ocial a photograph of the bust
that didn't show Nefertiti in her best light. The bust
Black: coal with wax as a binding medium
was wrapped up in a box when Egypts chief antiques inspector Gustave Lefebvre came for inspection. The doc White: chalk (calcium carbonate)
ument reveals that Borchardt claimed the bust was made
of gypsum to mislead the inspector. The German Oriental Company blames the negligence of the inspector and 30.2.2 Missing left eye
points out that the bust was at the top of the exchange list
When the bust was rst discovered, no inserted piece of
and says the deal was done fairly.[10][15]
quartz to represent the iris of the left eyeball was present,
as in the other eye, and none was found despite an intensive search and a reward of 5 being put up.[22] Borchardt
30.2 Description and examinations assumed that the quartz iris of the left eye had fallen out
when the sculptor Thutmoses workshop fell into ruin.[23]
The bust of Nefertiti is 47 centimetres (19 in) tall and The missing eye led to speculation that Nefertiti may have
weighs about 20 kilograms (44 lb). It is made of a suered from an ophthalmic infection, and actually lost
limestone core covered with painted stucco layers. The her left eye, though the presence of an iris in other statues
face is completely symmetrical and almost intact, but the contradicted this possibility.[24]
97
30.2.3
Locations in Germany
CT scans
98
October 2009.[11][36][37]
30.4 Controversies
30.4.1
99
ploration in Egypt.[31][45][46] The Egyptian Minister for
Culture, Farouk Hosny, declared that Nefertiti was not
in safe hands, and although Egypt had not renewed their
claims for restitution due to the good relations with Germany, this recent behaviour was unacceptable.[35]
30.6 References
Notes
30.4.3
100
campaign
website.
Retrieved 22 November
Books
Anthes, Rudolph (1961). Nofretete The Head of
Queen Nofretete. Gebr. Mann.
Breger, Claudia (2006). The 'Berlin' Nefertiti
Bust. In Regina Schulte. The body of the queen:
gender and rule in the courtly world, 15002000.
Berghahn Book. ISBN 1-84545-159-7.
Siehr, Kurt G (August 2006). The Beautiful One
has come to Return. In John Henry Merryman.
Imperialism, art and restitution. CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS. ISBN 0-521-85929-8.
Silverman, David P.; Wegner, Josef William; Wegner, Jennifer Houser (2006). Akhenaten and Tutankhamun: revolution and restoration. University
of Pennsylvania, Museum of Archaeology. ISBN
978-1-931707-90-9.
101
Chapter 31
Aten
For other uses, see Aten (disambiguation).
ened to Ra-Horus-Aten or just Aten in many texts, but the
Aten (also Aton, Egyptian jtn) is the disk of the sun in god of Akhenaten raised to supremacy is considered a
synthesis of very ancient gods viewed in a new and dierent way. The god is also considered to be both masculine
and feminine simultaneously. All creation was thought to
emanate from the god and to exist within the god. In particular, the god was not depicted in anthropomorphic (human) form, but as rays of light extending from the suns
disk.
Aten
31.1 Overview
The Aten, the sun-disk, is rst referred to as a deity in The
Story of Sinuhe from the 12th dynasty,[1] in which the
deceased king is described as rising as god to the heavens and uniting with the sun-disk, the divine body merging with its maker.[2] By analogy, the term silver aten
was sometimes used to refer to the moon.[3] The solar
Aten was extensively worshipped as a god in the reign of
Amenhotep III, when it was depicted as a falcon-headed
man much like Ra. In the reign of Amenhotep IIIs successor, Amenhotep IV, the Aten became the central god
of Egyptian state religion, and Amenhotep IV changed
his name to Akhenaten to reect his close link with the
new supreme deity.[1]
The full title of Akhenatens god was "Ra-Horakhty who
rejoices in the horizon, in his Name as the Light which
is in the sun disc. (This is the title of the god as it appears on the numerous stelae which were placed to mark
the boundaries of Akhenatens new capital at Akhetaten,
modern Amarna.) This lengthy name was often short-
102
103
31.2.1
Variant translations
Inti
Moses
Pharaoh of the Exodus
31.4 References
[1] Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and
Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. pp. 236
240
[2] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.1, 1980,
p.223
[3] Fleming, Fergus, and Alan Lothian (1997). The Way to
Eternity: Egyptian Myth. Duncan Baird Publishers. p. 52
[4] Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies,
Stanford University Press 2005, p.59
104
Chapter 32
Atenism
Aten
Atenism, or the Amarna heresy, refers to the religious changes associated with the eighteenth dynasty
Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, better known under his adopted
name, Akhenaten. In the 14th century BC Atenism
was Egypt's state religion for around 20 years, before
subsequent rulers returned to the traditional gods and
the Pharaohs associated with Atenism were erased from
Egyptian records.
other gods or attempted to promote the Aten as an excluThe Atenthe god of Atenismrst appears in texts sive deity.
dating to the 12th dynasty, in the Story of Sinuhe.
Here during the Middle Kingdom, the Aten as the sun
disk...was merely one aspect of the sun god Re.[1] The 32.2 Atenist revolution
Aten, hence, was a relatively obscure sun god; without the Atenist period, it would barely have gured in
Egyptian history. Although there are indications that the Amenhotep IV initially introduced Atenism in Year 5 of
Aten was becoming slightly more important in the eigh- his reign (1348/1346 BC), raising the Aten to the status of
the continued worteenth dynasty periodnotably Amenhotep III's naming supreme god, after initially permitting
[3]
To
emphasise
the change,
ship
of
the
traditional
gods.
of his royal barge as Spirit of the Atenit was Amenhotep
cartouche
form
normally
Atens
name
was
written
in
the
IV who introduced the Atenist revolution, in a series of
reserved
for
Pharaohs,
an
innovation
of
Atenism.
This
steps culminating in the ocial installment of the Aten as
religious
reformation
appears
to
coincide
with
the
proclaEgypts sole god. Although each line of kings prior to the
reign of Akhenaten[2] had previously adopted one deity as mation of a Sed festival, a sort of royal jubilee intended to
the royal patron and supreme state god, there had never reinforce the Pharaohs divine powers of kingship. Trabeen an attempt to exclude other deities, and the mul- ditionally held in the thirtieth year of the Pharaohs reign,
titude of gods had been tolerated and worshipped at all this possibly was a festival in honour of Amenhotep III,
times. During the reign of Thutmosis IV it was identied whom some Egyptologists think had a coregency with his
as a distinct solar god, and his son Amenhotep III estab- son Amenhotep IV of two to twelve years.
lished and promoted a separate cult for the Aten. There Year 5 is believed to mark the beginning of Amenhotep
is no evidence however that Amenhotep III neglected the IVs construction of a new capital, Akhetaten (Horizon of
105
106
the Aten), at the site known today as Amarna. Evidence
of this appears on three of the boundary stelae used to
mark the boundaries of this new capital. At this time,
Amenhotep IV ocially changed his name to Akhenaten
(Spirit of the Aten) as evidence of his new worship. The
date given for the event has been estimated to fall around
January 2 of that year. In Year 7 of his reign (1346/1344
BC ) the capital was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten
(near modern Amarna), though construction of the city
seems to have continued for two more years. In shifting
his court from the traditional ceremonial centres Akhenaten was signalling a dramatic transformation in the focus
of religious and political power.
The move separated the Pharaoh and his court from the
inuence of the priesthood and from the traditional centres of worship, but his decree had deeper religious significance tootaken in conjunction with his name change,
it is possible that the move to Amarna was also meant as
a signal of Akhenatens symbolic death and rebirth. It
may also have coincided with the death of his father and
the end of the coregency. In addition to constructing a
new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the
construction of some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one
at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun.
107
108
32.8 Literature
Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten, King of Egypt ISBN 0500-05048-1
Mahfouz, Naguib, Akhenaten: Dweller in Truth
ISBN 0-385-49909-4
Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King
ISBN 0-691-00217-7
Reeves, Nicholas, Akhenaton: Egypts False Prophet
ISBN 0-500-28552-7
32.10 References
[1] Rosalie David, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt, Facts
on File Inc., 1998. p.124
[2] Rosalie David, op. cit., p.124
[3] Rosalie David, op. cit., p.125
[4] Hart, George (2005). The Routledge dictionary of Egyptian gods and goddesses (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 39.
ISBN 978-0-415-34495-1.
[5] Montserrat, Dominic (2002). Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egyp. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 9780415301862.
[6] John Baines (1998). The Dawn of the Amarna Age. In
David O'Connor, Eric Cline. Amenhotep III: Perspectives
on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. p. 281.
Chapter 33
33.1 Construction
109
110
ings stood at the beginning of a paved avenue. The avenue extended eastward and was lined with sphinxes, but
they were later replaced by trees (tree pits, some still containing tree roots, have been excavated). The avenue led
up to a small mud-brick shrine which was later built into
the main design scheme of the Temple.[4] The rst main
construction undertaken by Akhenaten was the building
of the temenos wall, enclosing a huge area of 229m x
730m.[5] As the wall was being completed, the stone
Sanctuary at the east end of the enclosure was built. This
Sanctuary seemed to function on its own for some time
until a few years later when Akhenaten added the GemAten on the west side of the enclosure. With this addition,
the original ceremonial gate had to be taken down and a
raised causeway was built over it. The Gem-Aten was
originally constructed in stone, but it seems that as time
went on Akhenaten ran low on materials and the latter
part of the Gem-Aten was nished with mud-brick.[4] It
is unknown exactly how the Temple walls were decorated
because the entire area was destroyed later on, but fragments that have been found show that there were many
statues of Akhenaten and his family placed all around the
Temple.[4]
33.2 Layout
The Great Temple of the Aten lay to the north of the Central City part of Akhetaten and was separated from the
Palace by many storehouses.[6] The Temple was oriented
on an east-west axis[6] and the western entrance to the
Great Temple was along the Royal Road, a road that ran
through the city and parallel to the Nile River.[3] Soon
after the death of Akhenaten, Atenism was rejected as
a religion and the city was destroyed. The temple was
dismantled, covered in new sand, and paved over, but
ironically this has preserved the site better than it might
normally have been for archaeologists today.[4] In 1890,
Flinders Petrie, with permission from the Egyptian Antiquities Service, began excavating the area.[7] Based on
the remaining foundations he found[5] as well as on multiple scenes of the Great Temple found in private tomb
decoration in Amarna, a comprehensive reconstruction
of the temple has been possible.[7]
111
burning incense and pouring libations.[1] To consecrate
oerings, a special baton called a hrp was used to touch
the oerings, marking it as meant for the Aten.[1]
On each day, the Royal Family approached the temple on
chariots after riding up and down the Royal Road,[4] and
entered the temple precinct and presented oerings in
front of the Gem-Aten.[1] The King and Queen then consecrated their oerings with the hrp while their daughters rattled instruments called sistra.[1] The family then
passed through the pylons of the Gem-Aten and mounted
the steps of the High Altar where there were oerings
of meat, poultry, vegetables, and owers already laid out
and surmounted by three pans of burning incense.[1] As
the King and Queen ociated, priests then placed offerings on many of the other altars for the public people while music was played. The Princesses continued to
rattle the sistra while four male chanters sang hymns to
the Aten within the Gem-Aten court.[1] Outside the GemAten were female musicians who performed along with
the temple choir which was made up of blind singers and
a blind harpist. These musicians performed at intervals
throughout the day and were never allowed beyond the
outer court.[1]
33.3 Worship
112
A fragmentary face.
Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 221-225.
33.6 References
[1] Barbara Watterson, Amarna: Ancient Egypts Age of
Revolution (Charleston, SC: Tempus Publishing, 1999),
69-72.
[2] John Baines and Jaromir Malek, Cultural Atlas of Ancient
Egypt, ed. Graham Speake (Oxfordshire: Andromeda,
1980), 36.
[3] Kathryn A. Bard, An Introduction to the Archaeology
of Ancient Egypt (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing,
2008), 221-225.
[4] J.D.S. Pendlebury, Tell el-Amarna (London: Lovat Dickson & Thomson Ltd., 1935), 65-100.
[5] Gay Robins, The Art of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1997), 153.
[6] Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs
(London: Thames and Hudson, 1987), 108-109.
[7] Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten: King of Egypt (New York:
Thames and Hudson, 1988), 25-26, 52, 67, 273-275.
[8] Robert Hari, New Kingdom Amarna Period (The Netherlands: Leiden E. J. Brill, 1985), 10.
[9] Arthur Weigall, The Life and Times of Akhnaton (New
York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 1923), 172-175.
[10] Siegfried Morenz, Egyptian Religion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1973), 51.
[11] Ancient Egyptian City Spotted From Space
Chapter 34
Meryre
For the given name, see Meryre (given name).
The Egyptian noble Meryre (also Merire) was the only
certain High Priest of the Aten. Amongst his other titles were Hereditary Noble and High Ocial and Fanbearer on the Right Side of the King[1] which emphasise
his closeness to the king.[2]
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Tomb 4, although
his remains have never been identied. (See Tombs of
the Nobles.)
34.1 References
[1] Breasted (1906) 988
[2] TOMB N4, Amarna. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
34.2 Literature
J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Chicago
1906, Part Two, .982-988
113
Chapter 35
Neferneferuaten
For other individuals named Neferneferuaten, see Neferneferuaten.
35.1.1 Manetho
As illustrated in a 2011 Metropolitan Museum of Art[4] Manetho was a priest in the time of the Ptolemies in the
symposium on Horemheb, the general chronology of the Third Century B.C.E. His Egyptian History divided the
late 18th Dynasty is:
rulers into dynasties which forms the basis of the modern
There is no broad consensus as to the succession order system of dating Ancient Egypt. His work has been lost
of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten. With little dated and is known only in fragmentary form from later writers
evidence to x their reigns with any certainty, the order quoting his work. As a result of the suppression of the
depends on how the evidence is interpreted. Many ency- Amarna kings, Manetho is the sole ancient record availclopedic sources and atlases will show Smenkhkare suc- able.
ceeding Akhenaten on the basis of tradition dating back
Manethos Epitome, a summary of his work, describes the
to 1845, and some still conate Smenkhkare with Nefer- late 18th Dynasty succession as "Amenophis for 30 years
neferuaten.
10 months",[5] who seems likely to be Amenhotep III.
The period from the 13th year of Akhenaten's reign to Then "his son Orus for 36 years 5 months", this is often
the ascension of Tutankhaten is very murky. The reigns seen as a corruption of the name Horemheb with the enof Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were very brief and tire Amarna period attributed to him, but others see Orus
left little monumental or inscriptional evidence to draw as Akhenaten.
a clear picture of political events. Adding to this, Ne- Next comes "his daughter Acencheres for 12 years 1
ferneferuaten shares her prenomen, or throne name, with month then her brother Rathotis for 9 years". Acencheres
Smenkhkare, and her nomen (or birth name) with Queen is Ankhkheperure according to Gabolde,[6] with a tranNefertiti-Neferneferuaten making identication very dif- scription error assumed which converted 2 years, 1 month
cult at times.
into the 12 years, 1 month reported (Africanus and EuThe Egyptians themselves tried to hide the evidence of
the Amarna kings reigns from us. Neferneferuatens successor seems to have denied her a kings burial and, later,
in the reign of Horemheb, the entire Amarna period began to be regarded as anathema and the reigns of the
114
115
explicable and demonstrate the limits to which Manetho a new king. The jar also seems to indicate a coregency,
can be relied upon.
but may be a case of one king associating himself with a
predecessor. The simple association of names is not always indicative of a coregency.[9] As with many things of
this period, the evidence is suggestive, but not conclusive.
35.2 Key evidence
There are several items central to the slow unveiling regarding the existence, gender and identity of Neferneferuaten. These continue to be key elements to various theories today.
The name of King Ankheprure SmenkhkareDjeserkheperu was known as far back as 1845 from
the tomb of Meryre II. There, he and Meritaten,
bearing the title Great Royal Wife, are shown rewarding the tombs owner. The names of the king
have since been cut out but had been recorded by
Lepsius ca 1850.[7] A dierent scene on a dierent
wall depicts the famous Durbar scene which is dated
to regnal year 12.
A calcite globular vase from the tomb of
Tutankhamun bears the full double cartouche of
Akhenaten alongside the full double cartouche of
Smenkhkare. It is the only object to carry both
names side by side.[8]
Inscription from Carter 001k, a box from Tutankhamuns tomb.
These can be taken to represent that the two were coregents, as was the case initially. However, the scene in the
tomb of Meryre is not dated and Akhenaten is neither depicted nor mentioned in it. It is not known with certainty
when the tomb owner died or if he may lived on to serve
116
The most denitive inscription attesting to Neferneferuaten is a hieratic inscription in the tomb of Pairi
(TT139):
Regnal year 3, third month of Inundation, day 10. The King of Upper and Lower
Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands Ankhkheperure
Beloved of Aten, the Son of Re Neferneferuaten
Beloved of Waenre. Giving worship to Amun,
kissing the ground to Wenennefer by the lay
priest, scribe of the divine oerings of Amun
in the Mansion [temple] of Ankhkheperure in
Thebes, Pawah, born to Yotefseneb. He says:
...[13]
A number of items in Tutankhamun's tomb were originally intended for Neferneferuaten. Among them Carter
261p(1), a stunning gold pectoral depicting the goddess Nut. Other items include the stone sarcophagus,
mummy wrappings, royal gurines; canopic items (chest,
conettes and jar stoppers), various bracelets and even
shabti gures. Some items are believed to have been at
least originally intended for a female based on the style
even when a name cannot be restored.
117
35.3.1
118
35.3.2
Sole reign?
119
The focus now shifts to the identity of Neferneferuaten, was added to her image, it would argue quite strongly that
with each candidate having its own advocate(s), a debate Nefertiti adopted a new name and title.[36] As it is, the
which may never be settled to the satisfaction of all.
scene seems to be another of the royal family including
at least Meritaten. Replacing the name Nefertiti with the
name King Neferneferuaten in a depiction of the royal
35.4.1 Nefertiti
family, still seems to favor Nefertiti as the new king.
The primary argument against Nefertiti has been that she
likely died sometime after year 12, the last dated depiction of her. Typically, when someone disappears from inscriptions and depictions, the simplest explanation is that
they died. Evidence suggesting this includes:
Pieces of a shabtia funerary guremay indicate her title at death was Great Royal Wife. The
shabti is in two pieces with a piece tting between
them assumed. One piece bears her name, NefertitiNeferneferuaten, the other the title Great Royal
Wife.
Nefertiti was an early candidate for King Neferneferuaten, rst proposed in 1973 by J.R. Harris.[29] One theory from the 1970s held that Nefertiti was masquerading as the male King Smenkhkare,[30] a view still held
by a few as late as 2001 by Reeves[16] and until 2004 by
Dodson.[31]
The apparent use of her name made her an obvious candidate even before Neferneferuatens gender was rmly established. Remains of painted plaster bearing the kingly
names of Neferneferuaten found in the Northern Palace,
long believed to be the residence of Nefertiti, supports
the association of Nefertiti as the king.[32]
Nefertiti was well in the forefront during her husbands
reign and even depicted engaging in kingly activities such
as smiting the enemies of Egypt (see image, right).[33]
The core premise is that her prominence and attendant
power in the Amarna period was almost unprecedented
for a queen which makes her the most likely and most
able female to succeed Akhenaten.[16][34][35]
The Coregency Stela (UC 410) mentioned earlier might
resolve the question if it were not so badly damaged. The
name Neferneferuaten replaced Nefertitis name on it.
How the image of Nefertiti was changed to match the new
inscription could settle matters if her image was not missing. If her entire image was replaced it would mean Nefertiti was replaced by someone else called King Neferneferuaten and perhaps that she died. If just a new crown
120
35.4.2 Meritaten
Meritaten as a candidate for Neferneferuaten seems to
be the most uid, taking many forms depending on the
views of the Egyptologist. She had been put forth by
Rolf Krauss in 1973 to explain the feminine traces in the
prenomen and epithets of Ankhkheprure and to conform
to Manethos description of a Akenkheres as a daughter
of Oros.[1] Though few Egyptologists endorsed the whole
hypothesis, many did accept her at times as the probable
or possible candidate for a female Ankhkheprure ruling
121
for a time after Smenkhkares death and perhaps as regent The traditional view has long been that the plot took place
to Tutankhaten.[52]
after the death of Tutankhamun and that Ankhesenamun
The primary argument against Meritaten either as is the queen, largely based on the fact that she did eventuKrausss pro tempore Ankh-et-kheprure before marriage ally married a servant Ay. Miller points out that "serto Smenkhkare or as Akhenatens coregent King Nefer- vant is likely used in a disparaging manner, rather than
neferuaten is that she is well attested as wife and queen literally, and probably with reference to real persons who
to Smenkhkare. For her to have later ruled as king indeed were being put forth as candidates." If the refermeans necessarily, and perhaps incredibly for her sub- ence to a 'servant' no longer exclusively indicates Ay, then
Meritaten and Nefertiti become candidates as well, since
jects, that she stepped down from King to the role of
[57]
[25]
Kings Wife. This view places Smenkhkare after Ne- neither has sons known to us.
ferneferuaten which requires the Meryre depiction to be The Smenkhkare/Zannanza version garners little supdrawn 56 years after the 'Durbar' depiction it is along- port among Egyptologists. With the presence of Tuside and several years after work on tombs had stopped. tankhamun, Miller points out Meritaten "would presumThe counter to this view comes from Marc Galbolde, ably have needed the backing of some powerful supwho oers political necessity as the reason for Meritatens porter(s) to carry out such a scheme as the tahamunzu
demotion.[53] He sees the box (Carter 001k tomb naming episode, one is left with the question of why this supporter
to throw his weight behind such a darher alongside Akhenaten and Nefernferuaten) as depict- would have chosen
[58]
ing
scheme".
For
the plot to succeed, it assumes the
ing Meritaten in simultaneous roles using the name Neyoung
Meritaten
with
her co-conspirators successfully deferneferuaten as coregent and using her birth name in the
ceived
Suppiluliuma
and
his envoys (for there was a royal
[54]
role of royal wife to Akhenaten. He has also proposed
male
Tut
though
not
actually
her son) and that the plot
that the Meryre drawing was executed in advance of an
remained
secret
during
the
period
of letter writing and
anticipated coronation, which ended up not taking place
Zannanzas
travel
to
Egypt.
It
assumes
the other elements
[49]
due to his death.
of Egyptian society remained idle with a female interregMost Egyptologists see two names indicating two indi- num on the throne and a royal male standing by while
vidual people as the simplest and more likely view.[8][55] this played out. On the Hittite side, it assumes that SupMost name changes in the Amarna period involved peo- piluliuma was not only willing to risk the consequences if
ple incorporating -Aten into their name or removing the plot were uncovered, but rather than merely shrewd,
an increasingly oensive -Amun element. Merit-Aten Suppiluliuma was ruthless in the extreme and willing to
would have had no such need, nor would she need to adopt risk the life of his son on a precarious endeavor where he
pharaonic aires such as a double cartouche simply to act suspected trickery.[59]
on behalf of her husband.
Details for the Dakhamunzu/Zannanza aair are entirely
If Nefertiti should be veried as alive as late as Year 16 from Hittite sources written many years after the events.
of Akhenatens reign, the Meritaten theory becomes less As Miller states, they were "written in full knowledge of
likely because she would no longer be the most likely liv- the schemes dismal failure, and one cannot dismiss the
ing person to be using either the name nor Eective for possibility that Mursili is revising history to some extent,
her husband as an epithet.
placing full responsibility for the asco on the Egyptians,
absolving his father of any blame for his failed gamble,
giving the impression that he had done everything in his
Meritaten as Dakhamunzu theory
power to ensure that the way was free for Zannanza to
take the Egyptian throne."[60]
See also Dakhamunzu
Marc Gabolde is perhaps the most outspoken and steadfast advocate of Meritaten as King Neferneferuaten; as
such, his theory deserves a closer look. Most recently,
he has proposed that Meritaten was raised to coregent
of Akhenaten in his nal years. She succeeds him
as interregnum regent using the name Ankhkheprure,
and is the queen of the Dakhamunzu aair with the
Hittites.[Note 1] Her ploy succeeds and the Hittite prince
Zannanza travels to Egypt and marries her to claim the
throne. He adopts the name Smenkhkare[Note 2] and her
throne name. After his death, she adopts full pharoanic
prerogatives to continue to rule as King Ankhkheperure
Neferneferuaten. Since Tut was alive and of royal lineage, Meritatens actions almost certainly must be taken
as intending to prevent his ascension.[56]
35.4.3 Neferneferuaten-tasherit
In 2006, James Allen proposed a new reading of
events.[25] Citing the evidence above, he nds it likely
Nefertiti died after year 13. About that time, Akhenaten began attempting to father his own grandchildren. Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten appear with their
daughters in reliefs from Amarna which originally depicted Kiya with her daughter.[61] Meritaten-tasherit and
Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit bear the titles 'Kings daughter
of his body, his desired...' and 'born of Kings daughter
of his body, his desired...'. It is a matter of some debate
whether this means Akhenaten actually fathered his own
grandchildren, but Allen accepts the titles at face value
as a simpler explanation than 'phantom' children being
122
invented to ll space.[62]
35.7. REFERENCES
forthcoming. The result is that the Amarna Succession is
dictated by the underlying theory on the identity of King
Ankhkheperure-mery Neferkheperure Neferneferuatenmery Wa en Re.
123
35.6 Summary
There is also little that can be said with certainty about the
life and reign of Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten. Most
Egyptologists accept that she was a female and an individual apart of Smenkhkare. Many specialists in the
period believe the epigraphic evidence strongly indicates
she acted for a time as Akhenatens coregent.[16][25][35]
Whether she reigned before or after Smenkhkare depends
on the underlying theory as to her identity.
35.7 References
[1] Krauss, Rolf. Das Ende der Amarnazeit (The End of the
Amarna Period); 1978, Hildesheim; pp.4347
[2] Allen, James P. (1994). Nefertiti and Smenkh-ka-re. Gttinger Miszellen 141. pp. 717.
[3] M. Gabolde, Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky, in P. Brand
(ed.), Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane, pp. 17-21
124
[55] Murnane, W.; The End of the Amarna Period Once Again,
2001
[59] Miller, J.; The Amarna Age Chronology (2007) pp.260261; Miller believes Suppiluliuma was indeed that brutal
[and] unscrupulous"; implicitly he must have been much
less aware of the state of aairs at Amarna court than
Neferneferuaten was of minutiae regarding Suppiluliuma
such as his aliation with the Hittite sun god. p.273 n94
35.7.1
Notes
125
previous work in this area primarily dealt with establishing the female gender of Neferneferuaten and then as an
individual apart from Smenkhkare. His paper on The
Amarna Succession is his rst theory as to identity of
King Neferneferuaten, having previously cited Nefertiti
or Meritaten as the probable or possible identity depending on the state of the evidence.
Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames &
Hudson, 1988).
Aldred, Cyril (1973). Akhenaten and Nefertiti. London: Thames & Hudson.
Aldred, Cyril (1984). The Egyptians. London:
Thames & Hudson.
Allen, James H. (2006). The Amarna Succession
(PDF). Archived from the original on May 28, 2008.
Retrieved 2008-06-23.
Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete
Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ISBN 0-500-05128-3
Dodson, Aidan. Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian
Counter-Reformation. The American University in
Cairo Press. 2009, ISBN 978-977-416-304-3
Freed, Rita E., Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H.
D'Auria (ed.) (1999). Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten - Nefertiti - Tutankhamen. Bulnch Press.
ISBN 0-8212-2620-7.
Gabolde, Marc, Under a Deep Blue Starry Sky in
Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J.
Murnane"; Gabolde - Starry Sky
Giles, Frederick. J., Ikhnaton Legend and History
(1970, Associated University Press, 1972 US)
Giles, Frederick. J. The Amarna Age: Egypt (Australian Centre for Egyptology, 2001)
Hornung, Erik, Akhenaten and the Religion of
Light, translated by David Lorton, Cornell University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8014-3658-3)
Miller, Jared; Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite Text (2007); Altoriental. Forsch. 34
(2007) 2, 252293
Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King
(Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-69103567-9)
Redford, Donald B.;Akhenaten: The Heretic King
(1984) Princeton University Press
126
Reeves, C. Nicholas., Akhenaten, Egypts False
Prophet (Thames & Hudson, 2001).
Reeves, C. Nicholas., The Complete Tutankhamun:
The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London:
Thames & Hudson, 1 November 1990, ISBN 0-50005058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paperback)
Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin. 1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
The Amarna Project
Chapter 36
127
Chapter 37
Tutankhamun
King Tut redirects here. For other uses, see King Tut When he became king, he married his half-sister,
(disambiguation).
Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to
Ankhesenamun.
They had two daughters, both
[8]
stillborn.
Computed
tomography studies released in
alternatively
Tutankhamun
(/tutnkmun/;[3]
2011
revealed
that
one
daughter died at 56 months of
spelled with Tutenkh-, -amen, -amon) was an Egyptian
pregnancy
and
the
other
at
9 months of pregnancy. No evpharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled ca. 1332 BC
idence
was
found
in
either
mummy of congenital anoma1323 BC in the conventional chronology), during the
lies
or
an
apparent
cause
of
death.[14]
period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom.
He is popularly referred to as King Tut. His original
name, Tutankhaten, means Living Image of Aten",
while Tutankhamun means Living Image of Amun". 37.1.1
In hieroglyphs, the name Tutankhamun was typically
written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom
that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase
to show appropriate reverence.[4] He is possibly also
the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters, and likely the
18th dynasty king Rathotis who, according to Manetho,
an ancient historian, had reigned for nine yearsa
gure that conforms with Flavius Josephus's version of
Manethos Epitome.[5]
The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter and George
Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon[6][7] of Tutankhamuns
nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage. It
sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for
which Tutankhamuns burial mask, now in Cairo Museum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts
from his tomb have toured the world. In February 2010,
the results of DNA tests conrmed that he was the son of
Akhenaten (mummy KV55) and Akhenatens sister and
wife (mummy KV35YL), whose name is unknown but
whose remains are positively identied as "The Younger
Lady" mummy found in KV35.[8]
Reign
37.1 Life
Given his age, the king probably had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb and the
Vizier Ay. Horemheb records that the king appointed
him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain
law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king
when his temper ared.[15]
128
37.1. LIFE
129
37.1.4 Death
There are no surviving records of Tutankhamuns nal
days. What caused Tutankhamuns death has been the
subject of considerable debate. Major studies have been
conducted in an eort to establish the cause of death.
There is some evidence, advanced by Harvard microbiologist Ralph Mitchell, that his burial may have been hurried. Mitchell reported that dark brown splotches on the
decorated walls of Tutankhamuns burial chamber suggested that he had been entombed even before the paint
had a chance to dry.[29]
130
geon Dr. Hutan Ashraan, who believed that temporal he struggled against other [congenital aws] until a selobe epilepsy caused a fatal fall which also broke Tu- vere bout of malaria or a leg broken in an accident added
tankhamuns leg.[32]
one strain too many to a body that could no longer carry
In June 2010, German scientists said they believed there the load, wrote Zahi Hawass, archeologist and head of
was evidence that he had died of sickle cell disease. Other Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity involved in the
experts, however, rejected the hypothesis of homozygous research.
sickle cell disease[33] based on survival beyond the age of
5 and the location of the osteonecrosis which is characteristic of Freiberg-Kohler syndrome rather than sickle-cell
disease. Research conducted in 2005 by archaeologists,
radiologists, and geneticists, who performed CT scans on
the mummy found that he was not killed by a blow to the
head, as previously thought.[34] New CT images discovered congenital aws, which are more common among
the children of incest. Siblings are more likely to pass
on twin copies of harmful genes, which is why children
of incest more commonly manifest genetic defects.[22] It
is suspected he also had a partially cleft palate, another
congenital defect.[35]
Various other diseases, invoked as possible explanations to his early demise, included Marfan syndrome, Wilson-Turner X-linked mental retardation syndrome, Frhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy),
Klinefelter syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome,
aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal
craniosynostosis syndrome, AntleyBixler syndrome or
one of its variants,[36] and temporal lobe epilepsy.[32]
A research team, consisting of Egyptian scientists Yehia
Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Centre in Cairo, conducted further CT scans under the direction of Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem of the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University. Three international experts served as consultants: Carsten Pusch of
the Eberhard Karls University of Tbingen, Germany;
Albert Zink of the EURAC-Institute for Mummies and
the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy;[37] and Paul Gostner of
the Central Hospital Bolzano.[38] STR analysis based
DNA ngerprinting analysis combined with the other
techniques have rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley-Bixler syndrome)
or Marfan syndrome, but an accumulation of malformations in Tutankhamuns family was evident. Several pathologies including Khler disease II were diagnosed in Tutankhamun; none alone would have caused
death. Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1
genes specic for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including
Tutankhamuns.[39] However their exact contribution to
the causality of his death still is highly debated.
As stated above, the team discovered DNA from several strains of a parasite proving he was infected with the
most severe strain of malaria several times in his short
life. Malaria can trigger circulatory shock or cause a fatal
immune response in the body, either of which can lead
to death. If Tutankhamun did suer from a bone disease
which was crippling, it may not have been fatal. Perhaps
37.1.5 Aftermath
With the death of Tutankhamun and the two stillborn
children buried with him, the Thutmosid family line
came to an end. The Amarna letters indicate that Tutankhamuns wife, recently widowed, wrote to the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, asking if she could marry one of
his sons. The letters do not say how Tutankhamun died.
In the message, Ankhesenamun says that she was very
afraid, but would not take one of her own people as husband. However, the son was killed before reaching his
new wife. Shortly afterward, Ay married Tutankhamuns
widow and became Pharaoh as a war was fought be-
37.4. LEGACY
tween the two countries, and Egypt was left defeated.[45]
The fate of Ankhesenamun is not known, but she disappears from record and Ays second wife Tey became
Great Royal Wife. After Ays death, Horemheb usurped
the throne and instigated a campaign of damnatio memoriae against him. Tutankhamuns father Akhenaten, stepmother Nefertiti, his wife Ankhesenamun, half sisters
and other family members were also included. Not even
Tutankhamun was spared. His images and cartouches
were also erased. Horemheb himself, despite a possible
marriage to Nefertitis sister, Mutnedjmet, was left childless and willed the throne to Paramessu, who founded the
Ramesside family line of pharaohs.
37.2 Signicance
Tutankhamun was nine years old when he became
Pharaoh, son of god Ra, and reigned for approximately
ten years. The Egyptian sun god Ra, considered the
father of all pharaohs, was said to have created himself
from a pyramid-shaped mound of earth before creating
all other gods. (Donald B. Redford, PhD, Penn State)[46]
In historical terms, Tutankhamuns signicance stems
from the fact that his reign was close to the apogee of
Egypt as a world power and from his rejection of the radical religious innovations introduced by his predecessor
and father, Akhenaten.[47] Secondly, his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was discovered by Carter almost completely intactthe most complete ancient Egyptian royal
tomb ever found. As Tutankhamun began his reign at
such an early age, his vizier, and eventual successor Ay,
was probably making most of the important political decisions during Tutankhamuns reign.
Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary
cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one
of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his
lifetime.[48] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to
Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could
be appealed to in his deied state for forgiveness and to
free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras
in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush
included a reference to the deied king, indicative of the
universality of his cult.[49]
37.3 Tomb
Further information: KV62
Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was small relative to his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb,
so that his mummy was buried in a tomb intended for
someone else. This would preserve the observance of the
customary seventy days between death and burial.[50]
131
King Tutankhamuns mummy still rests in his tomb in the
Valley of the Kings. On 4 November 2007, 85 years to
the day after Carters discovery, the 19-year-old pharaoh
went on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when
the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden
sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case
was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists
visiting the tomb.[51]
His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based
on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, it seems clear that these robberies took
place within several months at most of the initial burial.
Eventually the location of the tomb was lost because it
had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent
tombs, either dumped there or washed there by oods. In
the years that followed, some huts for workers were built
over the tomb entrance, clearly not knowing what lay beneath. When at the end of the 20th Dynasty the Valley
of the Kings burials were systematically dismantled, the
burial of Tutankhamun was overlooked, presumably because knowledge of it had been lost and his name may
have been forgotten.
For many years, rumors of a "Curse of the Pharaohs"
(probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time
of the discovery[52] ) persisted, emphasizing the early
death of some of those who had entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicated no statistical dierence between the age of death
of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not.
37.4 Legacy
Further information: Exhibitions of artifacts from the
tomb of Tutankhamun
If Tutankhamun is the worlds best known pharaoh, it is
largely because his tomb is among the best preserved, and
his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited. As
Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977
edition of Carters The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, The pharaoh who in life was one of the least
esteemed of Egypts Pharoahs has become in death the
most renowned.
The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the
1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism, "King Tut". Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was Old King
Tut by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923, which was recorded
by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare and
Sophie Tucker. King Tut became the name of products, businesses, and even the pet dog of U.S. President
132
Herbert Hoover.
37.7. ANCESTRY
133
In the US documentary series, King Tut Unwrapped, nb-prw-r, and, again, according to modern EgyptologiMoroccan singer-actor, Faissal Oberon Azizi, por- cal convention is written Nebkheperure, meaning Lord
trayed Tutankhamun.
of the forms of Re". The name Nibhurrereya in the
Amarna letters may be closer to how his praenomen was
actually pronounced.
37.5.2
Other media
"King Tut", a whimsical 1978 song by (American comedian) "Steve Martin and the Toot Uncommons (a backup group consisting of members of
the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band).
The 1981 arcade game Tutankham revolves around
King Tutankhamun.
1989 television networks often advertised commercials for King Tuts dog food, complete with Anubisstyled canine animation and music to the tune of
"Camel Caravan. The can label was also adorned
with themed hieroglyphs.
The mummy of Tutankhamun is depicted as a villain
in Raj Comics's Nagraj, a Hindi superhero comicbook. In this series, his mask is the source of his
power.
For "Transformers" the Decepticon character
Frenzy repeats the name, Tutankhamun.
The video game Sphinx and the Cursed Mummy
features a ctional representation of Prince Tutankhamun. Tutankhamun is the victim of an unnamed magical ritual which results in almost instantaneous mummication and extraction of what appears to be his life force. In the instruction manual, the Mummy is described as young, inexperienced and naive.
The novel Tutankhamun (2008) by novelist Nick
Drake [not the musician] takes place during the
reign of Tutankhamun and gives a possible explanation for his injury and death (and the aftermath)
set amid a murder mystery.
The novel The Lost Queen of Egypt (1937) by
novelist Lucile Morrison is about Ankhsenpaaten /
Ankhesenamun, the wife of Tutankhamun. He is
a major character, coming in about midway in the
story. Here, his name is spelled as 'Tutankhamon.'
Its strongly hinted that he was murdered.
37.6 Names
37.7 Ancestry
37.8 References
[1] Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The
Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 128. ISBN 0-50028628-0.
[2] Frail boy-king Tut died from malaria, broken leg by Paul
Schemm, Associated Press. 16 February 2010.
[3] Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen. Collins Dictionary.
n.d. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
[4] Zauzich, Karl-Theodor (1992). Hieroglyphs Without Mystery. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 3031. ISBN
978-0-292-79804-5.
[5] Manethos King List.
[6] The Egyptian Exhibition at Highclere Castle. Archived
from the original on 3 September 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[7] Hawass, Zahi A. The golden age of Tutankhamun: divine
might and splendor in the New Kingdom. American Univ
in Cairo Press, 2004.
[8] Hawass, Zahi; et al. (17 February 2010). Ancestry and
Pathology in King Tutankhamuns Family. The Journal
of the American Medical Association 303 (7): 638647.
Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[9] Hawass, Zahi; et al. (17 February 2010). Ancestry and
Pathology in King Tutankhamuns Family. The Journal
of the American Medical Association 303 (7): 640641.
Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[10] Powell, Alvin (12 February 2013). A dierent take on
Tut. Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
[11] Jacobus van Dijk. The Death of Meketaten (PDF). p.
7. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
[12] Classroom TUTorials: The Many Names of King Tutankhamun (pdf). Michael C. Carlos Museum. Retrieved
10 July 2013.
[13] Egypt Update: Rare Tomb May Have Been Destroyed.
134
[16] Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8014-8725-0.
[33] Pays, JF (December 2010). Tutankhamun and sicklecell anaemia. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 103 (5, number
5): 346347. doi:10.1007/s13149-010-0095-3. PMID
20972847. Retrieved 21 October 2013.(Abstract)
[34] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Magazine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[35] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Magazine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
[36] Markel, H. (17 February 2010). King Tutankhamun,
modern medical science, and the expanding boundaries of historical inquiry. JAMA 303 (7): 667668.
doi:10.1001/jama.2010.153. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
(subscription required)
[37] EURAC research Research Institutes Institute for
Mummies and the Iceman Home. Eurac.edu. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
[38] King Tuts Family Secrets National Geographic Magazine. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
[39] JAMA. 17 Feb 2010;303(7):638-47. Ancestry and
pathology in King Tutankhamuns family. Hawass Z, Gad
YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, Ahmed
A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F, Wasef S, Fateen M,
Amer H, Gostner P, Selim A, Zink A, Pusch CM. Source
Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo, Egypt. http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20159872.1
[40] Hussein K, Matin E, Nerlich AG (2013) Paleopathology
of the juvenile Pharaoh Tutankhamun-90th anniversary
of discovery. Virchows Arch
[41] Owen, Jonathan (3 November 2013). Solved: The mystery of King Tutankhamuns death. The Independent.
Retrieved 3 November 2013.
[42] Webb, Sam (2 November 2013). Mummy-fried! Tutankhamuns body spontaneously combusted inside his
con following botched embalming job after he died in
speeding chariot accident. The Daily Mail. Retrieved 3
November 2013.
135
Dallasmuseumo-
136
Reeves, C. Nicholas. The Complete Tutankhamun:
The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London:
Thames & Hudson, 1 November 1990, ISBN 0-50005058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paperback) Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb
Rossi, Renzo. Tutankhamun. Cincinnati (Ohio)
2007 ISBN 978-0-7153-2763-0, a work all illustrated and coloured.
137
138
139
Chapter 38
Amarna Period
The Amarna Period was an era of Egyptian history
during the latter half of the Eighteenth Dynasty when
the royal residence of the pharaoh and his queen was
shifted to Akhetaten ('Horizon of the Aten') in what is
now Amarna. It was marked by the reign of Amenhotep
IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten (13531336
BC) in order to reect the dramatic change of Egypts
polytheistic religion into one where a sun-god Aten was
worshipped over all other gods. Aten was not solely
worshipped (the religion was not monotheistic), but the
other gods were worshipped to a signicantly lesser degree. The Egyptian pantheon of the equality of all gods
and goddesses was restored under Akhenatens successor. Other rulers of this period include Amenhotep III,
Smenkhkare, Neferneferuaten, Tutankhamun, Ay, and
Horemheb.
ket, the land in stillness, with the one who makes them at
rest in his Akhet. The land grows bright once you have appeared in the Akhet, shining in the sun disk by day. When
you dispel darkness and give your rays, the Two Lands are
in a festival of light. From the poem, one can see that the
nature of the gods daily activity revolves around recreating the earth on a daily basis. It also focuses on the present
life rather than on eternity. After the Amarna reign, these
religious beliefs fell out of favor. This was partly because
access to Amun-Re was limited only to the king and his
family. Only they were allowed to worship, and the rest
were left to worship the king and his family.[1]
38.3 Art
Main article: Amarna art
During Akhenatens reign, royal portraiture underwent
dramatic change. Sculptures of Akhenaten deviate from
conventional portrayal of royalty. Akhenaten is depicted
in an androgynous and highly stylized manner, with large
140
141
vestigate, and after further negotiations agreed to send
one of his sons to Egypt. This prince, named Zannanza
was however murdered, probably en route to Egypt. Suppiluliumas reacted with rage at the news of his sons death
and accused the Egyptians. Then, he retaliated by going
to war against Egypts vassal states in Syria and Northern
Canaan and captured the city of Amki. Unfortunately,
Egyptian prisoners of war from Amki carried a plague
which eventually would ravage the Hittite Empire and kill
both Suppiluliumas I and his direct successor.
38.4 Tutankhamun
and
Amarna Succession
the
Map of the ancient Near East during the Amarna period, showing
the great powers of the period: Egypt (green), Hatti (yellow), the
Kassite kingdom of Babylon (purple), Assyria (grey), and Mittani
(red). Lighter areas show direct control, darker areas represent
spheres of inuence. The extent of the Achaean/Mycenaean civilization is shown in orange.
142
38.5.1
Babylon EA 1-11
Mittani EA 1730
Assur
Zubeidi
Mari
Imlihiye
Dur-Kurigalzu
kilometers
miles
100
Sippar
Kish
Susa
Babylon
Nippur
Isin
Babylonia
Kassites
13th century BC
Girsu
Uruk
Ur
143
Akhenaten, born Amenhotep IV, began a religious
revolution in which he declared Aten was a supreme
god and turned his back on the old traditions. He
moved the capital to Akhetaten.
Queen Nefertiti, the daughter of Ay, married
Akhenaten. Her role in daily life at the court soon
extended from Great Royal Wife to that of a coregent. It is also possible that she may have ruled
Egypt in her own right as pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.
Smenkhkare, was a co-regent of Akhenaten who
ruled after his death.
It was believed that
Smenkhkare was a male guise of Nefertiti. However, it is accepted that Smenkhkare was a male.
He took Meritaten, Queen Nefertitis daughter as his
wife.
Queen Meritaten, was the oldest daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. She was the wife of Smenkhkare.
She also may have ruled Egypt in her own right as
pharaoh and is one the possible candidates of being
the pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.
Neferneferure and Neferneferuaten Tasherit.
Shown here as children, they were two of six
daughters born to Akhenaten and Nefertiti. It is
possible that Neferneferuaten Tasherit was the one
who may have been her fathers co-regent and may
have ruled as the female pharaoh, Neferneferuaten.
Kiya. She was one of Akhenatens secondary wives.
It was once believed that she was the mother of Tutankhamun, but that was proven not the case when
DNA revealed it not so.
The Younger Lady mummy of KV35 was by
DNA matching Tutankhamuns mother. Originally thought to be Nefertiti, DNA showed that she
was the sister of Akhenaten. Princess Nebetah or
Beketaten are considered candidates.
Maia was the wet nurse of the Crown Prince, Tutankhamun. Having lost his mother at a young age,
she helped rear the young prince. Maia was later
allowed to have a grand tomb at Saqarra. Here the
young prince holds her hand.
Tutankhamun, formerly Tutankhaten, was Akhenatens son through an incestal relationship with his
sister. As pharaoh, he instigated policies to restore
Egypt to its old religion and moved the capital back
to Memphis.
Ankhesenamun, born Ankhesenpaaten, was the
wife of Tutankhamun, and daughter of Akhenaten.
After her husbands death, she was married to her
maternal grandfather Ay.
Ay served as vizier to Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. He was the father of Nefertiti. After
the death of Tutankhamun, Ay lay a claim to the
144
38.8 References
[1] Arnold, Dorothea, James P. Allen, and L. Green. The
Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from Ancient Egypt. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1996. Print.
[2] Arnold, Dorothea, James P. Allen, and L. Green. The
Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from Ancient Egypt. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1996. Print.
[3] Cothren, Michael and Stokstad, Marilyn: Art History.
Prentice Hall, 2011.
[4] Arnold, Dorothea, James P. Allen, and L. Green. The
Royal Women of Amarna: Images of Beauty from Ancient Egypt. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1996. Print.
[5] Khanna, Aditi (2008-09-01). Bodies found in the tomb
of 'boy king' Tutankhamuns tomb are twin daughters.
Times Online (London). Retrieved 2008-09-01.
[6] Ibid., 7
[7] Moran. Amarna Letters. 1-3
[8] Moran. Amarna Diplomacy. 21
[9] Moran. Amarna Letters. 41-42.
[10] Cohan and Westbrook. Amarna Diplomacy. 6.
[11] Moran. Amarna Diplomacy. 116
[12] Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. p.xii. ISBN
0-8018-4251-4.
Chapter 39
Abdi-Heba
Abdi-Heba (Abdi-Kheba, Abdi-Hepat, or AbdiHebat) was a local chieftain of Jerusalem during the
Amarna period (mid-1330s BC). Abdi-Hebas name can
be translated as servant of Hebat", a Hurrian goddess.
Whether Abdi-Heba was himself of Hurrian descent is
unknown, as is the relationship between the general populace of pre-Israelite Jerusalem (called, several centuries
later, Jebusites in the Bible) and the Hurrians. Egyptian
documents have him deny he was a aznu and assert he
is a soldier (we'w), the implication being he was the son
of a local chief sent to Egypt to receive military training
there.[1]
Say to the king, my lord: Message of AbdiHeba, your servant. I fall at the feet of my lord
7 times and 7 times. Consider the entire affair. Milkilu and Tagi brought troops into Qiltu
against me... ...May the king know (that) all the
lands are at peace (with one another), but I am
at war. May the king provide for his land. Consider the lands of Gazru, Aqaluna, and Lakisi.
They have given them [my enemies] food, oil
and any other requirement. So may the king
provide for archers and send the archers against
men that commit crimes against the king, my
lord. If this year there are archers, then the
lands and the hazzanu (client kings) will belong to the king, my lord. But if there are no
archers, then the king will have neither lands
nor hazzanu. Consider Jerusalem! This neither my father nor my mother gave to me. The
strong hand (arm) of the king gave it to me.
Consider the deed! This is the deed of Milkilu
and the deed of the sons of Lab'ayu, who have
given the land of the king to the 'Apiru. Consider, O king, my lord! I am in the right!.... EA
146
[4] EA 179-183.
[5] EA 182
[7] EA 179.
[8] Moran, op. cit., pp.321-22
[9] Moran, op. cit., pp.325-334
39.4 Resources
39.4.1 Sources
Translations adapted from
Moran, William (ed. and trans.) The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1992.
The soldier-ruler of
39.3 References
[1] Donald B. Redford , Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient
Times, Princeton University Press, 1992 p.270.
[2] Finkelstein, Israel and Silberman, Neil AsherThe Bible
Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel
and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, 2001, The Free Press,
New York City, ISBN 0-684-86912-8 p. 239
Chapter 40
Ahatmilku
Ahatmilku (. 1265 BCE) was a princess of Amurru,
who became queen of Ugarit through marriage.
40.1 Life
Ahatmilku was a wife of the King Niqmepa of Ugarit and
daughter-in-law of Niqmaddu II.[1] She held great wealth
and inuence.
She supported her youngest son Ammittamru IIs succession to the throne after the death of her husband.[2] She
banished two of her sons to Cyprus, when they contested
this, but made sure they had sucient supplies.[3]
40.2 Notes
[1] Sweeney, Emmet John (2007). Empire of Thebes, or, Ages
in Chaos Revisited. Algora Publishing. p. 128. ISBN 087586-480-5.
[2] Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah by Bob Becking, Meindert
Dijkstra, Marjo Korpel, Karel Vriezen
[3] Marsman, Hennie J (2003). Women in Ugarit & Israel.
Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 660.
147
Chapter 41
Alashiya
Amarna letters contain references to a ship belonging to
the King of Alashiya and the men of Lukki (probably part
of the Sea Peoples, similar to pirates) seizing villages in
Alashiya.[3]
In other correspondence, the King of Ugarit pleads for
help from the King of Alashiya to protect Ugarit from the
Sea Peoples. Another document from Ugarit records the
banishment of two princes to the land of Alashiya. One
further text found at Ugarit may contain a further clue to
the location of the capital city of Alashiya, as it could
imply that the city was located on a mountain. However,
this word has more usually been translated as shore.[4]
Alashiya or Alasiya was a state which existed in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, and was situated somewhere
in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was a major source of
goods, especially copper, for Ancient Egypt and other
states in the Ancient Near East. It is referred to in a number of the surviving texts and is now thought to be the
ancient name of Cyprus, or an area of Cyprus. This was
conrmed by the scientic analysis performed in the Tel
Aviv University of the clay tablets which were sent from
Alashiya to other rulers.[1]
41.2 Identication
41.3 References
[1] Goren et al. 2003
[2] Knapp 1996
[3] Armstrong 2003
[4] Goren 2003
[5] Wachsmann 1986
[6] Knapp 1997
[7] Armstrong, 2003
[8] Goren et al. 2003; Armstrong 2003
41.4 Sources
Armstrong, K. M. 2003 Settlement Hierarchy and
The Location of Alashiya on Cyprus. Unpublished
MA dissertation, University of Cincinnati.
Buttrick, G. A. and C. M. Laymon. 1971 The Interpreters One Volume Commentary on the Bible, pp.
1314. ISBN 0-687-19299-4.
Goren, Y., Bunimovitz, S., Finkelstein, I. and
Na'aman, N. 1993 The Location of Alashiya, Petrographic analysis of the tablets. American Journal
of Archaeology 107:233-255
Knapp, A. B. ed. 1996 Near Eastern and Aegean
Texts from the Third to the First Millennia BC.
(Translations of all 122 Bronze Age and early
Iron Age texts referring to Alashiya). ISBN 09651704-2-X
Knapp, A. B. 1997 The Archaeology of Late Bronze
Age Cypriot Society. ISBN 0-85261-573-6
149
Schwemer, D. 2008 The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies (part II). Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008.
Wachsmann, S. 1986 Is Cyprus Ancient Alashiya?
New Evidence from an Egyptian Tablet. The Biblical Archaeologist 49(1):37-40
Chapter 42
Amarna art
42.3. ARCHITECTURE
151
has a similarly shaped skull, although not so elongated as
[in typical Amarna-style art]". However, there is still a
possibility the style is purely ritualistic.
The hands at the end of each ray extending from Aten
in the relief are delivering the ankh, which symbolized
life in the Egyptian culture, to Akhenaten and Nefertiti
and often also reach the portrayed princesses. The importance of the Sun God Aten is central to much of the
Amarna period art, largely because Akhenatens rule was
marked by its monotheistic following of Aten.
In several, if not most sculptures of Akhenaten, he has
wide hips and a visible paunch. His lips are thick and
his arms and legs are thin and lack muscular tone, unlike his counterparts of other eras in Egyptian artwork.
Some scholars suggest that the presentation of the human
body as imperfect during the Amarna period is in deference to Aten. Others think Akhenaten suered from a
genetic disorder (most likely the product of inbreeding)
that caused him to look as such. Others interpret this unprecedented stylistic break from Egyptian tradition to be
a reection of the Amarna Royals attempts to wrest political power from the traditional priesthoods and bureaucratic authorities.
Much of the nest work, including the famous Nefertiti
bust in Berlin, was found in the studio of the second and
last Royal Court Sculptor Thutmose, and is now in Berlin
and Cairo, with some in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York.
42.2 Sculpture
152
Amarna letters
Chapter 43
Amarna succession
The succession of kings at the end of the Eighteenth dy- 43.1 Sources
nasty of Ancient Egypt is a matter of great debate and
confusion. There are very few contemporary records that The Coregency Stela, found in a tomb in Amarna possibly
can be relied upon, due to the nature of the Amarna Pe- shows his queen Nefertiti as his coregent, ruling alongside
riod and the reign of Akhenaten and his successors and him.
possible co-regents. It is known that Akhenaten reigned
for seventeen years, and it was previously believed that in
the last 3 or 4 years, he had two co-regents: Smenkhkare,
43.2 References
who was possibly his brother or son, and Neferneferuaten,
who was either one of his daughters or his Great Royal
Wife Nefertiti. It is unknown in which order they fol- [1] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. p. 1.
Archived from the original on 2008-05-28. Retrieved
lowed each other, and neither of their reigns lasted long,
2008-06-23., reprinted from Brand, Peter and Cooper,
for Tutankhamun succeeded not long after Akhenatens
Louise, Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian
death.
Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane
(Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 37), (LeiThe last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna
den: E. J. Brill, 2009).
family is in the tomb of Meryre II, and dates from sec[1]
ond month, year 12 of his reign. After this the his- [2] Athena Van der Perre, Nofretetes (vorerst) letzte dokutorical record is unclear, and only with the succession of
mentierte Erwhnung, in: Im Licht von Amarna - 100
Tutankhamun is it somewhat claried.
Jahre Fund der Nofretete. [Katalog zur Ausstellung Berlin,
However, the coregency theory has now been discredited
by the December 2012 announcement of the discovery
of a Year 16 III Akhet day 15 inscription dated explicitly to Akhenatens reign which mentions, in the same
breath, the presence of Queen Nefertiti--or the "Great
Royal Wife, His Beloved, Lady of the Two Lands, Neferneferuaten Nefertiti"--in its third line.[2] The badly legible ve line text, found in a limestone quarry at Deir elBersha mentions a building project in Amarna"--Egypts
political capital under Akhenaten and was deciphered
and interpreted by Athena Van der Perre.[3] This means
that there Nefertiti was still Akhenatens living wife late
in this pharaohs 16th year; thus, the Amarna pharaohs
Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten could only have succeeded to the throne after Akhenatens death and may
have had an independent reign of their own over Egypt.
The royal line of the dynasty died out with Tutankhamun,
for two foetuses found buried in his tomb may have been
his twin daughters, according to a 2008 investigation.[4]
153
Chapter 44
Amarna Tomb 1
Coordinates: 273942N 305420E / 27.66167N The South Wall: includes two scenes depicting Tiye sit30.90556E
ting at meal with Akhenaten and Nefertiti Akhenaten and
Nefertiti are seated on the left. Akhnaten seems to wear
The tomb of the Ancient Egyptian noble Huya, known
as Amarna Tomb 1 is located in the cluster of tombs a khat headdress and Nefertiti a short Nubian style wig.
known collectively as the Northern tombs, near to the city Next to Nefertiti seated on small chairs are Meritaten
and one of her sisters - possibly Neferneferuaten-tasherit.
of Amarna, in Egypt.
Queen Tiye is shown opposite the King and Queen. She is
Huya was the treasurer and steward in the house of the seated and wears the double plumed headdress with the
Kings Chief Wife, Tiye and the overseer of the royal horned sundisk. She is accomponaied by her daughter
quarters of the Great Kings Wife Tiye. He held further Baketaten, who is seated next to her on a small chair.
titles including that of favorite of the Lord of the Two
Lands.
Banquet scene
44.1. REFERENCES
44.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
155
Chapter 45
Amarna Tomb 3
The tomb of the Ancient Egyptian noble Ahmes (Ahmose), known as Amarna Tomb 3, is located in the northern side of the wadi that splits the cluster of tombs known
collectively as the Northern tombs, near to the city of
Amarna, in Egypt.[1]
Ahmes was a sealbearer of the King of Lower Egypt, the
sole companion, the attendant of the Lord of the Two
Lands, the favorite of the good god, true kings scribe,
steward in the house of Akhenaten, overseer of the front
hall of the Lord of the Two Lands (=court of justice?),
and a fanbearer at the right hand of the king.[2]
On the west wall of the tomb Akhenaten and Nefertiti are
depicted riding a chariot. The royal couple is on their way
to visit the temple. They are shown together in the chariot accompanied by one of their daughters. Akhenaten
wear a khepresh crown, while Nefertiti is shown wearing
her at topped blue crown. In another scene on the west
wall the royal family is shown eating. Akhenaten is shown
seated eating what appears to be a roasted duck. Behind
him we see Nefertiti seated with one of the princesses on
her lap. She is holding meat. Next to Nefertiti we see two
more princesses seated on chairs.[1]
45.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
[2] Murnane, W.J., Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt,
Atlanta, 1995
156
Chapter 46
Amarna Tomb 5
Penthu served at court during the reign of Akhenaten.
Pentu held the titles of sealbearer of the King of Lower
Egypt, the sole companion, the attendant of the Lord of
the Two Lands, the favorite of the good god, kings scribe,
the kings subordinate, First servant of the Aten in the
mansion of the Aten in Akhetaten, Chief of physicians,
chamberlain.
Pentus tomb is one of the six Northern tombs at Amarna.
The tomb is located to the south of the Tomb of Meryra.
The tomb is very similar to the tomb of Ahmes. It is Tshaped and the inner chamber would have served as the
burial chamber.[1]
The tomb is decorated and scenes include a visit from the
royal family to the temple and a reward scene.[1]
North Wall: The royal family is shown entering the temple. Akhenaten and Nefertiti are accompanied by three
of their daughters: Meritaten, Meketaten and most likely
Ankhesenpaaten.
On the same wall the royal family is depicted rewarding
Penthu at the temple. Akhenaten is shown wearing the
read crown and Nefertiti stands behind him (the upper
half of her body is damaged). Behind the royal couple
we see three princesses accompanied their nurse(s).
On the South Wall Penthu is depicted in another award
scene but this one takes place at the palace. In an associated scene the king and queen are shown having a
meal. Akhenaten is shown wearing a khat headdress. He
is seated and is eating fowl. Nefertiti is seated behind
him, wearing her blue crown and seems to be drinking
from a cup.[1]
46.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
157
Chapter 47
Amarna Tomb 7
Coordinates: 273942N 305420E / 27.66167N
30.90556E Amarna tomb 7 was one of the Southern
tombs at Amarna, and belonged to Parennefer who was a
pure handed cupbearer of the kings Person.
47.1 References
Chapter 48
Amenhotep III
Amenhotep III (Hellenized as Amenophis III; Egyptian Nebetah on the right; and another, whose name is deAmna-tpa; meaning Amun is Satised) also known stroyed, on the left.[8]
as Amenhotep the Magnicent was the ninth pharaoh of
the Eighteenth dynasty. According to dierent authors,
he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC or June 1388
BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC[4] after his father
Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep III was the son of Thutmose by a minor wife Mutemwiya.[5]
His reign was a period of unprecedented prosperity and
artistic splendour, when Egypt reached the peak of its
artistic and international power. When he died (probably in the 39th year of his reign), his son initially ruled as
Amenhotep IV, but later changed his own royal name to
Akhenaten.
48.1 Family
The son of the future Thutmose IV (the son of
Amenhotep II) and a minor wife Mutemwiya, Amenhotep was born around 1388 BC.[6] He was a member
of the Thutmosid family that had ruled Egypt for almost
150 years since the reign of Thutmose I.
Amenhotep III was the father of two sons with his Great
Royal Wife Tiye, a queen who could be considered as
the progenitor of monotheism[7] through her rst son,
Crown Prince Thutmose, who predeceased his father,
and her second son, Amenhotep IV, later known as
Akhenaten, who ultimately succeeded Amenhotep III to
the throne. Amenhotep III also may have been the father
of a third childcalled Smenkhkare, who later would
succeed Akhenaten and briey rule Egypt as pharaoh.
Amenhotep III and Tiye may also have had four daughters: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Isis or Iset, and Nebetah.[8]
They appear frequently on statues and reliefs during
the reign of their father and also are represented by
smaller objectswith the exception of Nebetah.[9] Nebetah is attested only once in the known historical records
on a colossal limestone group of statues from Medinet
Habu.[10] This huge sculpture, that is seven meters high,
shows Amenhotep III and Tiye seated side by side, with
three of their daughters standing in front of the throne-Henuttaneb, the largest and best preserved, in the centre;
Vase in the Louvre with the names Amenohotep III and Tiye written in the cartouches on the left, (and Tiyes on the right).
159
160
of
Kadashman-Enlil,
king
of
48.2 Life
Amenhotep III has the distinction of having the most surviving statues of any Egyptian pharaoh, with over 250 of
his statues having been discovered and identied. Since
these statues span his entire life, they provide a series of
portraits covering the entire length of his reign.
Another striking characteristic of Amenhotep IIIs reign
is the series of over 200 large commemorative stone
scarabs that have been discovered over a large geographic
area ranging from Syria (Ras Shamra) through to Soleb in
Nubia.[15] Their lengthy inscribed texts extol the accomplishments of the pharaoh. For instance, 123 of these
commemorative scarabs record the large number of lions
(either 102 or 110 depending on the reading) that Amenhotep III killed with his own arrows from his rst regnal
year up to his tenth year.[16] Similarly, ve other scarabs
state that the foreign princess who would become a wife
to him, Gilukhepa, arrived in Egypt with a retinue of 317
women. She was the rst of many such princesses who
would enter the pharaohs household.[16]
Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been depicted to her right in this broken statue
48.2. LIFE
161
48.2.1
In February 2014, Egyptian Ministry for Antiquities announced what it called conclusive evidence that
Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least 8
years, based on the evidence coming from the tomb of
Vizier Amenhotep-Huy.[25][26] The tomb is being studied
by a multi-national team led by the Instituto de Estudios
del Antiguo Egipto de Madrid and Dr Martin Valentin.
162
48.2.2
Final years
48.2.3 Death
Amenhotep IIIs highest attested regnal date is Year
38, which appears on wine jar-label dockets from
Malkata.[34] He may have lived briey into an unrecorded
Year 39, dying before the wine harvest of that year.[35]
Birds - Wall painting fragment from the Malkata palace.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
48.2. LIFE
163
Faience decoration with Amenhotep IIIs prenomen from his Theban palace, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
164
48.4 Monuments
Amenhotep III built extensively at the temple of Karnak
including the Luxor temple which consisted of two
pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and
a new temple to the goddess Ma'at. Amenhotep III dismantled the fourth pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak to construct a new pylonthe third pylonand created a new entrance to this structure where he erected
two rows of columns with open papyrus capital[s]" down
the centre of this newly formed forecourt.[43] The forecourt between the third and fourth pylons of Egypt, sometimes called an obelisk court, was also decorated with
scenes of the sacred barque of the deities Amun, Mut, and
Khonsu being carried in funerary boats.[44] The king also
started work on the Tenth pylon at the Temple of Amun
there. Amenhotep IIIs rst recorded act as kingin his
Years 1 and 2was to open new limestone quarries at
Tura, just south of Cairo and at Dayr al-Barsha in Middle
Egypt in order to herald his great building projects.[45] He
oversaw construction of another temple to Ma'at at Luxor
and virtually covered Nubia with numerous monuments.
"...including a small temple with a
colonnade (dedicated to Thutmose III) at
Elephantine, a rock temple dedicated to Amun
'Lord of the Ways at Wadi es-Sebuam, and
the temple of Horus of Miam at Aniba...[as
48.7. FOOTNOTES
165
48.5 Ancestry
48.6 See also
48.7 Footnotes
166
48.8 Bibliography
Aldred, Cyril (1991). Akhenaten: King of Egypt.
Thames & Hudson.
Allen, James P. The Amarna Succession. Retrieved 2014-02-01.
Beckerath, Jrgen von (1997). Chronologie des
Pharaonischen gypten.
Mainz: Philipp von
Zabern,.
Clayton, Peter (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs.
Thames & Hudson Ltd.
O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric (1998). Amenhotep
III: Perspectives on His Reign. University of Michigan Press.
Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete
Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson.
Fletcher, Joann (2000). Chronicle of a Pharaoh The Intimate Life of Amenhotep III. Oxford University Press.
Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt.
Blackwell Books.
Chapter 49
Amurru kingdom
Coordinates: 343411N 361355E / 34.56972N
36.23194E
The geopolitic map of the Middle East during the Amarna Period,
before Amurru became part of the Hittite zone of inuence
49.1 Notes
[1] Izre'el, Sh. (1991). Amurru Akkadian: A Linguistic Study.
With an Appendix on the History of Amurru by Itamar
Singer. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press.
[2] Singer, I. (1991). The Land of Amurru and the Lands
of Amurru in the augamuwa Treaty. Iraq 53: 6974.
doi:10.2307/4200336.
Chapter 50
The vassal cities, and 'city-states' were constantly requesting the services-(protection) of the Pharaohs armies, Letter no. 3 of 5 by Milkilu of Gazru, modern Gezer:
by means of this archer-army force, basically garrison
forces. A request for lodging, and preparations of food,
Say to the god, my king, my lord, my Sun:
drink, straw, and other supplies required,[1] is often deMessage of Milkilu, your servant, the dirt
manded by the pharaoh, for a small, or a large contingent.
at your feet. I fall at the feet of the god,
The ptati archer force were mercenaries from the southmy king, my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7
ern Egyptian land of Kush"-(named Kaa, or Kai in the
times. I have heard what the king, my lord,
letters).
wrote to me, and so may the king, my lord,
The rst use of Nubian mercenaries was by Weni the Elsend the archers to his servants, and may the
der of the 6th Dynasty, (the Old Kingdom of about 2300
king, my lord send myrrh for medication.
BC).
-EA 269, lines 1-17 (complete)
168
50.5. REFERENCES
50.3 Analysis
Part of the debate in analyzing the army-archer-force
is whether the army just annually accompanied the
pharaohs commissioner/envoy and were then extracting
tribute, or whether the archer-force duty was strictly military, and in support of the Egyptian borderlands control
and inuence. The short time period of the Amarna letters, 1520 years, (17?), may give an answer to the inuence of the archer-forces.
50.5 References
[1] Moran, William L., 1992. The Amarna Letters, p. 352353. EA 325: Title: (from, Man of the City: Yidya):
Preparations completed, (2),
"...indeed prepared absolutely everythingfood, strong
drink, oxen, 'sheep and goats, grain, straw, absolutely everything that the king, my lord, commanded.
169
Chapter 51
Ay
For other uses, see AY (disambiguation).
Ay was the penultimate Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's
18th dynasty. He held the throne of Egypt for a
brief four-year period (probably 13231319 BC[1] or
13271323 BC, depending on which chronology is followed), although he was a close advisor to two and
perhaps three of the pharaohs who ruled before him
and was said to be the power behind the throne during
Tutankhamun's reign. Ays prenomen or royal name
Kheperkheperuremeans Everlasting are the Manifestations of Ra while his birth name Ay it-netjer reads as
'Ay, Father of the gods.'[2] Records and monuments that A stone block shows Ay receiving the 'Gold of Honor' award in
can be clearly attributed to Ay are rare, not only due to his Amarna tomb from Akhenaten.
his short length of reign, but also because his successor,
Horemheb, instigated a campaign of damnatio memoriae
against him and other pharaohs associated with the un- 51.2 Amarna Period
popular Amarna Period.
51.1 Origins
Ay is usually believed to be a native Egyptian from
Akhmim. During his short reign, he built a rock cut
chapel in Akhmim and dedicated it to the local deity there: Min. He may have been the son of Yuya,
who served as a member of the priesthood of Min at
Akhmin as well as superintendent of herds in this city,
and wife Tjuyu.[3] If so, Ay could have been of partial
non-Egyptian, perhaps Syrian blood since the name Yuya
was uncommon in Egypt and is suggestive of a foreign
background.[4] Yuya was an inuential nobleman at the
royal court of Amenhotep III who was given the rare privilege of having a tomb built for his use in the royal Valley of the Kings presumably because he was the father
of Tiye, Amenhoteps chief Queen. There are also noted
similarities in the physical likenesses of monuments attributed to Ay and those of the mummy of Yuya, and
both held similar names and titles.[5]
170
51.3. TUTANKHAMUN
ternatively, it could also mean that he may have had a
daughter that married the pharaoh Akhenaten, possibly
being the father of Akhenatens chief wife Nefertiti. Ultimately there is no evidence to denitively prove either
hypothesis.[8] The two theories are not mutually exclusive, but either relationship would explain the exalted status to which Ay rose during Akhenatens Amarna interlude, when the royal family turned their backs on Egypts
traditional gods and experimented, for a dozen years or
so, with monotheism; an experiment that, whether out of
conviction or convenience, Ay appears to have followed
under the reign of Akhenaten.
The Great Hymn to the Aten is also found in his Amarna
tomb which was built during his service under Akhenaten. It is likely that this was required by Akhenaten,
though not evidence that Ay agreed with Akhenatens decision to promote the Aten above all other gods. It suggests that he did believe in Akhenatens religious revolution. His wife Tey was born a commoner but was given
the title Nurse of the Pharaohs Great Wife.[8] If she were
the mother of Nefertiti she would be expected to have the
royal title Mother of the Pharaohs Great Wife instead, had
Ay been the father of Nefertiti, then Tey would have been
her stepmother.[8] In several Amarna tomb chapels there
is a woman whose name begins with Mut who had the
title Sister of the Pharaohs Great Wife. This could also
be a daughter of Ays by his wife Tey, and it is known that
his successor Horemheb married a woman with the name
Mutnodjimet.[9]
51.3 Tutankhamun
Ay performing the opening of the mouth ceremony for Tutankhamun, scene from Tutankhamuns tomb.
171
at a time of great tension between the new monotheism
and the old polytheism. He was assisted in his kingly
duties by his predecessors two closest advisors: Grand
Vizier Ay and General of the Armies Horemheb. Tutankhamuns nine-year reign, largely under Ays direction, saw the gradual return of the old gods and, with
that, the restoration of the power of the Amun priesthood,
who had lost their inuence over Egypt under Akhenaten.
Egyptologist Bob Brier suggested that Ay murdered Tutankhamun in order to usurp the throne, a claim which
was based on X-ray examinations of the body done in
1968. He also alleged that Ankhesenamun and the Hittite Prince she was about to marry were also murdered at
his orders.[10] This murder theory was not accepted by all
scholars, and more detailed CT-scans of the mummy undertaken by National Geographic (published in late 2005)
suggested that Tutankhamun did not die from a blow to
his head as Brier had theorized. The National Geographic
forensic researchers instead presented a new theory that
Tutankhamun died from an infection caused by a badly
broken leg since he is often portrayed as walking with
a cane due to spina bida, a hereditary trait in his family on his fathers side.[11] The bone fragments found in
Tutankhamuns skull were most likely the result of postmortem damage caused by Howard Carters initial examination of the boy king "because they show no evidence
of being inundated with the embalming uid used to preserve the pharaoh for the afterlife.[12] However, Brier has
stated that the bone fragment in the skull is not relevant
to the issue of whether Tutankhamun was murdered, acknowledging that it was likely caused by the embalmers.
The evidence Brier presents for the murder is a dark spot
on the base of the skull, indicating a blow to the head.
Dr. Gerald Irwin agrees with Brier on this point. (The
Murder of Tutankhamen (March, 1999) ISBN 0-42516689-9)
When the results of the CT-Scan examination had been
published, many scientists accepted its ndings, but some
still believe the mystery of Tutankhamuns death is far
from solved and continue to support the older murder theory. There are books that have subsequently
been published that adhere to the original murder theory and dispute the conclusions reached by the CT scan
team, though also citing other means of murder, such as
poisoning.[13][14] In 2010, a team led by Zahi Hawass
reported that he had died from complications caused
by malaria and Kohlers disease but another team from
the Bernhard Noct Institute for Tropical Medicine in
Hamburg believes his death was caused by sickle-cell
disease.[15] Tutankhamun could very well have died from
this, combined with the infection in his knee. Ay was also
buried in the tomb intended for Tutankhamun in the West
Valley of the Kings (KV 23), and Tutankhamun in Ays
intended tomb in the East Valley of the Kings (KV 62).
172
CHAPTER 51. AY
51.7. FAMILY
this period as well--the latter suggestion seems
the most likely. As Nakhtmin donated items to
the burial of Tutankhamun without such a title, it follows that he only became a Kings Son
subsequently, presumably under Ay. This theory is supported by the evidence of intentional
damage to Nakhtmins statue, since Ay was
amongst the Amarna pharaohs whose memories were execrated under later rulers.[19]
51.6 Aftermath
173
jars from the temple magazines read: Wine
from the temple of Harmhab."'[22]
51.7 Family
Ay is believed to be the son of Yuya and Thuya, and therefore a brother of Queen Tiye, wife of Amenhotep III,
and the Prophet of Amun, Anen. Hence, he would be
the uncle of pharoaohs Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. His
assumed wife was Iuy, mother of Nakhtmin, chosen successor of Ay. His Great Royal Wife was Tey, Wet Nurse
to Queen Nefertiti.
Ay is believed to be the father of Queen Nefertiti,
wife of Akhenaten, and Mutbenret or Mutnodjmet depending on how the name is read, Mutnodjmet being the wife of Horemheb. Their mother is plausibly the Adoratrix of Min, Songstress of Isis" Iuy,
who is known to be the mother of Nakhtmin, Ays
chosen successor, and presumed son. Therefore, he
is believed to be the grandfather of Queen Meritaten,
Meketaten, Queen Ankhesenamun, Neferneferuaten
Tasherit, Neferneferure and Setepenre.
51.8 In ction
The burial chamber of Ays tomb in the Valley of the Kings
51.10 References
[1] Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p. 493
[2] Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames &
Hudson Ltd, 1994. p136
174
CHAPTER 51. AY
King Tut Not Murdered Violently, CT Scans Show, National Geographic, March 8, 2005.
Chapter 52
Aziru
city of Byblos for 4 months to conclude a treaty with the
king of Beirut, Ammunira, but when he returned home,
he learned that a palace coup led by his brother Ilirabih
had unseated him from power.[2] He temporarily sought
refuge with Ammunira and unsuccessfully appealed for
support from Egypt to restore him to the throne. (EA
136-138; EA 141 & EA 142)[3] When this failed, RibHadda was forced to ignominiously appeal to his sworn
enemy, Aziru, to place him back on the throne of his city.
Aziru promptly betrayed him and dispatched Rib-Hadda
into the hands of the rulers of Sidon where Rib-Hadda almost certainly met his death.[3] This event is mentioned in
Amarna letter EA 162 by Akhenaten to Aziru when the
pharaoh demanded that Aziru travel to Egypt to explain
his actions.[4] Aziru was detained in Egypt for at least a
year before being released when the advancing Hittites
conquered the important city of Amki thereby threatening Amurru (EA 170).
Aziru was allowed to leave Egypt and return to his kingdom. Aziru had, however, made secret contacts with the
Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, and sometime upon his return
to Amurru, he permanently switched his allegiance to
the Hittites to whom he remained loyal until his death.[5]
Henceforth, Amurru remained rmly in Hittite hands until the reign of the 19th dynasty Pharaohs Seti I and
Ramesses II.
175
176
52.2 References
[1] Moran, 1970, The Amarna Letters, EA 161, An absence
explained, pp. 247-248.
[2] Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Clarendon
Press, 1998., p.186
[3] Bryce, p.186
[4] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkings
University, 1992. p.248-249
[5] Bryce, p.189
Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN
0-8018-6715-0)
Chapter 53
Bek (sculptor)
Bek (or Bak; the name means 'servant' in Ancient Egyptian) was the rst chief royal sculptor during the reign of
Pharaoh Akhenaten. His father Men held the same position under Akhenatens father Amenhotep III; his mother
Roi was a woman from Heliopolis.[1]
out.[4]
53.1 Sources
[1] Cyril Aldred: Akhenaten, King of Egypt (London,
Thames and Hudson, 1991, ISBN 0-500-27621-8,
pp.93,94
[2] Aldred, pp.259260
[3] Aldred, op.cit., p.262
[4] Aldred, op.cit., p.93
The Aswan stela of Men and Bek
177
Chapter 54
Beketaten
Beketaten (14th century BCE) was an Ancient Egyptian
princess of the 18th dynasty. Beketaten is considered
to be the youngest daughter of Pharaoh Amenhotep III
and his Great Royal Wife Tiye, thus the sister of Pharaoh
Akhenaten.[1] Her name means Handmaid of Aten".
54.1 Biography
Banquet scene
54.4. SOURCES
ter of Akhenaten and his secondary wife Kiya. She may
be identical with the princess who is shown with Kiya,
whose name ends in -aten but whose full name was lost.
After Kiyas demise her depictions were re-carved to
show Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten with their daughters
Meritaten Tasherit and Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit (who
might have been ctional and made up to ll the place
of Kiyas child on these depictions).[4] This theory is partially based on the fact that Beketaten was never named
kings sister in the scenes from Amarna, but only kings
bodily daughter. She never appears alongside the daughters of Nefertiti, leading to the conjecture that she must
be the daughter of Akhenaten by another wife who may
be Kiya. After the death of her mother, Beketaten may
have been raised by her grandmother Tiye.[5] A wine
docket mentioning Beketaten dates to year 13 and it has
been proposed that she inherited Kiyas estates after her
death.[6]
54.3 In Fiction
54.3.1
Beketaten is the central character in a series of ve historical novels written by Max Overton and published
by Writers Exchange E-Publishing. The novels follow the life of Beketaten from early childhood through
to the end of her life in the reign of Ramses the
Great. The ve books cover her life during the reigns of
Akhenaten (Scarab-Akhenaten), Smenkhkare (ScarabSmenkhkare), Tutankhamen (Scarab-Tutankhamen), Ay
(Scarab-Ay), and Horemheb (Scarab-Horemheb). A
sixth novel in the series is set in 1960s Egypt and deals
with the discovery of Beketatens tomb.
54.3.2
The Egyptian
54.4 Sources
[1] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), p.154
[2] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
179
Chapter 55
Biridawa
Biridawa was a mayor of Atartu, (Tell-Ashtara), south
of Damascus, (named Dimasqu/Dimaqu), during the
time of the Amarna letters correspondence, about 13501335 BC. A second mayor of Atartu, Ayyab, existed in
this short 15-20 year time period.
waged war with Biridawa against me, constantly saying, Come, lets kill Biryawaza(i.e. 'of Damascus), and we must not let
him go to [...] .... But, I got away from them
and stayed in [...]Dimaqa, for [by myself
h]ow can I serv[e the king, my lord]? [They]
keep saying, "[We are servants of the king
of Hatti, and I keep saying, I am a servant of the king of Egyp[t]-(named Mizri).
Arsawuya went to Ki[ssa]-(Qidu/Kadesh),
took (some of) Aziru's troops, and captured
addu. He gave it to the 'Apiru and did
not give it to the king, my lord. Now, since
Itatkama (Etakkama), has caused the loss
of the land of Kissa, and since Arsawuya
along with Biridawa is causing the loss of
Apu-(i.e. the region surrounding Damascus), may the king look carefully to his land
lest the enemies take it. Since my brothers
are at war with me, I am guarding Kumidu,
the city of the king, my lord. May the king
indeed be at one with his servant. [M]ay the
king [not] abandon his servant, [and may]
the kings of [... (and) the ki]ngs of Apu see
whe[ther ...] ... I have seen the archers. -EA
197, lines 1-42 (~~complete, with lacunae)
55.1 History
Though Biridawa did not communicate with the
Egyptian pharaoh directly in any of the Amarna letters,
he, along with the mayors of Busruna and Halunnu were
involved with the intrigues of city/city-state takeovers, in
the region of Damascus. The region around Dimaqu
was named Upu, or Apu, a name going back to at least
pharaoh Thutmose III's time, (1479-1425 BC).
55.2.1
Letter no. 197: title: Biryawazas Letter EA 197-(EA for 'el Amarna'), is the only reference
plight
to the locality/capture of: addu. Also the only reference
to city Yanuamma.
55.4. REFERENCES
lord, [un]til [I] see the archers [of the
king], my lord. The king, my lord, must
not negle[ct] this deed that Biridawa [has]
committed, for he has moved the land
of [the king], my lord, and [his] cities to
rebellion. -EA 196 (only lines 33-43(End))
55.4 References
Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN
0-8018-6715-0)
181
Chapter 56
Burna-Buriash II
Burna-Buria II, rendered in cuneiform as Bur-na- or
Bur-ra-Bu-ri-ia-a in royal inscriptions and letters, and
meaning servant of the Lord of the lands in the Kassite
language, where Buria is a Kassite storm god possibly corresponding to the Greek Boreas,[1] was a king
in the Kassite dynasty of Babylon, in a kingdom called
Kardunia at the time, ruling ca. 13591333 BC (short
chronology). Recorded as the 19th King to ascend the
Kassite throne, he succeeded Kadaman-Enlil I, who was
likely his father, and ruled for 27 years. He was a contemporary of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. The proverb
the time of checking the books is the shepherds ordeal was attributed to him in a letter to the later king
Esarhaddon from his agent Mar-Issar.[2]
Posterity has not preserved any Egyptian response, however, Abdi-Heba, the Canaanite Mayor of Jerusalem,
then a small hillside town, wrote in EA 287[i 9] that Kassite agents had attempted to break into his home and assassinate him.
But then things began to go sour. On EA 10,[i 4] he complains that the gold sent was underweight.[4] You have
detained my messenger for two years! he declares in
consternation.[i 5]:4950 He reproached the Egyptian for
not having sent his condolences when he was ill[i 5]:1425
and, when his daughters wedding was underway, he complained that only ve carriages were sent to convey her to
Egypt.[i 6]:2122 The bridal gifts lled 4 columns and 307
lines of cuneiform inventory on tablet EA 13.[i 7][5]
183
his neutrality in the face of the Mitanni succession crisis. He refused asylum to the eeing Shattiwaza, who
received a more favorable response in Hatti, where Suppiluliuma I supported his reinstatement in a diminished
vassal state.[8] According to her step son Mursili II, she
became quite a troublemaker, scheming and murderous,
as in the case of Mursilis wife, foistering her strange
foreign ways on the Hittite court and ultimately being
exiled.[9] His testimony is preserved in two prayers in
which he condemned her.[10]
Kassite inuence reached to Bahrain, ancient Dilmun,
where two letters found in Nippur were sent by a Kassite ocial, Il-ippara, in Dilmun to Ililiya, a hypocoristic form of Enlil-kidinni, who was the governor, or
andabakku, of Nippur during Burna Burias reign and
that of his immediate successors.[11][12] In the rst letter, the hapless Ili-ippara complains that the anarchic local Alam tribesmen have stolen his dates and there is
nothing I can do while in the second letter they certainly
speak words of hostility and plunder to me.[13]
Diplomacy with Babylons neighbor, Elam, was conducted through royal marriages. A Neo-Babylonian copy
of a literary text which takes the form of a letter,[i 12] now
located in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin, is addressed to the Kassite court by an Elamite King. It details
the genealogy of the Elamite royalty of this period, and
from it we nd that Pahir-Ian married Kurigalzu Is sister and Humban-Numena married his daughter and their
son, Untash-Napirisha was betrothed to Burna-Burias
daughter.[7] This may have been Napir-asu, whose headless statue[i 11] (pictured) now resides in the Louvre in
Paris.
It is likely that Suppiluliuma I, king of the Hittites, married yet another of Burna Burias daughters, his third and
nal wife, who thereafter was known under the traditional
title Tawananna, and this may have been the cause of
184
agriculture and women in the textile industry. An oppressive regime developed to constrain their movements and
prevent their escape.[19] Other texts include two extispicy
reports provide divinations based on examination of animal entrails.[15] Nippur seems to have enjoyed the status
of a secondary capital. The presence of the royal retinue
replete with scribes would have provided the means for
the creation of business records for the local population.
[4] EA 10, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Egyptian gold and carpenters, tablet BM 29786 in the British
Museum, London, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[5] EA 7, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): A lesson
in geography, tablet VAT 150 in the Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[6] EA 11, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Proper
escort for a betrothed princess, tablet VAT 151 in
the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC
Transliteration
[7] EA 13, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Inventory of a dowry, tablet VAT 1717 in the Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
56.5 Inscriptions
[1] EA 6, Burna-Buria to Nummuwarea (Amenhotep III):
An oer of friendship, tablet VAT 149 in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[2] EA 9, Burna-Buria to Niburrereya (Tutankhamen?):
Ancient loyalties, new requests, tablet BM 29785 in the
British Museum, London, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
[3] EA 14, Egyptian king to Burna-Buria: Inventory of
Egyptian gifts, tablets VAT 1651 and VAT 2711 in the
Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, and 1893.1-41 in the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, CDLI ORACC Transliteration
EA 8, Burna-Buria to Napureya (Akhenaten): Merchants murdered, vengeance demanded, tablet VAT 152
in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC
Transliteration
EA 287, Abdi-Heba to Egyptian Pharaoh: A very serious crime, tablet VAT 1644 in the Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Berlin, CDLI ORACC transliteration
EA 12, Princess to King: A letter from a princess, tablet
VAT 1605 in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin,
CDLI ORACC Transliteration
56.6 References
[1] Georges Roux (1964). Ancient Iraq. George Allen & Unwin. pp. 221, 233234.
[2] K. Fabritius (1999). K. Radner, ed. The Prosopography
of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part II: BG. The
Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. 354.
[3] Amanda H. Podany (2010). Brotherhood of Kings: How
International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East. Oxford University Press. p. 206.
56.6. REFERENCES
185
[4] Raymond Westbrook (JulSep 2000). Babylonian Diplomacy in the Amarna Letters 120 (3). Journal of the American Oriental Society. pp. 377382.
[21] Sarah C. Melville (2004). 16 Royal Women and the Exercise of Power in the Near East. In Daniel C. Snell. A
companion to the ancient Near East. p. 225.
[22] Paul Collins (2008). From Egypt to Babylon: the international age 1550-500 BC. Trustees of the British Museum.
p. 65.
Chapter 57
Coregency Stela
The Coregency Stela is the name given to seven limestone stela-fragments which were found in a tomb at
Amarna. The stela dates from the late Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt and shows the gures of Akhenaten,
Nefertiti, and Meritaten. At some time after the stela
was made, Nefertitis name had been chiselled out and
was replaced with Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten, the
name of Akhenatens co-regent. At the same time Meritatens name was replaced with that of Ankhesenpaaten,
Akhenaten and Nefertitis third daughter.
The stela might shed light on the events of the littleknown late-Amarna Period and the question of Akhenatens immediate succession.[1] Restoration and interpretation of the stela vary, but it has been suggested that it
supports the claim that Nefertiti should be identied as
Akhenaten co-regent and successor.[2]
The stela is currently in the Petrie Museum, in London.[3]
57.1 References
[1] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. Retrieved
2008-06-22.
[2] Nicholas Reeves. Book Review: Rolf Krauss, Das Ende
der Amarnazeit (Hildesheimer gyptologische Beitrge,
1978)". Retrieved 2008-06-22.
[3] Stelae UC410. Petrie Museum. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
186
Chapter 58
Dakhamunzu
Dakhamunzu (sometimes Dahamunzu) is the name 58.2 The Zannanza aair
of an Egyptian queen known from the Hittite annals
The Deeds of Suppiluliuma, which were composed by The annals then recount the message the Egyptian widow
Suppiluliuma I's son Mursili II. The identity of this queen queen wrote to Suppiluliuma:
has not yet been established with any degree of certainty
and Dakhamunzu has variously been identied as either
My husband died. A son I have not. But
Nefertiti, Meritaten or Ankhesenamen. The identicato
thee,
they say, the sons are many. If thou
tion of this queen is of importance both for Egyptian
wouldst
give
me one son of thine, he would bechronology and for the reconstruction of events during
come
my
husband.
Never shall I pick out a serthe late Eighteenth Dynasty.
vant of mine and make him my husband. I am
The episode in The Deeds of Suppiluliuma that features
afraid.[3]
Dakhamunzu is often referred to as the Zannanza aair,
after the name of a Hittite prince who was sent to Egypt
Such an oer to marry a female member of the Egypto marry her.
tian royal family was unprecedented,[1] as Amenhotep III
made clear in his correspondence with a foreign king, the
gift of women in marriage was for Egypt a one way trade:
From time immemorial no daughter of the king of Egypt
is given to anyone.[4] Suppiluliuma is therefore surprised
58.1 Context
and suspicious,[1] the annals report his reaction:
The Dakhamunzu episode should be seen against the
Such a thing has never happened to me in
background of Egypts relations with the other major
my whole life[5]
powers in Western Asia during the second half of the 14th
century BC, more specically the three-cornered struggle Nevertheless he sends his chamberlain to Egypt to invesfor power between Egypt, Mitanni and the newly arising tigate the matter,[1] he orders him:
power of the Hittites under Suppiluliuma I.[1] During the
late-Amarna period and its immediate aftermath we are
Go and bring thou the true word back to
almost totally dependent on the Hittite records for infor[2]
me.
Maybe they deceive me. Maybe in fact
mation on these matters.
they do have a son of their lord[5]
While involved in war with Mitanni, the Hittites are attacked by Egyptian forces in the region of Kadesh, which
only recently came under Hittite control. Suppiluliuma In the meantime Suppiluliuma concludes the siege of Carretaliates by simultaneously besieging Mitanni forces at chemish[1] and then returns to his capital Hattusa for the
Carchemish and sending forces into the Amqu region, at winter. The following spring his chamberlain and a
return to him, bringing a further
that time an Egyptian vassal state.[1] At this point the an- messenger from Egypt
[6]
letter
of
the
queen:
nals inform us that:
Why didst thou say 'they deceive me' in
that way? had i a son, would I have written
about my own and my countrys shame to a
foreign land? Thou didst not believe me and
hast even spoke thus to me. He who was my
husband has died. A son I have not. Never
shall I take a servant of mine and make him
188
58.3 Aftermath
189
[12] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 298
[13] http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http:
//www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Alley/4482/Ay.
html&date=2009-10-25+11:24:47
[14] http://www.hittites.info/history.aspx?text=history%
2fEarly+Late+Empire.htm#Arnuwanda2
[15] Aldred, C., Akhenaten, King of Egypt (Thames and Hudson, 1988) p. 229
[16] McMurray, W., Towards an Absolute Chronology for Ancient Egypt, p.4
[17] McMurray, W., Towards an Absolute Chronology for Ancient Egypt, p.5 and table 1
[18] Miller, J.L., Amarna Age Chronology and the Identity of
Nibhururiya in the Light of a Newly Reconstructed Hittite
Text, Altorientalische Forschungen, 34 (2007) g. 1
[19] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) pp. 176-177
[20] Reeves, C.N., Akhenaten, Egypts False Prophet (Thames
and Hudson, 2001) p. 177
References
58.5.2 Bibliography
Chapter 59
Gath (city)
59.1 Archaeological site
A tradition reported by Ishtori Haparchi and other early
Jewish writers is that Ramla was Gath.[2] Archaeology indicates that Ramla was not built on the site of an ancient
city,[3] but Mazar proposed that ancient Gath lay at a site
Ras Abu Hamid east of Ramla.[2] Avi-Yonah, however,
considered that to be a dierent Gath, usually now called
Gath-Gittaim.[4]
Gath, Gat, or Geth (Hebrew: , Winepress; Latin: Geth), often referred to as Gath of the Philistines, was one
of the ve Philistine city-states, established in northwestern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city
was Achish, in the times of Saul, David, and Solomon. It
is not certain whether this refers to two or more kings of
the name 'Achish' or not. Gath was also the home city of
Goliath and his brothers, as well as of Itai and his 600 soldiers who aided David in his exile from Absalom. David,
while running from Saul, escaped to Gath, and served under its king Achish. During Solomon's reign, Shemei goes
to Gath to return his escaped slave (I Kings). In II Kings,
the city of Gath is mentioned as being captured by Hazael
of Aram Damascus. Recent excavations at the site have
produced dramatic evidence of a siege and subsequent
destruction of the site in the late 9th century BC, most
probably related to this event, although a stone inscription
disclosing the name of the city has yet to be discovered.
Although rst noted by explorers in the mid-19th century CE, and subsequently briey excavated in 1899 by
Gath is also mentioned in the El-Amarna letters as the British archaeologists F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. MacalisGimti/Gintu, ruled by a king Shuwardata, and possibly ter, extensive exploration of the site was not conducted
by Abdi-Ashtart as well.
until 1996, when a long-term project was commenced at
The site most favored as the location of Gath is Tel es- the site, directed by Aren Maeir of Bar-Ilan University,
Sat, also called Tel Zat in Tel Tzat National Park.[1] Israel. Since 1996, excavations, surveys and other studies
190
191
have been conducted at the site, focusing on various cul- sites (such as Ekron, Ashdod, and Ashkelon) these phases
tures, periods and aspects relating to the site, its culture are not well represented.
and history, and its surroundings.[5]
According to the Jerusalem Post archeologists have unThe site was inhabited from Proto-Historic through Mod- covered a Philistine temple and evidence of a major
ern times. The earliest evidence for settlement is from earthquake in biblical times, during digs carried out at
the Chalcolithic Period (c. 5th millennium BCE), after the Tel Tzat National Park.
which there is continuous occupation until the modern
These excavations by Aren Maeir helped to establish the
Palestinian village of Tell es-Sa, abandoned during the dating of this geological event,
1948 ArabIsraeli War.
During the Early Bronze Age there is evidence of a large Other major nds there were evidence of the destruction
urban site, apparently similar to other EB III urban sites of Gath by Hazael King of Aram-Damascus around 830
in southern Canaan, such as nearby Tel Yarmut.
BCE, and evidence of the rst Philistine settlement in
[7]
Scant evidence of this period was found on the tell in the Canaan.
form of stray sherds. In the vicinity of the tell (to the east, A very impressive, site-wide destruction is evidenced at
in Area C6) evidence of tombs and possible domestic ac- the site during the late Iron Age IIA (c. late 9th century
tivities were found.
BCE). Throughout the site there is evidence of this deFinds from the MB IIB (and a few MB IIA) were found on
various parts of the tell in the survey (including a scarab
of Khyan, found in the 1960s). Recently, in the 2006 season, evidence of an impressive MB IIB fortication was
found in the vicinity of the summit of the tell, comprising
a stone wall/tower and a packed earth rampart/glacis.
In the 2005 season, below the late 9th-century BCE destruction level, in a stratum dating to an earlier phase of
the Iron Age IIA, an important inscription was found.
Scratched on a sherd typical of the Iron Age IIA, two
non-Semitic names written in Semitic Proto-Canaanite
letters were found. These two names, ALWT ()
and WLT (), are etymologically similar to the name
Goliath (), the well-known Philistine champion, who
according to the biblical text, was a native of Gath.
These two name fragments might indicate that names
similar to the name Goliath were in use in Philistia during
the Iron Age IIA, approximately the same time as Goliath
is described in the Bible. Although not proof of Goliaths
existence, the ostracon provides evidence of the cultural
milieu of this period. In any case, they provide a useful
192
example of the names used by the Philistines during that
time, and the earliest evidence for the use of an alphabetic
writing system in the Philistine culture.[8]
59.6 References
[1] Horton Harris (2011).
The location
a review of the candidate sites, based
cal, topographical and archaeological
Palestine Exploration Quarterly 143 (2):
doi:10.1179/003103211x12971861556954.
of Ziklag:
on Biblievidence.
119133.
Following the destruction of the site by Hazael, Philistine Gath lost its role as a primary Philistine city. Although the site was settled during later periods, it never [9] Gittite. WebBible Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-02regained its role as a site of central importance. Dur26.
ing the Crusader period, following the conquest of the
land during the First Crusade, a small fortress, named [10] Ishtori Haparchi, Kaphtor u'ferach, vol. II, chapter 11,
s.v. , (3rd edition) Jerusalem 2007, p.
Blanche Garde for the dramatic white chalk clis that
78 (Hebrew)
guard its western approach, was built at the site as part of
the Crusader encirclement of Fatimid Ashkelon. This site
was subsequently captured by the Ayyubids, and served
the basis for the Medieval and Modern village of Tell es- 59.7 Further reading
Sa, which existed until 1948. The ruins of the castle and
Rainey, A. 1975. The Identication of Philistine
the village can be seen on the site today. Portions of the
Gath - a Problem in Source Analysis for Historical
exterior fortications of the castle have been excavated
Geography. Eretz Israel 12:63*76*.
in recent years.
193
Maeir, A., Wimmer, S., Zukerman, A., and
Demsky, A. 2008. A Late Iron Age I/Early
Iron Age II Old Canaanite Inscription from Tell
e-f/Gath, Israel: Palaeography, Dating, and
Historical-Cultural Signicance. Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research.
Uziel, J., and Maeir, A. 2005. Scratching the Surface at Gath: Implications of the Tell es-Sa/Gath
Surface Survey. Tel Aviv 32(1): 50-75.
Wimmer, S., and Maeir, A. 2007. The Prince
of Sat: A Late Bronze Age Hieratic Inscription
from Tell Es-S/Gath. Zeitschrift Des Deutschen
Palstina-Vereins 123(1): 3748.
Zukerman, A. H., L.K., Lev-Tov, J., and Maeir,
A. 2007. A Bone of Contention? Iron Age IIA
Notched Scapulae from Tell es-Sa/Gath, Israel.
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 347: 5781.
Zukerman, A., and Shai, I. 2006. The Royal City
of the Philistines in the Azekah Inscription and
the History of Gath in the Eighth Century BCE.
Ugarit-Forschungen 38: 729816.
Chapter 60
Horemheb
Horemheb (sometimes spelled Horemhab or Haremhab
and meaning Horus is in Jubilation) was the last pharaoh
of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from either 1319
BC to late 1292 BC,[1] or 1306 to late 1292 BC (if he
ruled for 14 years) although he was not related to the preceding royal family and is believed to have been of common birth.
Before he became pharaoh, Horemheb was the commander in chief of the army under the reigns of Tutankamun
and Ay. After his accession to the throne, he reformed
the state and it was under his reign that ocial action
against the preceding Amarna rulers began.
Horemheb demolished monuments of Akhenaten,
reusing their remains in his own building projects,
and usurped monuments of Tutankhamun and Ay.
Horemheb presumably remained childless since he
appointed his vizier Paramesse as his successor, who
would assume the throne as Ramesses I.
194
195
ously not even he could possibly have predicted
that the king would die without issue. It must
always have been understood that his appointment as Crown Prince would end as soon as
the king produced an heir, and that he would
succeed Tut'ankhamun only in the eventuality of an early and/or childless death of the
sovereign. There can be no doubt that nobody
outranked the Hereditary Prince of Upper and
Lower Egypt and Deputy of the King in the
Entire Land except the king himself, and that
Horemheb was entitled to the throne once the
king had unexpectedly died without issue. This
means that it is Ays, not Horemhebs accession which calls for an explanation. Why was
Ay able to ascend the throne upon the death of
Tut'ankhamun, despite the fact that Horemheb
had at that time already been the ocial heir
to the throne for almost ten years?"[8]
The aged Vizier Ay sidelined Horemhebs claim to the
throne and instead succeeded Tutankhamun, likely because Horemheb was in Asia with the army at the
time of Tutankhamuns death. No objects belonging to Horemheb was found in Tutankhamuns tomb,
whereas items donated by other high-ranking ocials
such as Maya and Nakhtmin were found in tomb
KV62 by Egyptologists. Further, Tutankhamuns queen,
Ankhesenamun, refused to marry Horemheb, a commoner, and so make him king of Egypt.[9] Having
pushed Horemhebs claims aside, Ay proceeded to nominate the aforementioned Nakhtmin, who was possibly
Ays son or adopted son, to succeed him rather than
Horemheb.[10][11]
The title iry-pat (Hereditary Prince) was used very frequently in Horemhebs Saqqara tomb but not combined
with any other words. When used alone, the Egyptologist Alan Gardiner has shown that the iry-pat title
contains features of ancient descent and lawful inheritance which is identical to the designation for a Crown
Prince.[7] This means that Horemheb was the openly
recognised heir to Tutankhamuns throne and not Ay, Tutankhamuns ultimate successor. As the Dutch Egyptologist Jacobus Van Dijk observes:
There is no indication that Horemheb always intended to succeed Tut'ankhamun; obvi-
After Ays reign, which lasted for a little over four years,
Horemheb managed to seize power presumably from his
position as Commander of the Army, to assume what he
must have perceived to be his just reward for having ably
served Egypt under Tutankhamun and Ay. Horemheb
quickly removed Nakhtmins rival claim to the throne and
arranged to have Ays WV23 tomb desecrated by smashing the latters sarcophagus, systematically chiselling out
Ays name and gure out of the tomb walls and probably destroying Ays mummy.[12] However, he spared Tutankhamuns tomb from vandalism presumably because
it was Tutankhamun who had promoted his rise to power
and chosen him to be his heir. Horemheb also usurped
and enlarged Ays mortuary temple at Medinet Habu for
his own use and erased Ays titulary on the back of a 17
foot colossal statue by carving his own titulary in its place.
196
state power from Amens priests to Akhenatens government ocials. Horemheb appointed judges and regional
tribunes ... reintroduced local religious authorities and
divided legal power between Upper Egypt and Lower
Egypt" between the Viziers of Thebes and Memphis
respectively.[13]
These deeds are recorded in a stela which the king erected
at the foot of his Tenth Pylon at Karnak. Occasionally
called The Great Edict of Horemheb,[14] it is a copy of the
actual text of the kings decree to re-establish order to the
Two Lands and curb abuses of state authority. The stelas
creation and prominent location emphasizes the great importance which Horemheb placed upon domestic reform.
Horemheb also reformed the Army and reorganized
the Deir el-Medinah workforce in his 7th Year while
Horemhebs ocial Maya renewed the tomb of Thutmose
IV, which had been disturbed by tomb robbers in his 8th
Year. While the king restored the priesthood of Amun,
he prevented the Amun priests from forming a stranglehold on power, by deliberately reappointing priests
who mostly came from the Egyptian army since he could
rely on their personal loyalty.[15] Horemheb was a prolic builder who erected numerous temples and buildings throughout Egypt during his reign. He constructed
the Second, Ninth and Tenth Pylons of the Great Hypostyle Hall, in the Temple at Karnak, using recycled
talatat blocks from Akhenatens own monuments here, as
building material for the rst two Pylons.[16]
197
instead. Janssen also observed that the palaeography of
the ostraca suggests a date in the 20th Dynasty partly because it followed the later New Kingdom form of writing and due to its provenance in the Grand Putit region,
which features numerous Dynasty 20 ostracas. However,
this form of writing is also attested in monuments of
Ramesses II and it would, therefore, not be unexpected
to nd it in a document from the very late 18th Dynasty
since the transition from the Early New Kingdom to the
Late New Kingdom Form of writing had already occurred
prior to the end of Horemhebs reign, as Frank Yurco
once noted. Indeed, Janssens palaeographical reference
for his paperProf. Georges Posenerhimself suggested
a date in the 19th Dynasty due to the form of the wsf
(absent) and akhet (inundation) text. As Janssen himself
writes, a few 19th Dynasty ostracas have been found in
the Grand Putit area prior to the 20th Dynastys intensive exploitation of this region.[21] This does not exclude
some late 18th Dynasty work here either. Secondly, both
Janssen and Krauss stress in their papers that the relative
scarcity of the hieratic text in Ostraca IFAO 1254 precludes a clear dating of the document to Ramesses IIIs
reign and that palaeography, in general, does not give a
precise date for a documents creation. Hence, a dating
of the ostraca to Horemhebs reign on the basis of the
Year change is eminently plausible. On other matters, a
damaged wall fragment painting from the Petrie Collection reportedly mentions Horemhebs 15th or 25th Year.
198
60.3.1
for Horemheb after his Year 14 also explains the unnished state of Horemhebs royal KV57 tomb--"a fact not
taken into account by any of those [scholars] defending
a long reign [of 26 or 27 years]. The tomb is comparable to that of Seti I in size and decoration technique,
and Seti Is tomb is far more extensively decorated than
that of Horemheb, and yet Seti managed to virtually complete his tomb within a decade, whereas Horemheb did
not even succeed in fully decorating the three rooms he
planned to have done, leaving even the burial hall unnished. Even if we assume that Horemheb did not begin
the work on his royal tomb until his Year 7 or 8, ... it remains a mystery how the work could not have been completed had he lived on for another 20 or more years.[26]
Therefore, Horemhebs reign has been determined and
accepted today by most scholars to be 14 years and 1
monthManetho had assigned him a reign of 4 years in
his Epitome and 1 monthbased on the clear evidence
of the wine jar labels and the lack of dates beyond his
Year 14 but this gure should be raised by a decade. As
for the Year 27 hieratic grato at Horemhebs Funerary temple at Medinet Habu and the Year 59 date from
the inscription of Mes, Van Dijk argues that the rst date
likely inaugurated a statue of Horemheb during Year 27
of Ramesses II or III in Horemhebs temple while the latter date of Mes can hardly be taken seriously, and indeed
is not taken at face value by even the staunchest supporters
of a long reign for Horemheb since there was no standard
Egptian practise of including the years of all the rulers between Amenhotep III and Horemheb as Wolfgang Helck
makes clear.[27]
60.4 Succession
Meanwhile, the Year 14 dockets, in contrast, are all individual and mention specic wines such as very good
quality wine or, in one case sweet wine and the location of the vineyard is identied.[23] A general example is
this text on a Year 14 wine docket:
Year 14, Good quality wine
of the estate of Horemheb-merenAmun, L.P.H., in the domain of
Amun, from the wineyard of Ath,
Chief vintner Haty.[23]
Other Year 14 dockets mention Memphis (?), the Western River while their vintners are named as Nakhtamun,
[Mer-]seger-men, Ramose and others.[24]
The quality and consistency of the KV57 dockets
strongly suggest that Horemheb was buried in his Year
14, or at least before the wine harvest of his Year 15
at the very latest.[24] This evidence is consistent with
the Horemheb dockets from Deir el-Medina which mention Years 2, 3, 4, 6, 13 and 14, but again no higher
dates... while a docket ascribed to Horemheb from Sedment has Year 12.[25] The lack of dated inscriptions
199
60.6 References
[1] Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss & David Warburton (editors), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, p.493 Chronology table
[2] Alan Gardiner, The Coronation of King Haremhab,
JEA 39 (1953), pp.14, 16 & 21
[3] Virtual Egyptian Museum - The Full Collection
[4] Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell:
1992, p.242
[5] John A. Wilson "Texts from the Tomb of General Hor-emheb" in Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET) relating to
the Old Testament, Princeton Univ. Press, 2nd edition,
1955. pp.250-251
[6] THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS:
THE NEW KINGDOM NECROPOLIS OF MEMPHIS.
Historical and Iconographical Studies by JACOBUS VAN
DIJK, University of Groningen dissertation. Groningen
1993. Chapter One: Horemheb, Prince Regent of Tutankh'amun, pp.17-18 (online: pp.9-10)
[7] Alan Gardiner, The Coronation of King Haremhab, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol.39 (1953), pp.13-31
200
the Memphite Area and Sidmant. 3. An inscribed amphora from Sidmant, in J. Baines, et al., Pyramid Studies
and Other Essays presented to I.E.S. Edwards (London,
1988), 118-120, pl.21.
[26] Van Dijk, JARCE 44, p.198
[27] Helck, Urkunden IV, 2162 & Van Dijk, JARCE 44,
pp.198-99
[28] G. Martin, The Hidden Tombs of Memphis, Thames &
Hudson (1991), pp.97-98
60.7 Bibliography
Alan Gardiner, The Inscription of Mes: A Contribution to Egyptian Juridical Procedure, Untersuchungen IV, Pt. 3 (Leipzig: 1905).
Jrgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des pharaonischen gypten, MS 46, Philip Von Zabern, Mainz:
1997
Nicholas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt,
Blackwell Books: 1992
K.A. Kitchen, The Basis of Egyptian Chronology in
relation to the Bronze Age, Volume 1: pp. 3755 in High, Middle or Low?: Acts of an International Colloquium on absolute chronology held at
the University of Gothenburg 2022 August 1987.
(ed: Paul Astrm).
Chapter 61
Huya (noble)
Huya was an Egyptian noble living around 1350 BC. He
was the Superintendent of the Royal Harem, Superintendent of the Treasury and Superintendent of the
House, all titles that are associated with Queen Tiye,
mother of Akhenaten.
He had a tomb constructed in the Northern cemetery at
Amarna, although his remains have never been identied.
His tomb contained a large amount of material about the
royal family and the Aten cult, including a Hymn to the
Aten.[1][2]
61.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
[2] Michael Rice, Whos Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge
2001, ISBN 0-415-15448-0, p.73
201
Chapter 62
Labaya
Labaya (also transliterated as Labayu or Lib'ayu) was invaded Gezer and insulting its king Milkilu. He denied
a 14th-century BCE ruler or warlord in the central hill any knowledge of his sons alleged collaboration with the
country of southern Canaan. He lived contemporane- Habiru:
ously with Pharaoh Akhenaten. Labaya is mentioned in
several of the Amarna Letters (abbreviated EA, for 'el
To the king, my lord and my Sun: Thus
Amarna'), which is practically all scholars know about
Lab'ayu, your servant and the dirt on which
him. He is the author of letters EA 25254.
you tread. I fall at the feet of the king, my
lord and my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. I have
Labaya was active over the whole length of Samaria and
obeyed the orders that the king wrote to me.
slightly beyond, as he gave land to Habiru in the vicinity
Who am I that the king should lose his land on
of akmu (Shechem) and he and his sons threatened such
account of me? The fact is that I am a loyal
powerful towns as Jerusalem and Gazru (Gezer) to the
servant of the king! I am not a rebel and I am
south, and Megiddo to the north.
not delinquent in duty. I have not held back
my payments of tribute; I have not held back
anything requested by my commissioner. He
62.1 Career
denounces me unjustly, but the king, my Lord,
does not examine my (alleged) act of rebellion.
Moreover, my act of rebellion is this: when
I entered Gazru-(Gezer), I kept on saying,
Everything of mine the king takes, but where
is what belongs to Milkilu? " I know the
actions of Milkilu against me! Moreover, the
king wrote for my son. I did not know that my
son was consorting with the 'Apiru. I hereby
hand him over to Addaya-(commissioner).
Moreover, how, if the king wrote for my wife,
how could I hold her back? How, if the king
wrote to me, Put a bronze dagger into your
heart and die, how could I not execute the
order of the king?
(EA 254)[1]
62.4. REFERENCES
203
After receiving numerous complaints about Labayas behavior, the pharaoh (probably Amenhotep III) nally ordered several Canaanite rulers to take Labaya prisoner
and send him to Egypt. Biridiya, ruler of Megiddo, wrote
to the pharaoh that Zurata, governor of Akko, had captured Labaya, but accepted a bribe from the latter and
released him (EA 245).[5]
Labaya was eventually killed by the citizens of Gina
(Beth-Hagan, possibly modern-day Jenin). His death
was reported to the Pharaohs agent, Balu-Ur-Sag, by
Labayas two sons. The sons of Labaya continued
to campaign against other Egyptian vassals in Canaan.
One of Labayas sons, Mutbaal, ruled Pella in the
Trans-Jordanian part of Canaan. Biryawaza, king of
Damascus, was eventually asked to take armed action
against Labayas sons (EA 250).[6]
Still others, such as David Rohl, have advocated a totally revised chronology of ancient Israelite and Egyptian history, and instead identify Labaya with Saul, and
62.2 List of Labayas three letters Mutbaal with Sauls son Ishbaal. Ish-baal and Mutbaal,
whose names have the same meaning, Man of Baal,
to Pharaoh
moved their capital to Transjordan after the death of their
fathers, whose center of power had been west of the
Labayas name is referenced in fourteen el Amarna letters Jordan river. Rohl further identies Dadua, Ayab and
and his name used thirty-two times. He was the author of Yishaya, three gures mentioned by Mutbaal in a later
letters EA 252-254.[7]
Amarna Letter, with King David, his general Joab and
Davids father Jesse.[10] The Rohl chronology is not, however, widely accepted. Rohls suggestions are rejected by
1. EA 252title: Sparing ones enemies
other Egyptologists, such as Kenneth Kitchen, who ar2. EA 253title: Neither rebel nor delingue that there are discrepancies between the Labaya of
quent (1)"
the Amarna texts and King Saul as he is described in the
3. EA 254title: Neither rebel nor delinBooks of Samuel.
quent (2)"' [8]
62.4 References
[1] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins, 1992), p. 307
[2] Moran, pp. 332-333
[3] Moran, p. 321
204
62.5 Bibliography
Baikie, James (2004). The Amarna Age. Seattle:
University Press of the Pacic. ISBN 1-4102-15105.
Moran, William (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 08018-6715-0.
Rohl, David (1995). Pharaohs and Kings: A Biblical
Quest. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-51770315-7.
Westbrook, Raymond (2000). Amarna Diplomacy.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
0-8018-7103-4.
Chapter 63
Maya (Egyptian)
206
63.1 References
[1] Christine Hobson, Exploring the World of the Pharaohs:
A Complete Guide to Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson,
1987. p.115
63.2 Bibliography
Rice, Michael (1999). Whos Who in Ancient Egypt.
Routledge. p. 106.
Georey T. Martin: The Hidden Tombs of Memphis,
London 1991, p. 147-88 ISBN 0-500-39026-6
The Experience of Ancient Egypt by Ann Rosalie
David, 2000 Routledge, pp. 107 .
Coordinates: 295159N 311301E / 29.86639N
31.21694E
Chapter 64
Meritaten Tasherit
Meritaten Tasherit, which means Meritaten the Younger
was an ancient Egyptian princess of the 18th dynasty. She
is likely to have been the daughter of Meritaten, eldest
daughter of Pharaoh Akhenaten.
The father of this child remains under debate. Many
assume it to be none other than Meritatens father, Akhenaten, or possibly her husband Smenkhkare.
Since both Meritaten Tasherit and another princess,
Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit appear only in texts that once
mentioned Akhenatens second wife Kiya, it is also possible that they were children of Akhenaten and Kiya, or that
they were ctional, replacing the name of Kiyas daughter, who might have been Beketaten, more commonly
thought to be Tiye's child.[1][2]
The fate of this child is uncertain. The mention of the god
Aten in her name suggests that she was indeed a daughter of Akhenaten, since his successors reverted his religious reforms, and reverted to the worship of Egypt's traditional gods. Meanwhile, the name Aten was dropped
from popular use during this time.
64.1 References
[1] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004) ISBN
0-500-05128-3, p.148
[2] Dr. Marc Gabolde: The End of the Amarna Period
207
Chapter 65
Meryre II
The Ancient Egyptian noble known as Meryre II was
superintendent of the queen Nefertiti, and had the title
Royal scribe, Steward, Overseer of the Two Treasuries,
Overseer of the Royal Harim of Nefertiti.[1]
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Tomb 2, although
his remains have never been identied. The tomb has the
last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna family, dating from second month, year 12 of his reign.[2]
65.1 References
[1] North Tombs. The Amarna Project. Retrieved 200807-08.
[2] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. p. 1.
Archived from the original on 2008-05-28. Retrieved
2008-06-23.
208
Chapter 66
William L. Moran
William Lambert Moran (August 11, 1921 December 19, 2000) was an American Assyriologist. He was
born in Chicago, United States.
66.1 Publications
His doctorate, under W.F Albright, studied Canaanite
glosses in the Amarna letters and was signicant for the
understanding of biblical Hebrew. Other signicant publications include the standard translation and commentary of "The Amarna Letters" in 1992. These texts document the international and imperial correspondence of
the Egyptian Pharaohs around the time of the Egyptian kings Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun.
Many other journal articles concerned illuminating studies of Akkadian literature, including the Gilgamesh Epic.
209
Chapter 67
Mutbaal
Mutbaal (Akk. man of Baal") was a Canaanite king of
the Amarna Period. He is identied in the Amarna letters
as a son of Labaya, the ruler of the hill country north of
Jerusalem, including the territory in the vicinity of the
city of Shachmu (biblical Shechem).
Mutbaal may be the son whose association with the
Habiru raiders Labaya denounced in EA 254. He ruled in
Pella on the eastern side of the Jordan river. After his fathers death at the hands of the citizens of Gina, Mutbaal
and his brother continued their assaults on other Canaanite rulers and their holdings, employing Habiru mercenaries. Eventually Biryawaza of Damascus was ordered by
the Egyptian court to take armed action against the sons
of Labaya. (EA 250)
67.2 References
[1] Moran, The Amarna Letters, pp 308-310.
67.3 Resources
David Rohl identies Mutbaal with Ishbaal or Ishbosheth, the son of the Israelite King Saul, but the
chronology that would make this identication feasible
is not accepted by the majority of scholars. It cannot be
denied that the names have exactly the same meaning,
but two people may have the same name and still belong
to dierent time-periods. But of both Mutbaal son of
Labaya and of Ishbosheth son of Saul it can be said that,
though his father ruled from Shechem, he himself ruled
from Pella.
In Rohls historical view, it would not have been Mutbaal
but Jonathan who displeased Labaya by associating with
the Habiru. Mutbaals brother in the post-Labaya period
would be David, his brother-in-law.
Chapter 68
Mutnedjmet
68.3 Monuments and Inscriptions
68.1 Titles
Mutnedjemets titles include: Hereditary Princess (irytp`t), Great Kings Wife (hmt-niswt-wrt), Great of Praises
(wrt-hzwt), Lady of Grace (nbt-im3t), Sweet of Love
(bnrt-mrwt), Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt (hnwtShmw -mhw), Songstress of Hathor (hsyt-nt-hwt-hrw),
and Songstress of Amun (Smyt-nt-imnw) [1]
inscriptions
of
Statues (fragments) and other items including alabaster fragments naming Mutnodjemet were found
in Horemheb's Saqqara tomb. Some items bear funerary texts.[9]
211
212
It has been suggested that she had a daughter who was [12] Elizabeth Thomas: Was Queen Mutnedjmet the Owner of
Tomb 33 in the Valley of the Queens? in: The Journal of
simply not mentioned on any monuments. The presence
Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 53, (Dec., 1967), pp. 161of the infant along with Mutnedjmet in the tomb suggests
163
that this queen died in childbirth. A canopic jar of the
[11]
Queen is now located in the British Museum.
It is possible that the tomb KV33 in the Valley of the
Queens was originally built for her. The tomb is known as
the tomb of an otherwise unknown Tanedjmet, but both
cartouches with her name are damaged and the similar
hieroglyphs for ta and mut allow for this interpretation.[12]
68.6 References
[1] Grajetski Ancient Egyptian Queens: a hieroglyphic dictionary Golden House Publications
[2] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,
Thames & Hudson
[3] Georey Martin, The Hidden Tombs of Memphis,
Thames & Hudson (1991), p.96
[4] Martin, p.96
[5] J. Tyldesley, Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt, 2006,
Thames & Hudson
[6] Briant Bohleke, Amenemopet Panehsi, Direct Successor
of the Chief Treasurer Maya, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39, (2002), pp. 157-172
[7] Maya Mller, ber die Bste 23725 in Berlin, Jahrbuch
der Berliner Museen, Bd. 31, (1989), pp. 7-24
[8] Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2004, ISBN
0-500-05128-3, pg 156
[9] Georey T. Martin, Excavations at the Memphite Tomb
of oremeb, 1977: Preliminary Report, The Journal of
Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 64, (1978), pp. 5-9
[10] Dodson & Hilton, p.156
[11] Dodson & Hilton, p.156
Chapter 69
Nakhtpaaten
Nakhtpaaten (Strong is the Aten) or Nakht was an
ancient Egyptian vizier during the reign of Pharaoh
Akhenaten of the 18th dynasty.
69.1 Career
Nakhtpaaten seems to have succeeded the Vizier Ramose
in oce. Ramose was the vizier in Thebes possibly up
to the time of the move to Akhetaten, Akhenaten's new
capitol. Ramoses tomb in Thebes was not nished and
after the move to the new city in year 4-5 of Akhenaten Nakhtpaaten is the vizier. His titles as given in his
house and tomb were: Hereditary prince, count, sealbearer, overseer of the city and vizier, overseer of the
work projects in Akhet-Aten.[2]
It is likely Nakhtpaaten who is depicted in the tomb of
Mahu who served as the Chief of Police. Mahu is shown
meeting with a vizier and a lesser ocial named Heqanefer in a scene related to policing the city.[3]
He lived in the southern city part of Akhet-Aten, his
house has been found.[4] Nakhtpaatens house was a large
mansion which included reception halls, bedrooms, a
bathroom, a lavatory and oces.[5]
His tomb was Tomb no. 12 of the Amarna rock tombs.[6]
69.2 References
[1] Hermann Ranke: Die gyptische Persnennamen. Verlag
von J. J. Augustin in Glckstadt, 1935, p.210
[2] Murnane, William J, Texts from the Amarna Period in
Egypt, Society of Biblical Literature, 1995 ISBN 155540-966-0
[3] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
[4] Nicholas Reeves: Akhenaten Egypts False Prophet.
London, Thames & Hudson, 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7,
p.126
[5] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8
213
Chapter 70
Neferkheperuhesekheper
Neferkheperu-her-sekheper was an ancient Egyptian
ocial during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten. He was
the mayor of Akhet-Aten, the pharaohs new capital. He
was buried in Tomb EA13 in the southern group of the
Amarna rock tombs.[2] His name (Neferkheperu causes
me to live is a basilophoric name (one that contains the
name of a king, usually to glorify him), since Neferkheperu is an element of Akhenatens throne name.
70.1 Tomb
Neferkheperu-her-sekhepers tomb was ocially opened
by Bouriant in 1883 and excavated by Daressy in 1893,
but it had been entered before, as inscriptions on the ceiling included modern-era names and dates.[3]
The tomb is unnished and in a good state. Its layout
is similar to that of other Amarna tombs. It consists of
one room, with six white columns in one row perpendicular to the entry; the distance between the two middle
ones is slightly more than between the others. Work has
been started on the back wall of the room, there would
have been another room or possibly a shrine there. Decoration below the ceiling is complete, only the colours
and the inscriptions are missing. Decoration lower on
the wall is completely missing; on the south side even the
columns haven't been carved completely.[4] By the time
the burial took place it must have been evident that the
tomb wouldn't be nished; after nishing the room and
most of the columns the workers began to work in the
northeastern corner, the usual place of the stairs leading to the burial chamber. The chamber itself was just
large enough to contain the sarcophagus. Two corridors
leading from it are either contemporary or were carved
later.[4]
70.2 Sources
[1] Hermann Ranke: Die gyptische Persnennamen. Verlag
von J. J. Augustin in Glckstadt, 1935., p.199
[2] Amarna Project: The South Tombs (PDF)
214
Chapter 71
Panehesy
Not to be confused with the Nubian viceroy
Pinehesy.
71.1 References
[1] Aayko Eyma, ed., A Delta-Man in Yebu: Occasional Volume of the Egyptologists Electronic Forum No. 1, p.35
[2] Journal of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society
by Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, Manchester
University Press 1935, p.19
215
Chapter 72
Penthu
The Egyptian noble Penthu was the sealbearer of the
King of Lower Egypt, the sole companion, the attendant
of the Lord of the Two Lands, the favorite of the good
god, kings scribe, the kings subordinate, First servant of
the Aten in the mansion of the Aten in Akhetaten, Chief
of physicians, and chamberlain.[1] These titles alone show
how powerful he would have been in Eighteenth Dynasty
Egypt.
He was originally Chief Physician to Akhenaten, but may
have survived the upheavals of the end of the Amarna
period, and served under Ay, after being Vizier under
Tutankhamun.[2] The identication of Penthu the Physician with Pentu the Vizier is not certain however.[3]
He had a tomb constructed at Amarna, Amarna Tomb
5,[1] although his remains have never been identied, and
he was probably never buried there.
72.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
[2] J. Cerny: Hieratic Inscriptions from the Tomb of
Tut'ankhamun, Oxford 1965, S. 4 no. 26
[3] Aiden Dodson, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun,
Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation,
American University in Cairo Press (2009), page 79
216
Chapter 73
Pihuri
Pakhura (Pihu) was an Egyptian commissioner in the
Land of Retenu" (Canaan) mentioned in the Amarna
letters. He probably served under Pharaoh Amenhotep
III and/or Akhenaten. In EA 122, Rib-Hadda, king of
Byblos, complained of an attack by Pakhura, who killed
a number of Byblos Shardana mercenaries and took captive three of Rib-Haddas men.
73.1 References
I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond,
E. Sollberger, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History,
Cambridge University Press 1973
Epiphanius Wilson, Egyptian Literature, The Colonial Press 1901, p.212
Charles Francis Horne, The Sacred Books and Early
Literature of the East, Kessinger Publishing 2001,
p.288
217
Chapter 74
Ramose
74.2 External links
Theban Tomb TT 71, Senenmuts parents
74.1 References
[1] Cruz-Uribe, Eugene (July 1978). The Father of Rameses
I: 0I 11456. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37 (3): 237
244.
218
Chapter 75
Ramose (TT55)
75.1 TT55
His tomb[1] is located in the Sheikh Abd el-Qurna part
of the Theban Necropolis, on the west bank of the Nile,
opposite to Luxor, and is notable for the high quality decorations in both the traditional and Amarna styles.
75.2 References
[1] Ramose (TT 55)
219
Chapter 76
Rib-Hadda
Rib-Hadda (also rendered Rib-Addi, Rib-Addu, RibAdda) was king of Byblos during the mid fourteenth century BCE. He is the author of some sixty of the Amarna
letters all to Akhenaten. His name is Akkadian in
form and may invoke the Northwest Semitic god Hadad,
though his letters invoke only Ba'alat Gubla, the Lady of
Byblos (probably another name for Asherah).
220
221
Rib-Hadda was ultimately exiled by his younger brother
Ilirabih and not long afterwards, killed at the behest of
Aziru.[9] This event is mentioned in Amarna letter EA
162 from Akhenaten to Aziru.[10]
76.2 References
Map of the Ancient Near East during the Amarna period,
showing the great powers of the period: Egypt (green), Hatti
(yellow), the Kassite kingdom of Babylon (purple), Assyria
(grey), and Mittani (red). Lighter areas show direct control,
darker areas represent spheres of inuence. The extent of the
Achaean/Mycenaean civilization is shown in orange.
Byblos:
[Ri]b Hadda says to his lord, king of all
countries, Great King: May the Lady of
Gubla grant power to my lord. I fall at the
feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times.
May the king, my lord, know that Gubla
(ie: Byblos), the maidservant of the king
from ancient times, is safe and sound. The
war, however, of the Apiru against me is severe. (Our) sons and daughters and the furnishings of the houses are gone, since they
have been sold [in] the land of Yarimuta for
our provisions to keep us alive. For the
lack of a cultivator, my eld is like a woman
without a husband. I have written repeatedly to the palace because of the illness aficting me, [but there is no one] who has
looked at the words that keep arriving. May
the king give heed [to] the words of [his]
servant... ...The Apiru killed [[Aduna of
Arqa|Ad[una]] the king] of Irqata-(Arqa),
but there was no one who said anything
to Abdi-Ashirta, and so they go on taking
(territory for themselves). Miya, the ruler
of Arani, seized Ar[d]ata, and just now
the men of Ammiy have killed their lord.
I am afraid. May the king be informed
that the king of Hatti has seized all the
countries that were vassals of the king of
Mitan<ni>...Send arc[hers] [8]
An aged and ailing Rib-Hadda continued to write to
Pharaoh, telling him of violent upheavals in Phoenicia
and Syria, including revolutions instigated by AbdiAshirtas son Aziru coupled with incursions by Apiru
raiders. (e.g., EA 137)
76.3 Resources
Baikie, James. The Amarna Age: A Study of the
Crisis of the Ancient World. University Press of the
Pacic, 2004.
Cohen, Raymond and Raymond Westbrook (eds.).
Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. Johns Hopkins University Press,
2002.
Moran, William L. (ed. and trans.) The Amarna
Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Chapter 77
Suteans
The Suteans were a Semitic people who lived throughout the Levant and Canaan circa 1350 BC, and were
later to be found in Babylonia also. They are mentioned
in eight of the 382 Amarna letters. Like the Habiru,
they traditionally worked as mercenaries. They are listed
in documents from the Middle Assyrian Empire (13951075 BC) as being extant in the Assyrian colony city of
Emar, in what is now north east Syria. Together with
other Semitic peoples; the Chaldeans and Arameans, they
overran swathes of Babylonia circa 1100 BC. They were
eventually conquered by Assyria, along with the rest of
Babylonia.[1]
77.2 References
[1] George Roux. Ancient Iraq. ISBN 978-0140125238.
[2] Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN 0-80186715-0)
222
Chapter 78
Tadukhipa
78.1 Marriage to Amenhotep III
Relatively little is known about this princess of Mitanni.
She is believed to have been born around Year 21 of the
reign of Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III, (c. 1366 BC).
Fifteen years later, Tushratta married his daughter to his
ally Amenhotep III to cement their two states alliances in
Year 36 of Amenhotep IIIs reign (1352 BC). Tadukhipa
is referenced in seven of Tushrattas thirteen Amarna letters, of about 1350-1340 BC.[2] Tushratta requested that
his daughter would become a queen consort, even though
that position was held by Queen Tiye.[3] The gifts sent to
Egypt by Tushratta include a pair of horses and a chariot, plated with gold and inlaid with precious stones, a
litter for a camel adorned with gold and precious stones,
cloth and garments, jewelry such as bracelets, armlets and
other ornaments, a saddle for a horse adorned with gold
eagles, more dresses colored purple, green and crimson
and a large chest to hold the items.[4] In return Amenhotep III never sent the golden statues he oered and after his death Tushratta sent some missives complaining
about the lack of reciprocity.[5]
223
224
Others such as Petrie, Drioton and Vandier have suggested that Tadukhipa was given a new name after becoming the consort of Akhenaten and is to be identied
the famous queen Nefertiti.[6] This theory suggests that
Nefertitis name the beautiful one has come refers to
Nefertitis foreign origin as Tadukhipa. Seele, Meyer and
others have pointed out that Tey, wife of Ay, held the title of nurse to Nefertiti, and that this argues against this
identication. A mature princess arriving in Egypt would
not need a nurse.[7]
78.4 References
[1] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal
Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3
[2] William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1992, EA 23, pp. 61-62
[3] Tyldesley, Joyce. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt.
Thames & Hudson. 2006. p. 124 ISBN 0-500-051453
[4] A. L. Frothingham, Jr., Archological News, The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine
Arts, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1893), pp. 557-631
[5] Aldred, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt ,Thames and
Hudson, 1991 (paperback), ISBN 0-500-27621-8
[6] Tyldesley, Joyce. Nefertiti: Egypts Sun Queen. Penguin.
1998. ISBN 0-670-86998-8
[7] Cyril Aldred, The End of the El-'Amrna Period, The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 43, (Dec., 1957),
pp. 30-41
Chapter 79
Tiye
For other uses, see Tiye (disambiguation).
served as a priest and superintendent of oxen or comTiye (c. 1398 BC 1338 BC, also spelled Taia, mander of the chariotry.[2] Tiyes mother, Thuya, was involved in many religious cults, as her dierent titles attested (Singer of Hathor, Chief of the Entertainers of both
Amun and Min...),[3] which suggests that she was a member of the royal family. Some Egyptologists,[note 1] believe that Tiye is of Mitanni (Armenian) origin, and she
brought the Aten religion to Egypt from her native land,
and taught her son, Akhenaten.[4]
It sometimes is suggested that Tiyes father, Yuya, was
of Asiatic or Nubian descent due to the features of
his mummy and the many dierent spellings of his
name, which might imply it was a non-Egyptian name in
origin.[5] Some suggest that the queens strong political
and unconventional religious views might have been due
not just to a strong character, but to foreign descent.[3]
Tiye also had a brother, Anen, who was Second Prophet
of Amun.[6] Other Egyptologists speculated that Ay, a
successor of Tutankhamen as pharaoh after the latters
death, also might have been descended from Tiye. No
clear date or monument can conrm the link between the
two, but these Egyptologists presumed this by Ays origins, also from Akhmin, and because he inherited most
of the titles that Tiyes father, Yuya, held during his lifetime, at the court of Amenhotep III.[3][7]
Queen Tiye, whose husband, Amenhotep III, may have been depicted to her right in this broken statue
Tiy and Tiyi) was the daughter of Yuya and Tjuyu (also
spelled Thuyu). She became the Great Royal Wife of
the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III. She was the mother
of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun. Her
mummy was identied as The Elder Lady found in the
tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) in 2010.
226
79.2 Monuments
Her husband devoted a number of shrines to her and
constructed a temple dedicated to her in Sedeinga in
Nubia where she was worshipped as a form of the god- Fragmentary funerary mask of Queen Tiye - in the gyptisches
dess Hathor-Tefnut.[10] He also had an articial lake built Museum collection in Berlin
for her in his Year 12.[11] As the American Egyptologists
David O'Connor and Eric Cline note:
Tiye wielded a great deal of power during both her husbands and sons reigns. Amenhotep III became a ne
sportsman, a lover of outdoor life, and a great statesman.
He often had to consider claims for Egypts gold and requests for his royal daughters in marriage from foreign
kings such as Tushratta of Mitanni and Kadashman-Enlil
I of Babylon. The royal lineage was carried by the women
of Ancient Egypt and marriage to one would have been
a path to the throne for their progeny. Tiye became her
husbands trusted adviser and condant. Being wise, intelligent, strong, and erce, she was able to gain the respect of foreign dignitaries. Foreign leaders were willing
to deal directly through her. She continued to play an
active role in foreign relations and was the rst Egyptian
queen to have her name recorded on ocial acts.[13]
79.5. NOTES
227
cept a brief co-regency lasting no more than one year at Dodson and Dyan Hilton, who once stated that it seems
the most,[16] or no co-regency at all.[15]
very unlikely that her mummy could be the so-called 'Elder Lady' in the tomb of Amenhotep II.[17]
By 2010, DNA analysis, sponsored by the Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi
Hawass, was able to formally identify the Elder Lady to
be Queen Tiye. Also, the strands of her hair found inside Tutankhamuns tomb matched the DNA of the Elder
Lady.[19]
79.5 Notes
[1] Flinders Petrie (19th century Egyptologist) after whom
Petrie Museum in London, England is named
79.6 References
[1] Tyldesley 2006, p. 115.
Tiye is believed to have been originally buried in Akhenatens royal tomb at Amarna alongside her son and granddaughter, Meketaten, as a fragment from the tomb not
long ago was identied as being from her sarcophagus.
Her gilded burial shrine (showing her with Akhenaten)
ended up in KV55 while shabtis belonging to her were
found in Amenhotep III's WV22 tomb.[17]
Her mummied remains was found adjacent to two other
mummies in an opposite side chamber of Amenhotep II
in KV35 by Victor Loret in 1898. The two other mummies were a young boy who died at around the age of
ten, thought to be Webensenu or Prince Thutmose and
another, younger unknown woman. All three were found
together, lying naked side-by-side and unidentied in a
small antechamber of the tomb. They had been extensively damaged by ancient tomb robbers.[18] At rst, researchers were unable to identify both female mummies
and were instead given names with Tiye being labelled
as the 'The Elder Lady' while the other woman was 'The
Younger Lady'. Several researchers argued that the Elder Lady was Queen Tiye. Some noted that miniature
cons inscribed with her name were found at the tomb of
her grandson, Tutankhamun, as memento from a beloved
grandmother.[17] There were also some scholars who were
skeptical about this theory such as British scholars Aidan
228
Chapter 80
Tomb of Meryra
The Tomb of Meryra is part of a group of tombs located near Amarna, Egypt. Placed in the mountainsides,
the tombs are divided into north and south groupings; the
northern tombs are located in the hillsides and the southern on the plains. Meryras tomb, identied as Amarna
Tomb 4 is located in the northern cluster. The tomb is the
largest and most elaborate of the noble tombs of Amarna.
It, along with the majority of these tombs, was never
completed.[1] The rock cut tombs of Amarna were constructed specically for the ocials of King Akhenaten.
Norman de Garis Davies originally published details of
the Tomb in 1926 in the Rock Tombs of El Amarna, Part
I the Tomb of Meryra. The tomb dates back to the 18th
Egyptian Dynasty.
80.2 Meryra
Meryra served as the high priest of the cult of Aten, a new
religious tradition instituted by King Akhenaten. This
belief system placed exclusive emphasis on sun worship
in the form of Aten, or the solar disc, a deity encapsulating the idea of many gods into the essence of the
sun.[2] The tomb provides little information regarding the
personal life of Merya. Familial references are limited
229
230
to depictions of his wife, Tenre, who is described as a
great favorite of the Lady of the two Lands. Lady of the
two Lands refers to Nefertiti, the queen of Akhenaten.
Not all ocials at Amarna had tombs. Having a tomb
at Amarna reected closeness with Akhenaten, due, in
part, to demonstrating a commitment to Akhenatens institution of Atenism.[1]
The reliefs in the Tomb of Meryra are decidedly centered 80.5 References
upon praising Akhenaten, and Meryra himself only appears marginally, sometimes indistinguishable from other [1] Redford, Donald, B. The Sun-disc in Akhenatens Program: Its Worship and Antecedents, IJournal of the
minor gures carved in the relief. Despite this, Meryra
American Research Center in Egypt. 13. (1976), 47maintains a constant contextual presence in the scenes,
61, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40001118. (accessed Oceven if not being explicitly portrayed. In the scene Davies
tober 29, 2010).
titles, A Royal Visit to the Temple, Akhenaten and Nefertiti are depicted paying a visit to Meryra at the temple. [2] Kemp,Barry J.. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. New York: Routledge, 1989.
It is uncertain if Meryra is included in this image and
the description of the scene has been destroyed. Davies
[3] Davies,Norman de Garis. The Rock Toms of El Amarna.
speculates that the scene either shows Akhenaten on his
1, London, Boston: Oces of the Egypt Exploration
way to the temple to appoint Meryra as the High Pries of
Fund, 1903.
Aten, or it is simply as example of Merya honored with
the presence of the King and Queen at the temple and [4] Murnane, William J., Meltzer, Edmund S,Texts from the
Amarna period in Egypt. Scholars Press: 1995.
exercising his oce for them. Either situation serves to
promote the role and importance of Merya, even though
the scene seems to be immediately focused upon Akhen- Coordinates: 273950N 305539E / 27.66389N
aten. As the art was not focused upon Meryra, maintain- 30.92750E
ing a strong contextual importance allowed for Meryra to
still be bestowed with honor and praise.
In the immediately preceding scene, Akhenaten ocially
declares Merya as the High Priest of Aten. Despite being the High Priest of Aten, Meryra was not recognized
with the power to access the Aten, an exclusive ability of
Akhenaten. In the text of this relief, Akhenaten addresses
Meryra with the proclamation, Behold, I am attaching
you to myself, to be the Greatest of Seers of the Aten, in
Chapter 81
Tushratta
Tushratta was a king of Mitanni at the end of the reign of
Amenhotep III and throughout the reign of Akhenaten
approximately the late 14th century BC. He was the
son of Shuttarna II. His sister Gilukhipa and his daughter Tadukhipa were married to the Egyptian pharaoh
Amenhotep III; Tadukhipa later married Akhenaten who
took over his fathers royal harem.
81.1 History
At the beginning of his reign, the Hittite King
Suppiluliuma I, reconquered Kizzuwatna, then invaded
the western part of the Euphrates valley and conquered
the Amurru and Nuhae in Hanigalbat. According to the
Suppiluliuma-Shattiwaza treaty, Suppiluliuma had made
a treaty with Artatama, a rival of Tushratta. Nothing
is known of Artatamas previous life or connection, if
any, to the royal family. The document calls him king of
the Hurrians, while Tushratta is given the title of King
of Mitanni, which must have disagreed with Tushratta.
Suppiluliuma started to plunder the lands of the west bank
of the Euphrates river and he annexed Mount Lebanon.
Tushratta threatened to raid beyond the Euphrates if even
a single lamb or kid was stolen.
Suppiluliuma then recounts how the land of Isuwa on the
upper Euphrates had seceded in the time of his grandfather. Attempts to conquer it failed. In the time of
his father, other cities rebelled. Suppiluliumas claims to
have defeated them, but the survivors ed to the territory
of Isuwa that must have been part of Tushrattas realm.
A clause to return fugitives was part of many treaties
made at the time, so possibly the harbouring of fugitives
by Isuwa formed the pretext for the Hittite invasion. A
Hittite army crossed the border, entered Isuwa and returned the fugitives (or deserters or exile governments)
to Hittite rule. I freed the lands which I captured; they
dwelt in their places. All the people whom I released rejoined their peoples and Hatti incorporated their territories, Suppiluliuma later boasted.
231
Mitanni
Amarna letter EA 19
Chapter 82
Zemar
For the moth genus, see Simyra (moth).
Zemar (Biblical Hebrew: , Tzumur; Egyptian: Smr;
82.1 References
[1] Badre, Leila., Tell Kazel-Simyra: A Contribution to a
Relative Chronological History in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age, American University
of Beirut, Lebanon, Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research, 2006.
232
Chapter 83
83.3 Stelae
The Boundary Stelae at the city of Amarna were constructed between Year 5 and Year 8 in the reign of
Akhenaten.
83.1 Naming
There have been sixteen stelae found at this site, each of
which has been labeled with a letter. Of the sixteen, three
are located on the western side of the Nile. These have
been distinguished as the letters A, B and F. The other
twelve are located on the eastern side of the Nile and are
represented by the letters H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, U,
V, X.[1] This system of labeling the stelae was created by
the English Egyptologist Flinders Petrie and is still used
233
234
83.3.1
Damage
83.4 References
[1] http://amarnaproject.com/pages/amarna_the_place/
boundary_stelae/index.shtml
[2] Murnane, William J. and Charles C. Van Siclen III. 1993.
The Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten. Kegan Paul International: London. pp. 2-6
[3] ldred, Cyril. 1989. Akhenaten King of Egypt. Thames and
Hudson: London. p. 45
[4] Aldred, Cyril. 1989. Akhenaten King of Egypt. Thames
and Hudson: London. p. 45
[5] Boundary Stelae.
[6] Hartley, Aiden (9 November 2013). The new tomb
raiders. The Spectator (UK). Retrieved 10 November
2013.
Chapter 84
84.1 History
The actual building (although the name may refer to
a larger complex of buildings[2] ) is located behind the
buildings known as the 'Kings House' and the Small Aten
Temple, and is now ruined, and it appears to be where local villagers discovered a deposit of tablets, now known
as the Amarna letters around the year 1888.[3] The building included bricks stamped with the words Bureau of
Correspondence of Pharaoh.
84.2 References
[1] The Central City. Amarna Project. Retrieved 2007-0628.
[2] Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. p.xvi. ISBN
0-8018-4251-4.
[3] Fatemah Farag. Kiss and Tel. Al-Ahram Weekly Online. Retrieved 2007-06-28.
235
Chapter 85
Kom el-Nana
A central platform with a building including a
columned hall and other rooms
The Southern Shrine, consisting of rooms and a
western portico.
In the southeast corner of the southern enclosure stood a
group of houses in two sets, with garden plots.[2]
85.1 Sources
[1] Nicholas Reeves: Akhenaten Egypts False Prophet.
London, Thames & Hudson, 2005. ISBN 0-500-28552-7
, p.126
Kom el-Nana
Chapter 86
Maru-Aten
86.1 References
[1] D. P. Silverman, J. Houser Wegner, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun: Revolution and Restoration, Univ. of Pennsylvania Museum 2006, p.87
[2] Aayko Eyma ed., A Delta-Man in Yebu, UniversalPublishers. 2003, p.53
Maru-Aten
237
Chapter 87
Chapter 88
239
Chapter 89
Mahu (noble)
Mahu was Chief of Police at Akhetaten.
Mahus tomb is Amarna Tomb 9 of the Tombs of the Nobles at Amarna. In the tomb Mahu is shown being rewarded by king Akhenaten. He is shown inspecting the
defences of the city with the king and queen. The vizier
and other ocials are also present. In another scene
Mahu is shown in his work policing the city, and is shown
in a meeting with the vizier (probably Nakhtpaaten) and
a lesser ocial named Heqanefer. [1]
89.1 References
[1] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
240
Chapter 90
90.4 Tomb 29
This tomb was plastered, but never decorated. It consists
of 4 corridors, and in plan is similar to the suite of rooms
in the Royal Tomb, and may have been intended for a
lesser Royal Wife.
A docket found in this tomb refers to a Year 1, so the
tomb must have been open in the time of Akhenaten's
successors.
90.5 References
Gabolde M & Dunsmore A, The Royal Necropolis
at Tell el-Amarna, Egyptian Archaeology, Autumn
2004
90.2 Tomb 27
The next of the tombs, Tomb 27, seems to have been intended for a Royal Burial, as the doorway and entrance
are of a similar size to that of the Royal Tomb. However, it was never nished and no burial material has ever
been found. It may have been intended for the burial of
Akhenaten's successor.
90.3 Tomb 28
This is the only nished tomb in the Wadi. It may have
been used by a lesser wife of Akhenaten, maybe Kiya and
241
Chapter 91
Southern Tomb 11
Southern Tomb 11 at Amarna, Egypt, was used for
the burial of Ramose (General), whose titles included,
Royal scribe, Commander of troops of the Lord of the
Two Lands, Steward of Nebmaatra (Amenhotep III)".[1]
It is unknown whether he was the same person as the
Vizier Ramose whose Theban tomb is TT55, but it seems
unlikely because they have dierent titles and the names
of their wives do not agree.[2]
The tomb is small and the main body is undecorated.
The entrance doorway shows Ramose being rewarded
by Akhenaten, together with scenes showing Nefertiti
and Meritaten.[2] In the shrine a double statue showing
Ramose and his sister Nebetiunet was carved out of the
rock, then plastered.
91.1 References
[1] Southern Tombs. Retrieved 2007-06-05.
[2] N. de G. Davies, The rock tombs of El-Amarna, Parts III
and IV, 1905 (Reprinted 2004), The Egypt Exploration
Society, ISBN 0-85698-160-5
242
Chapter 92
Southern Tomb 23
Southern Tomb 23 at Amarna was used for the burial
of Any, whose titles included, Royal scribe, Scribe of
the oering-table of the Aten, Steward of the estate of
Aakheperura (Amenhotep II).
The tombs corridor design resembles some of the
northern group of tombs. It has 2 unnished porches on
either side of the door and is only basically decorated.
92.1 References
N. de G. Davies - The Rock Cut Tombs of El
Amarna. Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities, 2004 (ISBN 0-85698-160-5).
Owen, Gwil - The Amarna courtiers tombs. Egyptian Archaeology Autumn 2000
243
Chapter 93
Southern Tomb 25
Southern Tomb 25 at Amarna was intended for
the burial of Ay, who later became Pharaoh, after
Tutankhamun. The tomb was never nished, and he was
later buried in the Western Valley of the Valley of the
Kings (WV23), in Thebes.
The tomb was only partially carved from the rock, with
the rst part of the pillared hall approaching completion.
The tomb contains depictions of Ay receiving rewards
from Akhenaten and Nefertiti.
The tomb also contains a version of the Great Hymn to
the Aten.
244
Chapter 94
94.1 Discovery
This cemetery, together with several other disturbed
cemeteries, was discovered in 2007, by the continuing
EES exploration discovered the cemetery, during the
desert GPS survey.[2]
94.2 References
[1] Barry Kemp. SOUTH TOMBS Cemetery. The
Amarna Project. The Amarna Project. Retrieved 200908-23.
[2] John Hayes-Fisher (2008-01-25). Grim secrets of
Pharaohs city. BBC Timewatch. news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
245
Chapter 95
Tomb of Meryra II
The tomb of the Ancient Egyptian noble Meryre II,
known as Amarna Tomb 2, is located in the northern
side of the wadi that splits the cluster of tombs known
collectively as the Northern tombs, near to the city of
Amarna, in Egypt.[1] The tomb is largely destroyed. It
was decorated with the last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna family, dating from the second
month, year 12 of his reign.[2]
95.1 References
[1] Guide Book, Northern tombs (PDF). pp. p.5. Retrieved
2008-07-08.
[2] James H. Allen. The Amarna Succession. pp. p.6.
Archived from the original on 2008-05-28. Retrieved
2008-07-08.
246
Chapter 96
These tombs are located in two groups in the clis overlooking the city of Akhetaten, to the north and east of
the city. They are split into two groups by a Wadi, and
are near one of the Boundary Stelae (Stelae V).
96.1.1
Desert altars
At a short distance to the west and north of the Northern Tombs lie the remains of three large mud-brick solar
altars in the form of platforms with ramps. The reason
for their location is not clear. Their connection with an
ancient road leading to the Northern Tombs would seem
to be a sign that they were for the benet of those buried
in them.
247
248
96.4.2
Further reading
249
{{int:Coll-attribution-page|
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251
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ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 10
Kiya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiya?oldid=627268334 Contributors: Olivier, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Delirium, RickK,
Andrewman327, Doradus, Ffabris, Hjr, Dimadick, Alensha, Chowbok, Rd232, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, Kerowyn, Str1977,
Markh, Butros, YurikBot, Igin, Roy Lees Junior, CWenger, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, OrphanBot, Leoboudv,
John D. Croft, A. Parrot, Gholam, JLCA, JohnCD, FinFangFoom, Cydebot, Dougweller, Therealmikelvee, Dexter 12, PIrish, DrKiernan,
Eliz81, 83d40m, Idioma-bot, Rei-bot, Zimbardo Cookie Experiment, AnnekeBart, Monty845, SieBot, Phe-bot, Oxymoron83, Presidentman, ClueBot, Fadesga, Puchiko, PixelBot, Human.v2.0, Aitias, Addbot, Ka Faraq Gatri, LaaknorBot, Tide rolls, PlankBot, Yobot, Thuvan Dihn, Jim1138, LilHelpa, Xqbot, 4twenty42o, TechBot, Grace321, D'ohBot, Sat Ra, PleaseStand, Mychele Trempetich, ClueBot NG,
Nowle66, Mark Arsten, Ffnm, Theatenist,
, Monkbot, Amenhotep0082 and Anonymous: 59
KV55 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV55?oldid=621626350 Contributors: Heron, Paul Barlow, Tpbradbury, Ffabris, Jnc, Hajor,
Jmabel, Rich Farmbrough, Inebriatedonkey, DeAceShooter, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Captmondo, FlaBot, Markh, Xtine66, YurikBot,
GusF, Dysmorodrepanis, Igin, Joshmaul, Mmcannis, John Broughton, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, Midway, Leoboudv,
DCB4W, Bendybendy, A. Parrot, KyraVixen, Thijs!bot, Therealmikelvee, The Anomebot2, Botz, R'n'B, MishaPan, VolkovBot, Jackfork,
L!nus, WereSpielChequers, PolarBot, Lightmouse, G.-M. Cupertino, Myrvin, Fadesga, Tmbk2, Boneyard90, Excirial, Diaa abdelmoneim,
Addbot, Tassedethe, Frehley, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jesielt, Thuvan Dihn, Schmittz, Cdw1952, Citation bot 1, Bluebliss, Hanay, Pando98,
BrokenAnchorBot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Iry-Hor, R.F.Morgan, Monkbot and Anonymous: 25
Meketaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meketaten?oldid=621785733 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Alensha, Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Captmondo, FlaBot, JiFish, Markh, YurikBot, Welsh, Asarelah, That Guy, From That Show!, Chris the speller,
OrphanBot, Kajk, KyraVixen, Cydebot, Tiger cub, AsgardBot, TXiKiBoT, AnnekeBart, SieBot, PolarBot, Fadesga, Addbot, LaaknorBot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, Incognitos, Helpful Pixie Bot, Khazar2 and Anonymous: 9
Meritaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritaten?oldid=627269166 Contributors: Delirium, Ugen64, Dimadick, Neferuaten,
Alensha, Deeceevoice, Peter Greenwell, Rd232, AndreasPraefcke, FeanorStar7, Str1977, Markh, YurikBot, Igin, That Guy, From That
Show!, Gilliam, Sbharris, Leoboudv, Kajk, Reade, JLCA, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Tawkerbot4, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Ludde23, Gatemansgc, Madmarigold, AsgardBot, DrKiernan, 83d40m, DorganBot, TXiKiBoT, AnnekeBart, SieBot, ClarkSavageJr, ImageRemovalBot,
ClueBot, Fadesga, Jusdafax, Addbot, Desoleil, AkhtaBot, Favonian, SpBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, LucienBOT, BenzolBot, Ver-bot,
A8UDI, Tashery, Tim1357, EmausBot, WittyMan1986, Concert Interruptus, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Hmainsbot1, Theatenist,
and Anonymous: 25
Neferneferuaten Tasherit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferneferuaten_Tasherit?oldid=621785206 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Alensha, Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Str1977, Bgwhite, Leoboudv, Cydebot, Tiger cub, AsgardBot, 83d40m, L!nus,
AnnekeBart, SieBot, Phe-bot, PipepBot, Fadesga, Addbot, Voodoopoodle, LaaknorBot, Ptbotgourou, John of Reading, ZroBot, Frietjes,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 3
Neferneferure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferneferure?oldid=621785187 Contributors: Delirium, Ijon, Dimadick, Alensha,
Kwamikagami, Markh, Grafen, Colonies Chris, Cydebot, Tiger cub, AsgardBot, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Phe-bot, PipepBot, Fadesga, Addbot,
Ptbotgourou, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 1
Nefertiti Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti?oldid=631690845 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Css, Zoe, Olivier, Frecklefoot,
JohnOwens, Vaughan, Paul Barlow, Oliver Pereira, Dante Alighieri, Menchi, Ixfd64, Delirium, Minesweeper, Egil, Ahoerstemeier,
Notheruser, Error, Netsnipe, Evercat, Vroman, Bemoeial, JCarriker, Mw66, Selket, Haukurth, Furrykef, Ffabris, Jnc, Rei, Wetman, Hajor, Dimadick, Modulatum, Academic Challenger, Bertie, Mervyn, Wikibot, Neferuaten, TOO, Obli, Everyking, Bkonrad, Miya, Beardo,
Gilgamesh, Alensha, Zhen Lin, Mboverload, Bluejay Young, Tipiac, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Mgream, Gscshoyru, Picapica, Deeceevoice,
Moxfyre, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, HeikoEvermann, LindsayH, Ivan Bajlo, JPX7, SpookyMulder, Joepearson, Flapdragon, Tezkah,
Furius, MBisanz, DS1953, Shanes, Oniongirl, RoyBoy, Keane4, Bobo192, Reinyday, Jericho4.0, Jojit fb, DCEdwards1966, Doplgangr, Knucmo2, Storm Rider, Keenan Pepper, ArbiterOne, Andrew Gray, Lectonar, Suruena, Evil Monkey, BlastOButter42, Heida
Maria, Adrian.benko, Dejvid, Issk, Fred Condo, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), FeanorStar7, LOL, Zrenneh, Qaddosh, MONGO,
Cy21, Twthmoses, Macaddct1984, Koavf, Captmondo, Kazrak, HappyCamper, Erkcan, Bhadani, DoubleBlue, Olessi, Yamamoto Ichiro,
Pvc.mermaid, FlaBot, Nivix, Novium, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, Chobot, DVdm, Dj Capricorn, The Rambling Man, Mercury McKinnon,
YurikBot, SpikeJones, Sceptre, Pigman, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Astral, Tailpig, Nutiketaiel, Moe Epsilon,
Mugwump2, Chewyrunt, Beanyk, Syrthiss, DeadEyeArrow, Wknight94, Johnsemlak, Igin, Wikilackey, Imperial avis, Denisutku, Sotakeit, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Redgolpe, GraemeL, DaltinWentsworth, Tiria, Garion96, Philip Stevens, That Guy, From That Show!,
SmackBot, Tobias Schmidbauer, KnowledgeOfSelf, Zerida, Pgk, Zserghei, Jab843, Frymaster, Kintetsubualo, Alsandro, Yamaguchi ,
Gilliam, Skizzik, Gorman, Lubos, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, Oreos, Kungming2, Zinneke, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Aremith, Shalom Yechiel, AP1787, Thisisbossi, TheKMan, Parent5446, Leoboudv, Flyboy Will, John D. Croft, Geor, Hgilbert, EdGl,
Jklin, DavidJ710, Ceoil, SashatoBot, AlbertHerring, Thanatosimii, Kuru, Bydand, Onlim, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, SMasters, A.
Parrot, Stilleon, Doczilla, Neddyseagoon, MTSbot, Nectanebo, Meraloma, Iridescent, IvanLanin, Dp462090, Tawkerbot2, Ghaly, AbsolutDan, Gypsy2006, Neferneferu, CmdrObot, Comrade42, Asdf01, KyraVixen, Cbdeandc, Orannis, Gurthnar, Moyerjax, FilipeS,
Cydebot, Slp1, Mike Christie, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Dusty relic, Tawkerbot4, Dougweller, Chrislk02, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Dechastelaine, Coelacan, Gaijin42, Welsh4ever76, S Marshall, Sendbinti, John254, Amelie poulain, BehnamFarid, CharlotteWebb, Haleth, Pie Man 360, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, GeoWPC, Seaphoto, Modernist, Stemoko, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Hespers,
Janejellyroll, Hello32020, Novaguy1968, Dream Focus, Geniac, Connormah, ZPM, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Je Dahl, JNW, Vikas Kumar Ojha, Zioroboco, Waacstats, Froid, Avicennasis, Catgut, ClovisPt, Rmeyermn, Breandandalton, Glen, DerHexer, Simon Peter Hughes,
WLU, RebDrummer61, Gun Powder Ma, Robin S, Seba5618, Pinudjem, MartinBot, STBot, Iluvbukakke, Rettetast, Mike6271, Anaxial,
CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, Tgeairn, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Sp3000, Rhinestone K, Ginsengbomb, Extransit, WarthogDemon, Katalaveno, Seftsirag, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Cooldude7273, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, 83d40m, Jevansen, Endlessmike 888, MishaPan,
Robors, DraxusD, Redtigerxyz, Wikieditor06, 28bytes, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, DDSaeger, Meaningful Username, Je G.,
FergusM1970, TXiKiBoT, Mosmof, Charbroil, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, LeaveSleaves, Bob f it, Cremepu222, Master Bigode, Jeeny, L!nus, AnnekeBart, Enviroboy, Anjingbuduk, Chainedwind, Only hot g, Adamboy555, SMC89, SieBot,
Yoda317, BotMultichill, Winchelsea, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Yintan, Keilana, Flyer22, Doughnutshbutt, Ptolemy Caesarion, Steven Zhang,
IdreamofJeanie, OKBot, Reneeholle, Janggeom, JL-Bot, Everjung, Lethesl, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Fadesga, Madshortmad, Meisterkoch,
Airwaveovercali, Parkwells, Bob bobato, Neverquick, Skteosk, Excirial, Coralmizu, NuclearWarfare, Iohannes Animosus, Matthew Dillenburg, Bleubeatle, Dekisugi, Ron nizamov96, Thingg, Jtle515, Aitias, X0elanaaaaaaxox9, 101KingdomHearts101, DumZiBoT, TattooedLibrarian, Surtsicna, Anticipation of a New Lovers Arrival, The, Thebestofall007, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Non-dropframe, Hot200245,
252
TutterMouse, Shirtwaist, Damiens.rf, NjardarBot, Ccacsmss, AndersBot, Favonian, Dudejames66, Casey75965, Godfather21, Tassedethe,
Tide rolls, Lightbot, Smeagol 17, Jan eissfeldt, Hairylegs, Legobot, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Tuxraider
reloaded, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, IW.HG, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Sagaci, Gurgen818, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Geroldford, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, SciGuy013, Gabrielletrussler, GenQuest, Tad Lincoln, ProtectionTaggingBot, Mathonius, MuedThud,
Tamabat45, TroyHoran, Whynowagain, Polyxeros, Trueshow111, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, Yahia.barie, Jauhienij, Kgrad, Trappist the
monk, TimothyDexter, OWAIS NAEEM, Kohir-gabr, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Slon02, DASHBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, NinjaTazzyDevil, RA0808, Sillybillypiggy, K6ka, Doddy Wuid, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Donner60, Chewings72, Orange Suede
Sofa, Popculturegeek, Karixma, DASHBotAV, Dexter Bond, ClueBot NG, MotorBootyBaby, This lousy T-shirt, Baseball Watcher, Frietjes, Widr, Md.altaf.rahman, Miamimario, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Keivan.f, Solar Police, ElphiBot, Atomician,
Mbardwell, Paris182, DMAZLPDGtrooper, ImhotepBallZ, RemJester, EuthanasiaEnthusiast, ZuluKane, TJIMLILOVANDRWE!:), IryHor, MadGuy7023, Deathlasersonline, Belteatrera, JalenV, Dexbot, Webclient101, Lone boatman, Masterpeace3, Lugia2453, VIAFbot,
Jamarei, Kasper.Fossland, LedaJune, KayaLily, Littlelokilost, Kenyaalee, Raybobisawsome, Cutiepie55766, DavidLeighEllis, MarkRoxWiki, Ginsuloft, DemolitionTurtle, AnapaulPrince, JaconaFrere, G S Palmer, Nefertitipowerful, Andrew J.Kurbiko, Nefertiti01, Poisonchallis, EgyptRawFactsOrFiction, Tyrannosaurus rex, FayeClark1, Ashkayath, TheTNLStudio, Sandwich de patatas and Anonymous: 698
Parennefer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parennefer?oldid=621711044 Contributors: Delirium, Markh, Igin, Curpsbotunicodify, That Guy, From That Show!, Cydebot, Tirk, Waacstats, Andi d, Rosenknospe, AnnekeBart, Fadesga, Addbot, Msmarmalade,
FrescoBot, Kibi78704, RjwilmsiBot, ChuispastonBot and Anonymous: 1
La Reine Soleil Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Reine_Soleil?oldid=626259528 Contributors: Paul Barlow, GrahamHardy,
Bovineboy2008, Krikke, Fadesga, MystBot, Addbot, Yobot, Fortdj33, ZroBot, BG19bot, Autumncomet and Anonymous: 3
Royal Tomb of Akhenaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Tomb_of_Akhenaten?oldid=621715074 Contributors: Warofdreams, Utcursch, Twthmoses, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, Fuhghettaboutit, Cydebot, Odie5533, The Anomebot2, CrystalFormosa, DorganBot, Fadesga, Addbot, Lightbot, Xqbot, Ebrambot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 16
Setepenre (princess) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setepenre_(princess)?oldid=621785778 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha,
Kwamikagami, Theelf29, Magioladitis, Waacstats, AnnekeBart, Moonriddengirl, CorenSearchBot, Fadesga, Addbot, ChrisGualtieri and
Anonymous: 3
Smenkhkare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smenkhkare?oldid=631732969 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Llywrch, JCarriker, Wik,
Ffabris, Jnc, Rei, Lord Emsworth, Wjhonson, Lzur, Michael Devore, RScheiber, ZeroJanvier, Deeceevoice, Perceval, Rd232, Ynhockey,
Binabik80, Garzo, Ghirlandajo, Avram Fawcett, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, WBardwin, Captmondo, FlaBot, Str1977, Markh, LeCire,
Chobot, Bullzeye, Thane, Knyght27, Dysmorodrepanis, Douglasfrankfort, Grafen, Nigel Campbell, Bota47, Wknight94, That Guy, From
That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Jicannon, Valley2city, Comrade Che 1, HoodedMan, Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Monotonehell, Ericl,
Bejnar, Thanatosimii, Green Giant, A. Parrot, Brerbunny, MTSbot, Xionbox, Ghaly, Cydebot, Dougweller, Thijs!bot, Antony the genius,
.anacondabot, Je Dahl, T@nn, Balloonguy, Giggy, Lord Pheasant, Cliau, Jeendan, CommonsDelinker, Vandriel1325, 83d40m, STBotD,
Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Margacst, TXiKiBoT, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, JhsBot, Jeeny, L!nus, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Witchzenka, ClarkSavageJr, Yintan, Digwuren, Mjk3ntr, G.-M. Cupertino, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Fadesga, Parkwells, Joe Baker, DragonBot, PixelBot, Life of Riley, Addbot, Merqurial, Jim10701, Favonian, Lightbot, Yobot, Jayhayman, AnomieBOT, Ramarren, Xqbot,
Tad Lincoln, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Zumalabe, Eugene-elgato, Dailycare, FrescoBot, Smenkhkare, HRoestBot, RedBot, Yutsi, Plasticspork, EmausBot, John of Reading, Cornicularius, WittyMan1986, Whuup, R.azz.miligi, Chewings72, Concert Interruptus, ClueBot NG,
Snotbot, DenseFog, BattyBot, Iry-Hor, Smalleditor, Plutonix, Epicgenius, Rsuracollins, Jake 422 and Anonymous: 68
Stela of Akhenaten and his family Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stela_of_Akhenaten_and_his_family?oldid=626258432 Contributors: Furius, Dl2000 and Fadesga
Temple of Amenhotep IV Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Amenhotep_IV?oldid=623657174 Contributors: Warofdreams, Alensha, Grm wnr, Twthmoses, JIP, Markh, That Guy, From That Show!, Eskimbot, Cush, A. Parrot, Iridescent, CmdrObot,
Cydebot, Nick Number, Escarbot, The Anomebot2, LordAnubisBOT, Rmih, Ptolemy Caesarion, Fadesga, Addbot, Citation bot, EmausBot, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 4
Thutmose (sculptor) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_(sculptor)?oldid=621715381 Contributors: Ubiquity, Paul Barlow,
Llywrch, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Jnc, TOO, Alensha, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, YurikBot, Tlevine,
Igin, 2fort5r, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Bouette, Tobias Schmidbauer, Sbharris, Dreadstar, Wizardman, Aleenf1, A. Parrot,
JMK, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Modernist, Andi d, Redtigerxyz, WOSlinker, AnnekeBart, Shakko, KoshVorlon, ImageRemovalBot, Fadesga,
DragonBot, Stepshep, BOTarate, Ltmboy, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Neurolysis, Gumruch, Khruner, DixonDBot, Sat Ra,
Jaba1977, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Spongie555, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, RscprinterBot, CaptianC3, Theatenist and Anonymous: 11
TT188 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TT188?oldid=621711073 Contributors: Warofdreams, D6, FeanorStar7, Markh, Thiseye,
That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, VolkovBot, AnnekeBart, Fadesga, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Erik9bot,
JMCC1 and ChrisGualtieri
3199 Nefertiti Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3199_Nefertiti?oldid=621785234 Contributors: Merovingian, Rich Farmbrough, Alai,
BillC, RussBot, Ospalh, Theanphibian, Cydebot, Coyets, T@nn, TXiKiBoT, Fadesga, ClueBot II, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot,
Amirobot, KamikazeBot, Xqbot, MastiBot, EmausBot, ZroBot, DarafshBot and Anonymous: 1
Nefertiti Bust Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nefertiti_Bust?oldid=626963344 Contributors: Frecklefoot, Paul Barlow, Oliver
Pereira, Tpbradbury, Mervyn, Waltpohl, Bcameron54, Redroach, Caeruleancentaur, Wtmitchell, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Noclador, Kordas,
Johnsemlak, JDspeeder1, Edgar181, Carbonix, Gilliam, Smallbones, Ceoil, A. Parrot, SQGibbon, Dl2000, Clarityend, Maima, Cydebot, Reywas92, Dougweller, Nick Number, QuiteUnusual, Rothorpe, Simon Burchell, Magioladitis, Hamiltonstone, Khalid Mahmood,
WLU, Analytikone, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, Johnbod, Olegwiki, KylieTastic, Redtigerxyz, Philip Trueman, Anonymous Dissident,
Aymatth2, Itemirus, Yohlanduh, Martarius, Fadesga, Kafka Liz, RafaAzevedo, Khateeb88, Yomangan, Bilsonius, Mm40, Jhendin, Addbot, LaaknorBot, LinkFA-Bot, Smeagol 17, Legobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, JackieBot, Materialscientist,
Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jezhotwells, Dougofborg, LucienBOT, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Moonraker, Sat Ra, Le temps perdu,
RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, ZroBot, F, Mystichumwipe, ClueBot NG, RakiSykes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Regulov, George
Ponderevo, Klilidiplomus, BattyBot, Iry-Hor, Dexbot, Chris troutman, Monkbot, Batmankid152, Patrickgallagher, Claudia.byrne, TranquilHope and Anonymous: 55
253
Aten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aten?oldid=628243540 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, Rickyrab, Stevertigo,
Rbrwr, Llywrch, Dante Alighieri, Menchi, TakuyaMurata, Looxix, Ellywa, TUF-KAT, Andres, Charles Matthews, RickK, Reddi, Ffabris, Jnc, Hajor, Robbot, Henrygb, Brw12, Wikibot, ManuelGR, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Alensha, Eep, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann,
Aranel, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, BlueNovember, Alansohn, Wiki-uk, Rd232, Suruena, Garzo, TShilo12, Borderer, -Ril-, Tutmosis, Wayward, Mandarax, Koavf, Kalogeropoulos, Ttwaring, FlaBot, Gurch, Markh, Saraal, Roygbiv666, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RussBot,
Semolo75, Lexicon, Irishguy, Alex43223, BOT-Superzerocool, Ozaru, Lt-wiki-bot, Garion96, Mmcannis, Dzonko, That Guy, From That
Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Reedy, McGeddon, KocjoBot, Eskimbot, Flameeyes, Gilliam, Jicannon, Cush, Stevenwagner, DHN-bot,
Pa-merynaten, OSborn, Rrburke, Leoboudv, King Vegita, Radagast83, Engwar, Dreadstar, Das Baz, BlackTerror, OneTopJob6, Nrgdocadams, Saerain, Bjankuloski06en, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, TheSoggyStick, MTSbot, Galactor213, Noctifer, Iridescent, Joseph Solis
in Australia, JLCA, CmdrObot, Rosaecruz, Lazulilasher, FilipeS, Dougweller, Moheroy, Therealmikelvee, Escarbot, Dr. Blofeld, Alphachimpbot, Rnolst, WANAX, MER-C, Bravehearted, Acroterion, Andi d, Edward321, Simon Peter Hughes, Gun Powder Ma, Robin S,
FisherQueen, Anaxial, SlowJog, Stammer, McSly, 83d40m, DorganBot, CardinalDan, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, MenasimBot, TXiKiBoT,
Apepch7, Rei-bot, Z.E.R.O., John Carter, Khabs, Seb az86556, Galandor, Isis4563, Falcon8765, Ottarvendel, PericlesofAthens, Bentogoa,
JetLover, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Ptolemy Caesarion, ClueBot, Descartes1979, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ryoutou, CharlieRCD,
DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Drawn Some, Thehelpfulone, Nimavojdani, Vanished User 1004, Budelberger, XLinkBot, Addbot, Some
jerk on the Internet, Vatrena ptica, Cst17, Names of gods, Josh Keen, TheSuave, Yobot, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
ArthurBot, Xqbot, Kaelbu, 4twenty42o, GrouchoBot, GhalyBot, Thewillowinmyheart, Pinethicket, RedBot, Impala2009, Kataryna, Tahir
mq, Phearson, VenomousConcept, Dmthoth, NickVertical, Tibetan Prayer, Javierito92, KI6ZON, Hyarmendacil, Minkin9, Timtempleton, Immunize, Wikipelli, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Akutra, Drift chambers, Haymouse, Iry-Hor, JYBot, GreenGoldsh17 and
Anonymous: 152
Atenism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenism?oldid=618581827 Contributors: SimonP, Michael Hardy, Ashley Y, Rursus, Hadal,
UtherSRG, Lethe, Home Row Keysplurge, Sharavanabhava, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, SamEV, Bennylin, (aeropagitica), Pearle, Jonathunder, Ranveig, Rd232, Bdwilliamscraig, Dr Fell, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Notcarlos, Fred Condo, BD2412, Koavf,
Str1977, LeCire, Saraal, Michael Slone, Sjb90, Nutiketaiel, Igin, Richardcavell, Eduard Gherkin, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That
Show!, SmackBot, Bkawcazn, Pa-merynaten, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Proofreader, Leoboudv, Zvar, Radagast83, John D. Croft,
Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, NJMauthor, Judgesurreal777, Lonyo, LadyofShalott, Kosunen, Synergy, Dougweller, Epbr123, Escarbot, Alphachimpbot, Bravehearted, Mrld, Simon Peter Hughes, Textorus, Lord Pheasant, Arjun01, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Sparkzy, Satseshat,
Wingedsubmariner, Michaeldsuarez, Digwuren, Elcobbola, Lightmouse, PipepBot, Niusereset, Place Clichy, Wikistoriographer, Wertuose,
Addbot, Gyonis, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Jo3sampl, Xqbot, TPaineTX, Kelvin Samuel, Ladnavfan, MrArifnajafov, Thegeebox, EmausBot, ZroBot, OnePt618, The Dark Peria, ClueBot NG, Zakteh, Zakteh2, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Nathanielrst, Mogism, JPerseus
and Anonymous: 81
Great Temple of the Aten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Temple_of_the_Aten?oldid=623656944 Contributors: Delirium,
Warofdreams, Alensha, Utcursch, D6, Twthmoses, Captmondo, Markh, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Leoboudv,
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ZroBot, Fpan020 and Anonymous: 13
Meryre Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meryre?oldid=623657629 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha, Deanos, Markh, Igin,
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Andi d, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Addbot, Qkowlew, Yobot, RjwilmsiBot and Anonymous: 1
Neferneferuaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferneferuaten?oldid=631421909 Contributors: Llywrch, Csernica, Dimadick,
Bearcat, RScheiber, Alensha, Echuck215, Fdewaele, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Str1977, Markh, Xtine66, Bgwhite, Bachrach44, Asarelah,
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up, CactusSeed, BG19bot, Hispaniensis, Hergilei, Iry-Hor, Smalleditor, Dodsona402, Plutonix, Jodosma and Anonymous: 16
Small Aten Temple Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Aten_Temple?oldid=623656995 Contributors: Delirium, Warofdreams,
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Addbot, RedBot, Primergrey and Anonymous: 1
Tutankhamun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun?oldid=631663550 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Vicki Rosenzweig,
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254
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of Texas, Jdillonf, Stickandpuck, Saharsaleem1, Nigel the second, Sup jack141, JanMic0347, Alicesmith053, Mlane1, Odensraven09,
Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Alexcoldcasefan, CocuBot, Sleddog116, Name Omitted, SunCountryGuy01, TruPepitoM, Frietjes,
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Chrisdaycheese, ReturnH, DBigXray, Lowercase sigmabot, Darouet, Dlampton, Tommy2215, Dan653, Mark Arsten, DarkHalo02, FoxCE,
MattSoave, Snow Blizzard, Alessandra Napolitano, Guanaco55, Riley Huntley, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, W.D., Fluxray1, EnzaiBot,
Icequibe, Iry-Hor, Rinkle gorge, JalenV, Lukebray32, Robert Keiden, Paxti, Smalleditor, Paledw01, Theeditorrocks, Dexbot, Mikiruss88,
PhilipOsborne, Vignesh33, Ben012000, ShannieCakes, Silvercowman, Webclient101, Mufasa100, Mogism, Rockersammib, Makecat-bot,
EditAnonona, Phenomenomal, Masterpeace3, VIAFbot, Theatenist, Jamarei, Thetacoishere, Derp121212, Santurwoman, Hipiediw, FoggyBeard, Royroydeb, PetersGal, Nera456, Janellwashere, Niuwrldorder, Monkbot, Goodwin56, Tyrannosaurus rex, NQ, WikiKing14
and Anonymous: 1007
255
Amarna Period Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_Period?oldid=623995418 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Robbot, Discospinster, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Markh, Chris the speller, NickPenguin, Iuio, JustAGal, Nick Number, Magioladitis, JaGa, VolkovBot,
TXiKiBoT, PericlesofAthens, Fadesga, EoGuy, Burner0718, Addbot, West.andrew.g, Xqbot, LucienBOT, PigFlu Oink, MKFI, RjwilmsiBot, Ineverheardofhim, Beyond My Ken, ClueBot NG, Ecozart2, ChrisGualtieri, Cml5911pl, Iry-Hor,
, Luna92 and Anonymous:
23
Abdi-Heba Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdi-Heba?oldid=626391637 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Thue, FeanorStar7,
Briangotts, Rjwilmsi, Noon, OpenToppedBus, Allens, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Prodego, Rhollenton,
Nehrams2020, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Dougweller, Nishidani, Srose, JaGa, ArnoldPettybone, Banano03, Sumerophile, Addbot, Lightbot,
Xenobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, NSH002, DefaultsortBot, Skyerise, WillNess, Rarevogel, Lamashtu2006, Loginnigol and Anonymous: 13
Ahatmilku Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahatmilku?oldid=629735488 Contributors: Asarelah, Gobonobo, Trappist the monk,
Mychele Trempetich and Peaceingalaxy
Alashiya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alashiya?oldid=576914085 Contributors: Timwi, Wetman, Neutrality, Dbachmann, Grutter, Sortior, Flammifer, Instantnood, Briangotts, Nefertum17, Josh Parris, Mike s, YurikBot, RussBot, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That
Show!, Attilios, SmackBot, Hmains, KRBN, DabMachine, Picaroon, Doctormatt, Cydebot, Kupirijo, Thijs!bot, Dmitri Lytov, Darklilac,
Andi d, Shooba, Patrick Rogel, Sun Creator, Catalographer, Sumerophile, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, BlueSalo, Alexikoua, FrescoBot,
Hanay and Anonymous: 12
Amarna art Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_art?oldid=631370307 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Alensha, Arthena, Twthmoses, Bkwillwm, Rjwilmsi, Markh, YurikBot, Manicsleeper, Welsh, Morgan Leigh, That Guy, From That Show!, Reedy, Zerida, OrphanBot, A. Parrot, Ryulong, JLCA, CmdrObot, Keithh, Epbr123, RobotG, Modernist, Textorus, Johnbod, TXiKiBoT, Satseshat, AnnekeBart,
Moonstruck705, Ptolemy Caesarion, Stepheng3, Aus Chia, Qwfp, Phocealms, Addbot, Neustrelitz, Vatrena ptica, Babug, AnomieBOT,
Hirpex, Stolengood, Orenburg1, Sat Ra, Y-barton, ClueBot NG, Rosemoulton, Elongated, DavidSights, WilliamDigiCol, Simone Freeman
and Anonymous: 37
Amarna succession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_succession?oldid=626572458 Contributors:
Rjwilmsi, Markh, Leoboudv, Reade, RjwilmsiBot, Ineverheardofhim, H3llBot and Anonymous: 1
Llywrch, Alensha,
256
Aquasabre, SieBot, Digwuren, Mimihitam, G.-M. Cupertino, ClueBot, Fadesga, Rmg12, Alexbot, Zuzzerack, Feliciaxo, Tomuk53, Addbot, Willking1979, TutterMouse, CanadianLinuxUser, Zanthorp, Lightbot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Ramarren, IRP, Rtyq2,
ArthurBot, Tad Lincoln, Schamps, RibotBOT, Wtf.trina, Aylovesyooh, Thejadefalcon, FrescoBot, Barry Wom, HRoestBot, Edderso, DefaultsortBot, Plasticspork, Kibi78704, Trappist the monk, Jorehll1, Stringence, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, John
of Reading, WikitanvirBot, KhAnubisproductions, WittyMan1986, Ocaasi, Donner60, Chewings72, ClueBot NG, Wrathkind, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Muzhank, GoShow, Iry-Hor, Ducknish, JalenV, Jamarei, Rendellv, Nera456, DarcySaakyan, Aluce261, Tyrannosaurus rex and
Anonymous: 132
Aziru Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziru?oldid=585920961 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, FeanorStar7, Briangotts, Rjwilmsi,
G Clark, Sodin, Gaius Cornelius, Aldux, Igin, Josh3580, Mmcannis, SmackBot, Hmains, Bluebot, DRahier, Leoboudv, Naphureya,
Nehrams2020, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, DorganBot, Jalo, Sumerophile, Addbot, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, Ybarton, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 3
Bek (sculptor) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bek_(sculptor)?oldid=619363565 Contributors: The Anome, Bearcat, Alensha,
FeanorStar7, Mmcannis, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, Aus Chia, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Michael Metzger, Pokbot and Anonymous: 1
Beketaten Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beketaten?oldid=621708805 Contributors: Delirium, Dimadick, Robbot, Alensha,
Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Bouette, Colonies Chris, Leoboudv, Reade, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Missvain, VolkovBot, Vgranucci, AnnekeBart, PipepBot, Fadesga, CapnZapp, Addbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, LilHelpa, MacMed, DefaultsortBot, Tim1357, Mychele Trempetich,
ZroBot, Sinuhe20, Frietjes, HMSSolent, Hmainsbot1, Max Overton and Anonymous: 4
Biridawa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biridawa?oldid=624261193 Contributors: Delirium, FeanorStar7, BD2412, Bgwhite,
Mmcannis, Cydebot, Waacstats, AnnekeBart, Muhandes, Sumerophile, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 1
Burna-Buriash II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burna-Buriash_II?oldid=627180547 Contributors: Delirium, Vsmith, Bjones,
FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Brighterorange, Valentinian, Ravenswing, Mmcannis, Udimu, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, Bluebot, Chaldean, Naphureya, A. Parrot, Cydebot, Picus viridis, JAnDbot, David Eppstein, DrKiernan, STBotD, VolkovBot, SieBot, MystBot, Addbot,
Ehrenkater, IansAwesomePizza, Meisam, Yobot, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Talskubilos, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, Zoeperkoe, RjwilmsiBot,
EmausBot, ZroBot, BigEars42, BattyBot and Anonymous: 5
Coregency Stela Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coregency_Stela?oldid=573721530 Contributors: Alensha, Markh, Mmcannis,
Robosh, L!nus, Addbot, Nfr-Maat and Khazar2
Dakhamunzu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakhamunzu?oldid=624632429 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Dimadick, Alensha,
Markh, Grafen, BomBom, JAnDbot, Andi d, TXiKiBoT, Corvus cornix, L!nus, Auntof6, Addbot, Karl gregory jones, Yobot, Legobot
II, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, DrilBot, Dexbot, Luna92 and Anonymous: 2
Gath (city) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gath_(city)?oldid=625523868 Contributors: DopeshJustin, IZAK, Ugen64, Cimon
Avaro, Emperorbma, Zero0000, Altenmann, Mervyn, Folks at 137, Jayjg, Susvolans, Bobo192, Jheald, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Sega381,
Funhistory, Cuchullain, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, MLRoach, Fischersc, NekoDaemon, Rune.welsh, Foscolo, Codex Sinaiticus, Malhonen,
Haldrik, YurikBot, Kordas, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Number 57, Mikeblas, Avraham, Blacksand, Mmcannis, Hylogaut89, Huldra,
Chris the speller, Tewk, JonHarder, Skydiver, Arenmaeir, Eliyak, JHunterJ, Viv Hamilton, Cyphunk, Nehrams2020, Gilabrand, Cydebot, Gnewf, Thijs!bot, Marek69, Tiamut, WinBot, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, CommonsDelinker, Menant, Brother Ocer, Davecrosby uk,
Hugo999, VolkovBot, Brando130, TXiKiBoT, Steven J. Anderson, EJF, StAnselm, Gerakibot, Prof .Woodru, Alecoz, AMbot, Martarius,
ClueBot, TIY, Rockfang, Alexbot, PixelBot, SchreiberBike, Sumerophile, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, 5 albert square,
Yobot, AMuseo, Adrianlw, Historicist, Addihockey10, TheCuriousGnome, Shadowjams, Hope&Act3!, PigFlu Oink, DrilBot, Edderso,
Poliocretes, Hstryboy, Dusty777, Obsidian Soul, Amckeehan, Finn Bjrklid, Sreifa, ZroBot, Yosoy66, SporkBot, RaptureBot, Qumranhhle, Y-barton, Venus999, Andrew Mathias, , JohnThorne, Monstermanual, BattyBot, Fraulein451, Davidbena and Anonymous:
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Horemheb Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horemheb?oldid=628596787 Contributors: Hephaestos, Llywrch, Hashar, RodC, JCarriker, Denni, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Hjr, Dimadick, Humus sapiens, TOO, Alensha, Bluejay Young, Manuel Anastcio, Rich
Farmbrough, Robotje, Nullstein, Binabik80, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Garzo, Japanese Searobin, FeanorStar7, Nefertum17, Twthmoses,
Mandarax, Maros, Koavf, Captmondo, FlaBot, Margosbot, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, YurikBot, BOT-Superzerocool, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Mmcannis, Fabian Boudville, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Zerida, Zaqarbal, Delldot, Eskimbot, Bluebot,
DHN-bot, Leoboudv, Fuhghettaboutit, Nakon, Das Baz, SashatoBot, Thanatosimii, A. Parrot, Drieakko, Rpab, Ghaly, KyraVixen, Basawala, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Kathovo, Therealmikelvee, AntiVandalBot, Dr. Blofeld, KonstableBot, Je Dahl, Waacstats, Andi d, Simon
Peter Hughes, Beit Or, DorganBot, Natl1, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, Harioris, BotKung, L!nus, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Keilana, Mimihitam, G.-M. Cupertino, ClueBot, Fadesga, TheMathemagician, Sun Creator, Zuzzerack, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Legolas2186, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Xqbot, Ashershow1, Jean-Jacques Georges, GhalyBot, FrescoBot, LucienBOT,
Masterknighted, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Kataryna, Meaghan, Plasticspork, Trappist the monk, WandaRMinstrel, 777sms, Reaper
Eternal, Mean as custard, Xabbeyroad, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, WittyMan1986, , Y-barton, Donner60, Llightex,
ClueBot NG, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, Iry-Hor, Jamarei, 8ty3hree, Rendellv, Harmaha, Jungannpark and Anonymous: 71
Huya (noble) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huya_(noble)?oldid=603889818 Contributors: Alensha, Anthony Appleyard,
FeanorStar7, Markh, SmackBot, Cydebot, Waacstats, Wehemesut, AnnekeBart, Addbot, Shamrockman455, DefaultsortBot, RjwilmsiBot,
ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, MadGuy7023 and Anonymous: 2
Labaya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labaya?oldid=625617384 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Llywrch, IZAK, Delirium, John Cross,
Rursus, Mboverload, SamEV, Ben Standeven, Dave.Dunford, Woohookitty, Briangotts, -Ril-, GregorB, Gurch, Str1977, Markh, TexasAndroid, Theelf29, Rktect, Rob117, Tuckerresearch, Mmcannis, Nekura, That Guy, From That Show!, Shilkanni, SmackBot, Bluebot,
Leoboudv, Das Baz, Nehrams2020, Vanisaac, Cydebot, Dawnseeker2000, Mdotley, Fayenatic london, Adavidb, David Rohl, Lisa, OKBot,
Martarius, PixelBot, Editor2020, Sumerophile, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, IansAwesomePizza, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Hanay,
Evanh2008, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mogism and Anonymous: 11
Maya (Egyptian) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_(Egyptian)?oldid=619673157 Contributors: JCarriker, Gidonb, StargateX1,
Mel Etitis, FeanorStar7, Markh, Garion96, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, Colonies Chris, Leoboudv, Cydebot, The Anomebot2,
Cosprings, MystBot, Addbot, Wazzim, Xqbot, R0pe-196, DefaultsortBot, Robk361, KLBot2,
and Anonymous: 8
Meritaten Tasherit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritaten_Tasherit?oldid=544629744 Contributors: Dimadick, Alensha,
Guthrie, FeanorStar7, BomBom, Tiger cub, Waacstats, SieBot, G.-M. Cupertino, Addbot, Umbertoumm and Anonymous: 3
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neferkheperuhesekheper?oldid=546266025 Contributors:
Alensha,
Panehesy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panehesy?oldid=611280134 Contributors: Alensha, Deanos, Markh, Igin, Curpsbotunicodify, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Leoboudv, Dougweller, Therealmikelvee, Waacstats, Andi d, AnnekeBart,
Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, RjwilmsiBot and Anonymous: 1
Penthu Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penthu?oldid=616221392 Contributors: Delirium, Alensha, Deanos, Markh, Yoninah, Igin,
Curpsbot-unicodify, Mmcannis, Udimu, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, JHunterJ, Cydebot, Waacstats, AnnekeBart,
Ashashyou, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, RjwilmsiBot, ZroBot and Anonymous: 2
Pihuri Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pihuri?oldid=517345372 Contributors: Delirium, Briangotts, Twthmoses, Mmcannis, Cydebot, Arch dude and Anonymous: 2
Ramose Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramose?oldid=629820306 Contributors: Andrewman327, Alensha, Discospinster, Drbreznjev, FeanorStar7, Valentinejoesmith, Markh, CambridgeBayWeather, Zerida, Bluebot, Leoboudv, Tomtom9041, A. Parrot, Noah Salzman,
KyraVixen, Cydebot, Meno25, Alaibot, JustAGal, Chipdawes, Waacstats, Wehemesut, MartinBot, Lights, LeaveSleaves, AnnekeBart,
Twirling, Ptolemy Caesarion, DragonBot, Zuzzerack, Addbot, HRoestBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Chewings72, KLBot2 and Anonymous: 11
Ramose (TT55) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramose_(TT55)?oldid=540680566 Contributors: Delirium, Alensha, Markh, Mmcannis, Cydebot, Waacstats, Phe-bot, Addbot, Vishnava, Tide rolls, Amirobot, Xqbot, AhMedRMaaty and Anonymous: 3
Rib-Hadda Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rib-Hadda?oldid=591807535 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Jastrow, Vsmith, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, FeanorStar7, Briangotts, BD2412, Gurch, Sodin, RussBot, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot,
Leoboudv, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Nick Number, Widefox, Rei-bot, SwordSmurf, Elie plus, Sumerophile, Good Olfactory, Addbot, ZroBot
and Anonymous: 2
Suteans Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suteans?oldid=565795434 Contributors: Kwamikagami, Mmcannis, Tamfang, Ben MacDui,
Muhandes, SchreiberBike, Sumerophile, Yobot, Glatisant, AnomieBOT, Thehelpfulbot, KLBot2 and Anonymous: 2
Tadukhipa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadukhipa?oldid=629734247 Contributors: Wik, Jnc, Topbanana, Dimadick, Alensha,
Rich Farmbrough, Alansohn, Binabik80, Iustinus, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Marudubshinki, Bbullot, FlaBot, Brookshawn, Asarelah, Caerwine, Igin, Tropylium, Mmcannis, That Guy, From That Show!, Tsca.bot, Leoboudv, Runcorn, Naphureya, SMasters, Hawkestone,
Cydebot, Meno25, Dsp13, 83d40m, Ariobarzan, Ruodnane, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Fadesga, Sumerophile, Addbot, SamatBot, Lightbot,
IansAwesomePizza, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ramarren, RjwilmsiBot, ChuispastonBot and Anonymous: 11
Tiye Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiye?oldid=622593375 Contributors: Danny, Zoe, Olivier, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Pandora,
Vzbs34, RodC, JCarriker, Wik, Falkue, Kaal, Ffabris, Dimadick, TOO, Everyking, Alensha, Taka, Kate, Furius, RoyBoy, Smalljim, Free
Bear, Binabik80, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, FlaBot, Markh, YurikBot, Jaymax, Shell Kinney, Igin, Niankhsekhmet, 2over0,
Open2universe, Garion96, SailorAlphaCentauri, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Gnarlodious, Tsca.bot, Smallbones, OrphanBot,
Leoboudv, John D. Croft, Gobonobo, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, JoeBot, Hawkestone, Igoldste, JLCA, Ghaly, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Dougweller, Thijs!bot, Therealmikelvee, JAnDbot, VoABot II, Je Dahl, JNW, Waacstats, Alleborgo, Fconaway, 83d40m, Molybdomancer, Alchemistjikan, MishaPan, WWGB, Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, Taharqa, AnnekeBart, Why Not A
Duck, SieBot, Purbo T, TubularWorld, SlackerMom, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Fadesga, Plastikspork, Wysprgr2005, Ukabia, SekhmetDesign,
Maxmills37, Foxxy parka, Addbot, Favonian, Lightbot, Trotter, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Poutza,
Capricorn42, Dan6hell66, Bejinhan, MastiBot, Irbisgreif, FoxBot, Lotje, Weijiya, Updatehelper, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Mychele
Trempetich, WittyMan1986, Brandmeister, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, Keivan.f, Vagobot, PhnomPencil, DenseFog, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2,
Masterpeace3, Theatenist, Epicgenius, Duniyaduniya, 7Sidz, Monkbot, Demoniccathandler and Anonymous: 78
Tomb of Meryra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Meryra?oldid=577178764 Contributors: FeanorStar7, Markh, SmackBot, Sadads, Cydebot, The Anomebot2, VolkovBot, AnnekeBart, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addbot, ZroBot, Sinuhe20, RisingSonnn and ChrisGualtieri
Tushratta Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tushratta?oldid=564617550 Contributors: Llywrch, Delirium, Alensha, Chameleon, Rich
Farmbrough, Chammy Koala, YUL89YYZ, AABell, Briangotts, Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, .marc., Mmcannis, SmackBot, MalafayaBot,
Leoboudv, Cydebot, Dmitri Lytov, GCL, Crispus, SieBot, 3rdAlcove, Sumerophile, MystBot, Addbot, IansAwesomePizza, Luckas-bot,
RibotBOT, Erik9bot, HRoestBot, Jaba1977, ZroBot, Y-barton, ChuispastonBot, Iry-Hor, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 12
Zemar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemar?oldid=622456935 Contributors: Folks at 137, SamEV, Briangotts, BD2412, FlaBot,
334a, Theelf29, Aelfthrytha, Cydebot, Albmont, The Anomebot2, WeeWillieWiki, Ksanyi, VirtualDelight, Adavidb, Jeepday, Jordi Roqu,
Sumerophile, Addbot, Dawynn, Zozo2kx, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Erik9bot, LucienBOT, HRoestBot, Supreme Deliciousness,
Hanay, Paul Bedson, Moto53, Lennart97, YFdyh-bot, LightandDark2000, ., Motique and Anonymous: 8
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Own work
Original artist:
Markh (talk) (Uploads)
File:Cafit030.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Cafit030.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Ori~
File:Cannon_shot_by_Velde.jpg Source:
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alt='Inkscape.svg'
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Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
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Work (photo) Original artist: Keith Schengili-Roberts
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