Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 1 Introduction

    Uploaded by

    Udai Valluru
    36 views23 pages
    Digital Signal Processing

    Original Title

    1.Introduction

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    Digital Signal Processing

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    36 views23 pages

    1 Introduction

    Uploaded by

    Udai Valluru
    Digital Signal Processing

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 23
    ia byertal Control Systems SECOND EDITION Indian Edition KUO ‘Chapter 4 Chapter 2 21 2-3) 22) 2-4 Contents INTRODUCTION 4 Introduction — 1-1-1 Basic Elements of a Discrete-Data Control System 2 1-1-2 Advantages of Discrete-Data Control Systems 3 Examples of Discrete-Data and Digital Control Systems 6 1-2-1 A Simplified Single-Axis Autopilot Control System 6 1-2-2 A Digital Computer Controlled Rolling Mill Regulating System 8 1-2-3 A Digital Controller for a Turbine and Generator 8 1-2-4 A Step Motor Control System 9 1-2-5 Microprocessor-Controlled Systems 10 1-2-6 A Discrete-Data Model of an Interest-Payment Problem 17 References 12 SIGNAL CONVERSION AND PROCESSING 13 Introduction 13 Digital Signals and Coding 15 Data Conversion and Quantization 16 Sample-and-Hold Devices 20 2-4-1 Block Diagram Representation of the S/H Device 24 xil * CONTENTS 2-5 Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion 29: 2-6 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion 28 2-6-1 Sampling Period Considerations 32 2-6-2 Simplified Block Diagram Representations of the A/D and DA Converters 34 2-7 Mathematical Modeling of the Sampling Process 35 2-7-1 Finite-Pulsewidth Sampler 35 _37F2 The Folding Frequency, Nyquist Frequency, and Alias Frequency 47 2-8 The Sampling Theorem 42 _ 2-8-1 An Addendum to the Sampling Theorem 43 2-9 Mathematical Modeling of Sampling by Convolution Integral 4 2-10 Flat-Top Approximation of the Finite-Pulsewidth Sampling 45 -1 The Ideal Sampler 46 2 210-2 Alternate Expressions of F*(s) 47 2-11 Some s-Plane Properties of F*(s) 51. 2-12 Data Reconstruction and Filtering of Sampled Signals 54 2-13 The Zero-Order Hold 55 ie 2-13-1 Frequency-Domain Characteristics of the Zero-Order Hold 5 2-14 The First-Order Hold 59 2-14-1 Frequency-Domain Characteristics of the First-Order Hold, 6/ 2-15 The Polygonal Hold and the Slewer Hold. 64 215-1 Frequency-Domain Characteristics of the Polygonal Hold é "© 415-2 The Stewer Hold. 67 ; i ; Problems 6700 References 73 Go Ste jied bac dwt s ol THE z-TRANSFORM 75 i 3-1 Motivation for using n i (©) 93441 Definition of the z-Transform’ 757 i - 3-1-2 Relationship Between the Laplace Transform and the 4 : z-Transform = 77 r chapter 3 Chapter 4 CONTENTS: xiii 3-4 The Inverse z-Transform 89 3-4-1 Nonuniqueness of the 2-Transform 89 3-4-2 Defining Equation of the Inverse z-Transform 90 3-5 Theorems of the z-Transform 96 3-6 Limitations of the z-Transform Method» 106 3-7 Applications of the z-Transform 107 3-7-1 Interest-Payment Problem 107 3-7-2 A Ladder-Network Problem 109 3-7-3 Solution of Difference Equations with Complex Poles 1/0 3-8 Signals Between the Sampling Instants —/// 3-8-1 The Submultiple Sampling Method—Multirate 2-Transform [11 3-8-2 The Delayed z-Transform and the Modified 2-Transform 1/3 Problems 1/9 References. 122 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS, BLOCK DIAGRAMS, AND SIGNAL FLOW. GRAPHS 124 4-1 Introduction 124 4-2 The Pulse Transfer Function and the z-Transfer Function 124 4-2-1 Discrete-Data System with Cascaded Elements Separated by aSampler 127 4-2-2 Discrete-Data System with Cascaded Elements not Separated bya Sampler 128 4-3 Pulse Transfer Function of the Zero-Order Hold and the Relation Between G(s) and G(z) 129 4-4 Closed-Loop Systems 133 4-4-1 The Characteristic Equation 136 4-4-2 Causality and Physical Realizability 137 4-5 The Sampled Signal Flow Graph 138 4-6 The Modified z-Transfer Function 145 4-7 Multirate Discrete-Data Systems 149 4-7-1 Slow-Fast Multirate-Sampled Systems. 150 4-7-2 Fast-Slow Multirate-Sampled Systems 154 4-7-3 Multirate Systems With All-Digital Elements 16/ 4-7-4 Closed-Loop Multirate-Sampled Systems 162 4-7-5 Cyclic-Rate Sampled Systems 168 Problems 173 References 182 xiv Chapter 5 CONTENTS THE STATE-VARIABLE TECHNIQUE 184 5-1 Introduction 184 5-2 State Equations and State Transition Equations of Continuous.pg, Systems 185 a 5-2-1 The State Transition Matrix—Solution of the Homogeneous State Equations 186 5-2-2 Properties of the State Transition Matrix 188 5-2-3 Solution of the Nonhomogencous State Equations—The Sty, Transition Equation 188 5-3 State Equations of Discrete-Data Systems with Sample-and-Hold Devices 189 5-4 State Equations of Digital Systems with All-Digital Elements 19) 5-5 Digital Simulation and Approximation 191 5-6 The State Transition Equations 192 5-6-1 The Recursive Method 192 5-6-2 The z-Transform Method 194 5-7 Relationship Between State Equations and Transfer Functions 5-8 Characteristic Equation, Eigenvalues, and Eigenvectors 199 5-8-1 Eigenvalues 200 5-8-2 Eigenvectors 201 5-9 Diagonalization of the A Matrix 206 5-10 Jordan Canonical Form 208 5-11 Methods of Computing the State Transition Matrix 211 5-11-1 The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem Method 212 5-11-2 The z-Transform Method 213 §-11-3 Computing the State Transition Matrix $(7) 216 5-12 Relationship Between State Equations and High-Order Difference Equations 2/8 5-13 Transformation to Phase-Variable Canonical Form—Pole-Placemé Design 220 5-14 The State Diagram 227 5-14-1 State Diagrams of Continuous-Data Systems 227 5-14-2 State Diagrams of Digital Systems 237 5-15 Decomposition of Discrete-Data Transfer Functions 234 5-15-1 Direct Decomposition 234 5-15-2 Cascade Decomposition 235 5-15-3 Parallel Decomposition 236 5-16 State Diagrams of Discrete-Data S oe with wero-Order Holds 238 ystems: Systems | 5-16-1 State Diagram of the Zero-Order Hold 239 197 CONTENTS: xv 5-17 State-Variable Analysis of Response Between Sampling Instants 244 5-18 State-Variable Analysis of Systems with Multirate, Skip-Rate, and Nonsynchronous Samplings 246 5-18-1 Cyelic-Rate Sampled System 246 Problems 251 References 259 Chapter 6 CONTROLLABILITY, OBSERVABILITY, AND STABILITY 260 6-1 Introduction 260 6-2 Controllability of Linear Time-Invariant Discrete-Data Systems 262 6-2-1 Definitions of Controllability 262 6-2-2 Theorems on Controllability 262 6-3 Observability of Linear Time-Invariant Discrete-Data Systems 271 6-3-1 Definition of Observability 271 6-3-2 Theorems on Observability 272 6-4 Relationships Between Controllability, Observability, and Transfer Functions 277 6-5 Controllability and Observability Versus Sampling Period in a Discrete-Data System 279 6-6 Stability of Linear Digital Control Systems—Definitions and Theorem ~ 280 6-6-1 Definitions on Stability 280 6-6-2 Stabilizability 286 6-7 Stability Tests of Discrete-Data Systems 286 6-7-1 The Bilinear Transformation Method—Extension of the Routh-Hurwitz Criterion 287 6-7-2 Jury's Stability Test 294 6-7-3 The Second Method of Liapunov 300 Problems 307 References 3/5 Chapter 7 TIME-DOMAIN AND zDOMAIN ANALYSIS 317 7-1 Introduction 317 7-2 The Prototype Second-Order System 320 7-3 Comparison of Time Responses of Continuous-Data and Discrete-Data Systems 32] ‘7-3-1 Continuous-Data System — 32]. 7-3-2 Digital Control System 323 Kv CONTENTS 14 Review of Steady-State Error Analysis of Continuous-Data Contro} ‘ Systems 332 1-5 Steady-State Error Analysis of Digital Control Systems 334 7-5-1 Steady-State Error Due to a Step Function Input—The Discrete Step-Error Constant 335 7-5-2 Steady-State Error Due to a Ramp Function Input—The Discrete Ramp-Error Constant — 336 7-5-3 Steady-State Error Due to a Parabolic Function Input—The Discrete Parabolic-Error Constant) © 337 7-5-4 Summary of Discrete Error Constants, 338 7-6 Correlation Between Time Response and Root Locations in the s-Plane and the z-Plane 339 7-7 Constant-Damping-Factor and Constant-Damping-Ratio Loci 342 Char 7-8 Dominant Characteristic Equation Roots 344 “T9 Effect of Pole-Zero Configurations i in the z- Plane on the Maximum Overshoot and Peak Time 346 eee 7-10 Deadbeat Response at the Sampling Instants 355 “7-11 Root Loci for Digital Control Systems 336 T-AI-1 Properties of Root Loci in the z-Plane 359 2 Illustrative Examples of Root Loci s -11-3 Root Loci of Systems with Pure Time Bears 364 ts of Adding Poles and Zeros to the. Open-Loop Transfer ion 367 | Eflects of Adding a Zero to the on Transfer ‘Function 367 WE ei CONTENTS xvii 8-4 Bode Plot 400 8-5 Gain Margin and Phase Margin 405 8-5-1 Gain Margin. 405 8-5-2 Phase Margin 406 8-6 Gain-Phase Plot and the Nichols Chart. 4/0 8-7 Bandwidth Considerations, 411. 8-8 Sensitivity Analysis 412 ul Problems 414 ‘ ‘ References 4/7 fa Chapter 9 _ DIGITAL SIMULATION AND DIGITAL REDESIGN 418 9-1 Introduction 478 Toh 2 9-2 Digital Simulation Digital Modeling with Sample-and-Hold Devices 419» 1 be “at 9-3 Digital Simulation—State-Variable Formulation ° 423 9-4 Digital Simulation Numerical Integration 424 9-4-1 Rectangular Integration > 425 Tos 9-5 Frequency-Domain Characteristics—Frequenc} 9-5-1 Frequency Prewarping #37) /Warping 429 9-6-2 Partial Matching of States "926-3 Solution of the Feedback Matrix by Series Expan 96-4 Ant'Exact Solution for E(T) 447 9-6-5 Solution of B(T) by Series Expansion "4 9-6-6 Stability Considerations and Cons the Selection of the Weighting Matrix H #42" ee 9-6-7 Digital Redesign of the Simpli Se jatellite 5 443 roblems’ Tosa ree he rbot a ry: 25 popu SablipsinoS datovt riiw capi 9: References $ at Ff orar@agd Agios svomsoalestot 11-0F BEES Tesignt SgniaPeedbes sion 439 283 OL vi Hypeth riaaosidvolod L105 = ELE xviii CONTENTS 10-3 Design of Continuous-Data Controllers with Equivalent Digital Controllers 470 10-3-1 Cascade Continuous-Data Controller 477 10-3-2 Feedback Continuous-Data Controller 472 10-4 Digital Controllers 473 10-4-1 Physical Realizability Considerations 474 10-4-2 Realization of Digital Controllers by Digital Programming 474. 10-4-3 The Digital PID Controller 481 10-5 Design of Digital Control Systems with Digital Controllers Through Bilinear Transformation 483 10-S-1 Basic Properties of a Phase-Lead Controller for Dr) 485 10-S-2 Basic Properties of a Phase-Lag Controller for Dir) 486 10-6 Design in the z-Plane Using the Root-Locus Diagram 498 10-6-1 Phase-Lead and Phase-Lag Controllers 499 10-6-2 The Digital PID Controller SOL 10-6-3 The Digital PD Controller 502 10-6-4 The Digital PI Controller 502 10-6-5 Pole-Zero Cancellation Design 503 10-6-6 Design Examples 505 10-7 Two-Degree-of-Freedom Compensation ‘516 10-7-1 Forward Controller Design 518 10-7-2 Noise and Disturbance Rejection 519 10-8 Design of Robust Control Systems S521 10-9 Design of Discrete-Data Systems with Deadbeat Response 530 10-9-1 Design of Digital Control Systems With Deadbeat _ Response 530 10-9-2 Design of Sampled-Data Control Systems with Deadbeat Response 543 Hgid See: ‘oot Loci of Deadbeat Discrete-Data Systems 550 F 10 Design with Notch Controllers 557 Ht 20: _ 10-11 Pole-Placement Design by State Feedback (Single Input) 556 1 ent Design by State Feedback (Multiple Inputs) 563 a 0 D by edback or Output hosted 1-08 POL Chapter 14 Chapter 12 1-1 11-2 11-3 11-4 1-5 11-6 1-7 11-8 11-9 12-1 12-2 12-3 12-4 12- 12- a 12-7 CONTENTS xix OPTIMAL CONTROL 608 Introduction 608 The Discrete Euler-Lagrange Equation 608 The Discrete Maximum (Minimum) Principle 6/4 Time-Optimal Control with Energy Constraint 619 Optimal Linear Digital Regulator Design 625 1 Linear Digital Regulator Design (Finite-Time Problem) 627 -2 Linear Digital Regulator Design (Infinite-Time Problem) 633 Principle of Optimality and’ Dynamic Programming 636 Solution of the Discrete Riccati Equation 640 11-7-1 Recursive Method of Solving the Riccati Equation 640 11-7-2 The Eigenvalue-Eigenvector Method 644 Sampling Period Sensitivity 650 Digital State Observer 660 11-9-1 Design of the Full-Order State Observer 662 11-9-2 Design of the Reduced-Order State Observer 672 Problems 679 References 685 MICROPROCESSOR AND DSP CONTROL 88. Introduction 688 Basic Computer Architecture 689 12-2-1 Input-Output Devices 690 12-2-2 Memory 690 12-2-3 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) 691 Microprocessor Control of Control Systems 694 Single-Board Controllers with Custom-Designed Chips 696 {2-4-1 The Galil DMC-105 Board 696 Digital Signal Processors 702 12-5-1 The Texas Instruments TMS320 DSPs 702 12-5-2 Development System and Support Tools 704 Effects of Finite Wordlength and Quantization on Controllability and Closed-Loop Pole Placement 706 ‘Fffects of Quantization—Least Upper Bound on Quantization Error 7/1 {2-7-1 State-Variable Analysis 7/6 12-7-2 z-Transform Analysis 717 me CONTENTS 12-8 Time-Delays in Microprocessor-Based Control Systems 720 Problems ede References 723 Appendix A FIXED-POINT AND FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS 725 A-| Fixed-Point Number Representation 725 A-2 Floating-Point Number Representation> 728 Appendix B MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF SAMPLING BY CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL 731 B-1 Expressions for the Finite-Pulsewidth Sampler Output F¥(s) 731 B-2 Expressions for the Ideal Sampler Output F*(s) 736 B-3 Alternate Expressions for the Modified z-Transform 737 Appendix C TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS, zTRANSFORMS, AND MODIFIED z-TRANSFORMS 740 Appendix D GENERAL GAIN FORMULA FOR SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS 744 Appendix E ROUTH’S TABULATION FOR STABILITY ANALYSIS 745 Appendix F GALIL DMC-100 MOTION CONTROLLER BOARD 746 Index 747 (ORDS AND TOPICS erete-data systems e digital control systems sampled data @ advantages of pled-d:ta and digital control examples of discrete-data and digital control systems al = Se INTRODUCTION In recent years significant progress has been made in the analysis and design of diserete-data and digital control systems, These systems have gained popular- ity and importance in incustry due in part to the advances made in digital computers for controls and, more recently, in microprocessors (MP) and digital signe processors (DSP). Diserete-data_ and digital control systems differ from the conventional continuous-cata o: ...alog systems in that the signals in one or more parts of these systems are in the form of either pulse trains or numerical codes, The terms sampled-data control systems, discrete-data control systems, and digital control, Saama have all been used loosely and interchangeably in the control systems literature. Strictly speaking, sampled data are pulse-amplitude mod- lated signals and are obtained by’ some means of sampling an analog signal. A pulse-amplitude modulated signal is often presented inthe form of a Pulse train with signal information carried by the amplitudes of the pulses. Digital data usually are those signals generated by digital computers or digital transducers; they are often in some kind of digitally coded form. It will be shown later that practical systems found it industry often contain analog, sampled, as well as digital data. Therefore, in this text we shall use the term diserete-data systems in a broad sense to describe all systems haying some form 4 INTRODUCTION —> c(t) CONTROLLED Bana PROCESS Figure 4-4. Closed-loop sampled-data control system. of digital or sampled signals. Furthermore, the existing analytical and : i methods are essentially the same whether the system contains sampled digitally coded data. 4-4-4 Basic Elements of a Discrete-Data Control System Figure 1-1 shows the basic elements of a typical closed-loop control syste with sampled data. The sampler simply represents a device or operation outputs a pulse train. No information is transmitted between two consecutig pulses. Figure 1-2 illustrates typical input and output of a sampler. A continuo input signal e(t) is sampled by the sampler, and the output is a sequences pulses. In the illustrated case, the sampler is assumed to have a unil sampling rate. The magnitudes of the pulses at the sampling instants rept the values of the input signal e(c) at the corresponding instants. In general, sampling scheme has many variations; some of these are the periodic, cyclic-il multirate, random, and pulsewidth-modulated samplings. The most common (jp of sampling found in practical systems is the single-rate periodic sampling, as that shown in Fig. 1-2. The filter located between the sampler and the controlled process is ts for the purpose of smoothing, since most controlled processes, such as the 0 involving a conventional ac or de motor, are naturally designed and consti to receive analog signals. s The block diagram of a typical digital control system is shown in Fi The existence of digitally coded signals, such as binary-coded signals, in cet! parts of the system requires the use of digital-to-analog (D/A) and anal digital (A/D) converters. The digital computer block in Fig. 1-3 can i _Tafey, 2 L 2instieys hisiis 1 ns Silva T 7 INTRODUCTION 3 DIGITAL CODE DIGITAL DIGITAL-TO- CON 7, ‘TROLLED | OUTPUT Tprut LCOMPUTER * ANALOG CONVERTER | —>| PROCESS ANALOG-TO- DIGITAL CONVERTER LDIGITAL CONVERTER | Figure 4-3. A typical digital control system, special-purpose digital computer, a microprocessor, or a digital signal pro- cessor. Although there are basic differences between the hardware structures and components between sampled-data and digital control systems, we shall show that, from an analytical standpoint, both types of systems are treated by. the same analytical tools. 4-4-2 Advantages of Discrete-Data Control Systems The use of sampled data in control systems can be traced back at least 70 years. Some of these early applications of sampled data were for improving the performance of the control system in one form or anothef. For instance, in the chopper-bar galvanometer, described by Oldenbourg and Sartorious [1] and shown in Fig. 1-4, the sampling operation produces greater system sensitivity (gain) to a low-level input signal. With reference to Fig. 1-4, a small signal is normally applied to the galvanometer coil. The chopper bar is lowered period- ically, and the projected pointer of the galvanometer causes the load to be driven in proportion to the signal strength. The torque applied to the load shaft is thus determined by the chopper-bar driver, rather than just by the torque developed in the galvanometer coil. f Chopper bar |. — Galvanometer + Motor driven. cam. Figure 4-4. Chopper-bar galvanometer. oe Normally closed ity relay contacts Contact rod —_,] Mercury thermometer —+| U eee lf y LLL Ss Figure 4-5. A constant-temperature oven control system utilizing sampled data. Another early application of the sampling concept in control systems is th constant-temperature oven devised by Gouy [2]. The system consists of th elements shown in Fig. 1-5. The purpose of this system is to maintain a constan temperature in the oven at all times. Whenever the electrical contact ro immersed jri the mercury, current flows in the relay coil, causing the relay open and thus interrupt the heating current. Since the contact is periodically dipped into the mercury, the heating current consists of a sequence of puls Furthermore, since the time that the contact is immersed in the mercury depen on the level of the mercury, and the level in turn depends on the tempera of the oven, the pulsewidths‘of the heating current are varied in proportio! the temperature of the oven, but the pulses all haye equal amplitudes. A typ ~ Set of signals in the sampled-data temperature control s system is shown in 1-6. In contrast to the conventional sampling scheme such as the one describ in Fig. 1-2, in which the amplitude of the signal is sampled and transmil the amplitude of a pulse, the sampled data shown’ in Fig. 1-6 have pulse amplitude, but with the signal information carried by the widt! pulses. Therefore, we see that, in practice, there are many ways of signal, or perhaps more appropriately, of representing a signal in sam The two examples just giver’ merely illustrate the sampling in control systems, To understand fully the merits an a Temperature of oven Ai) Figure 1-6. Input and CONTROLLER CONTROLLED | _OUTPUT PROCESS Figure 4-7. Basic clements of an analog control system, using sampling and digital data in control systems, one should ask, Why sampled data and digital control? In other words, what are the advantages and characteristics of sampled data and digital control? We must first recognize that many physical systems have inherent sainpling, or their behavior can be described by discrete-data or digital models. For instance, in a radar tracking system the signals transmitted and received by the system are in the form of pulse trains. The scanning operation of the radar performs the function of a sampler, converting both the azimuth and the elevation information to sampled data. Numerous phenomena, social, economic, or biological systems, exist whose dynamics can be modeled by discrete-data models To address the advantages and characteristics of discrete-data systems, we must first look at the characteristics of continuous-data control systems which have been in existence for many years. Figure 1-7 shows the block diagram containing the basic elements of a single-loop continuous-data control system. The controller is usually an electronic circuit that operates on an analog signal and outputs the same type of Signal. The advantage with the analog controller is that the system operates in real-time and is capable of a very high bandwidth. It is equivalent to having an infinite sampling frequency, so that the controller is effective at all times. The disadvantages of the analog controller are that its elements are usually hard-wired, so that their characteristics are fixed, making it more difficult to make design changes, and component aging and sensitivity to environmental changes can be quite severe. Analog compo- nents are also mote susceptible to noise problems. Some of the advantages of digital control are listed as follows: 4 Digital components are less susceptible to aging and etvironiental varia- tions. 2. They are less sensitive to noise and disturbance, 3. Digital processors are more compact and lightweight. Single-chip MPs and DSPs can be made very versatile and powerful for control applications. 4. The costs of MPs and DSPs are continuously going down. 3) MPs and DSPs allow more flexibility in programming: changing a design does not require an alteration in the hardware, 6. They are more reliable. io 7. They provid improved sensitivity to parameter Variations. The chopper-bar galyanometer system illustrated in Fig, 1-4 is an example “on how sampling can improve sensitivity, In this case, a small signal is amplified for control purposes through the sampling operation, 4) 6 INTRODUCTION One important advantage of digital controllers, as spn a that they are more versatile than analog, controller The prograi aise em acterizes a digital controller can be modified easily to se ie ie changes, or adaptive performances, without any alteration to f a Digital components in the form of chips, electronic parts, transducers, a encoders are often more reliable, more rugged in construction, and more compact in size than their analog counterparts, These and other significa distinctions are causing many analog control system applications to be con. verted to digital on 4 Digital control as are not without disadvantages when compared with the analog systems, however. Some of the important disadvantages are a follows: 1, Limitations on computing speed and signal resolution due to the finite wordlength of the digital processor. In contrast, analog controllers operate in real time, and the resolution is theoretically infinite. > 2. The finite wordlength of the, digital processor often translates into system instability in the form of limit cycles in closed-loop systems. The limitation on computing speed causes time delays in the control loop which may cause instability in closed-loop systems. 4-2 EXAMPLES OF DISCRETE-DATA AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS In this section we shall illustrate several examples of discrete-data and digital control systems. The objective is simply to show some of the essential compo: _ nents of discrete-data and digital control systems. 1-24 A Simplified Single-Axis Autopilot Control system Figure 1-8(a) shows the block diagram of a simplified single-axis (pitch, yan. or roll) analog autopilot control of an aircraft or missile, This is a typical analog Or continuous-data control system in which the signals can all be represente as functions of the continuous-time variable t. The objective of the control ® necessary A/D and. D/A converters. can be used for the as shown in Fig. 1-8(b). Since all the components of the sy digital controller are still analog, the A/D and D/i for signal conversions. ; Figure 1-9 shows the digital ‘and rate information are obtain are represented on the block. Attitude ‘Command Auitude ‘Command EXAMPLES OF DISCRETEDATA AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS 7 ~ : Attitude Analog ° Prefilter 8 Airframe 6 KO Controller Dynamics [7] “| oe, Rate Gyro Position, ‘Transducer @ Bont oH Digital iifiame { AD F1 controtter| | 2 || Dynamics +2 Posision de cecrena me Transducer (by gure *-8. (4) A Simplified single-axis autopilot conifol system with analog data. (b) A simplified single-axis autopilot control system with digital dati simply holds the value’of the'pulse’signal’untif the-Rext sample comes along: Figure 1-9 illustrates the situation in which the two samplers, have different sampling periods T, and Ts, In general, ithe rate of variation of the signal in ne loop is very much Iéss than, that of the other Joop, the, sampling period tiged Tor the slower loop, can be longer. The system shown in, Fig, 1-9 has samplers with different sampling periods and Is called a. multirate sampled-data system, ‘One of the advantages of using sampling and multirate sampling is that certain expensive components Gf the system can be used ona time-shared basis. = Airframe Dynamics Figure 49, A simplified Single-axis digital autopilot contra! system with multirate givoling, aaiet AY dash owe? Figure 4-40, A digital computer-controlled rolling mill regulating system, 422 A Digital Computer-Controlled Rolling Mill Regulating system Many industrial processes are conti and digital transducers. Practicall regulated and controlled by digital rolled and monitored by digital computes 'y all the ‘modern steel rolling mills ae 42:3 A Digital Controller tor a Turbine and Generator f Figure 1-12 shows the block diagram and the essential elements of a mini- nd voltage control as well data acquisition D/A converter forms the interface between tl d and voltage controls. The ignals. Each inputesi the multiplexer for period of giles (3 Se ar = EXAMPLES OF DISCRETE-DATA AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS, 9 From Boiler (Speed Contiol) t + Turbine Figure 1-42. Computer control of a turbine and generator unit. Digital Digital Digital Output ‘Transducers ‘Multiplexer [To Computer Figure 1-43. A digital data-acquisition system system that follows the multiplexer is thus time-shared between a number of "signal channels. Figure 1-14 illustrates the data-acquisition system when the system variables are measured by analog transducers. The output of the analog _ multiplexer is connected to a sample-and-hold device which samples the output of the multiplexer at a fixed time interval and then holds the signal level at its > output until the A/D converter completes its task. \ mood #84 A Stop Motor Cont! son — Cccasionally, we may come across a system which contains all-digital clements so that A/D and D/A converters for signal matching are unnecessary. Figure 1-15 shows such a system, which is used for the control of the read-write head: of a computer memory disk. The prime mover used in the disk drive system is a step motor driven by pulse command ae, step motor. moves one fixed displacement increment in response to each pulse input. Thus, the system may be considered an all-digital data system. — oN feasaae oth a [sana bel leucovorin = ‘~ 1 x A+ MONTIZON Read- Digital [Computer Write Head ome} [BS [Circuit Digital Position Encoder Figure 4-45. A step motor control system for read-wrile head positioning on a disk dri 4-2-5 Microprocessor-Controlled Systems Special-purpose microprocessors and DSPs for control system applicati have become quite common in recent years. These compact and economi devices have improved the performance and feasibility of digital control syst dramatically, As an illustrative example, Fig. 1-16 shows the block diagram a closed-loop de motor control system that ‘utilizes the GL-1200 control manufactured by Galil Motion Control. The GL-1200 is a single-chip mien processor that provides closed-loop position and velocity control of a de mol The controller accepts position feedback from a two-channel incremenl encoder, and outputs a signal that is proportional to the position error andi derivative. Thus, the closed-loop de motor control systems can be: applied position and yelocity control applications with proportional and derival (PD) control.

    You might also like