Pesnik I Andjeo, Casopis Za Nauku o Jeziku I Knjizevnost

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria
FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA:

ASOPIS ZA NAUKU O JEZIKU I
KNJIEVNOSTI
Institut za jezik i knjievnost

Filozofski fakultet, Niki
Univerzitet Crne Gore
asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti
FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Glavni urednik / General Editor: Marija Kneevi
Izdava: Institut za jezik i knjievnost, Filozofski fakultet, Niki
Publisher: Institute for Language and Literature, Faculty of Philosophy, Niki
Ureivaki odbor / Board of Editors:

Rossella Abbaticchio, University of Bari
Aleksandra Banjevi, University of Montenegro
Nick Ceramella, University for Foreigners of Perugia
Vesna Jankovi, University of Montenegro
Ginette Katz-Roy, Universit Paris Ouest Nanterre La Dfense
Bernhard Kettemann, University of Graz
Jelena Kneevi, University of Montenegro
Radmila Lazarevi, University of Montenegro
Aleksandra Nikevi Batrievi, University of Montenegro
Ana Pejanovi, University of Montenegro
Ljiljana Pajovi Dujovi, University of Montenegro
Wolf-Dirk Skiba, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena
Sekretar / Secretary:
Mihaela Lali, University of Montenegro
Recenzenti / Reviewed by:

Biljana ubrovi, University of Belgrade
Mirjana Danii, University of Belgrade
Dubravka uri, Singidunum University, Belgrade
Darja Hribar, University of Maribor
Aleksandra Jovanovi, University of Belgrade
Marina Ragawcheskaya, Minsk State Linguistic University
Alexey Volskiy, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, St. Petersburg
Korektura engleskog teksta / English language editing: Isabelle White, Eastern Kentucky
University in Richmond, KY
Grafiki dizajn / Graphic design: Biljana ivkovi, Studio Mouse
tampa / Printed by: ITP Kolo, Niki
Copies: 1000
Filozofski fakultet, Niki, 2010
Sadraj / Table of Contents

Rije Redakcije ........................................................................................................................ 7
From the Board of Editors .............................................................................................. 13
D. H. Lorens kao putopisac / D. H. Lawrence as a Travel Writer
D. H. Lawrence: a Traveller Through Cultures
Simonetta de Filippis .................................................................................. 21
Creatively Responding to the Other: D. H. Lawrences
Mornings in Mexico and Ethical Criticism
Isabel Fernandes ......................................................................................... 35
Unsettling the Traveller: The Returned Gaze in Seas and Sardinia
Peter Preston .............................................................................................. 43
Facing the Other to Death
Marija Kneevi .......................................................................................... 51
Svjetska knjievnost i knjievna teorija / World Literature and
Literary Theory
Life, Politics, and Aesthetics: Theodor W. Adornos
and Walter Benjamins Reflections on the Historical Avantgarde
Arvi Sepp ..................................................................................................... 67
Zaboravljeno putovanje tragovi utisnuti u bajkama (I deo)
Dragana Krenkovi Brkovi ....................................................................... 83
Percy Bysshe Shelley An Overview of His Life, Major Poetry,
and Critical Reception
Nataa Baki Miri ...................................................................................... 99
Aneeo Devinskih elegija
Jelena Kneevi ......................................................................................... 115
Amerika gotska knjievnost C. B. Brown i ponovno roenje anra
Marko Luki .............................................................................................. 131
Black Dogs: Metaphysics, History and Utopia

Milena Kosti ............................................................................................ 147
The Desperation of Gods in The White Tiger and The Inheritance of Loss
Janko Andrijaevi .................................................................................... 161
Migrationserfahrungen in Saa Staniis Roman
Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert
Maren Kaiser ............................................................................................ 169
enski glasovi u svjetu proze / Female Voices in the World of

Fiction
Female Sexual Transgression in the Nineteenth-Century Realist Novel:
Literature and its Medical Background
Maria Mikolchak ....................................................................................... 185
Violent Wives and Liberated Husbands: Male-Female Relations
in Tahar Ben Jellouns LHomme rompu
Shonu Nangia ............................................................................................ 195
Govor ena u delu ita Bernarda linka
Budimka Uskokovi ................................................................................... 207
Savremena crnogorska knjievnost / Contemporary
Montenegrin Literature
Principi organizacije vremenske ravni u romanu
Hodoae Arsenija Njegovana
Maja Sekulovi .......................................................................................... 221
Autobiografski roman kao medijacija izmeu fikcije i stvarnosti (na osnovu
romana Mimesis Andreja Nikolaidisa i Privatna galerija Bale Brkovia)
Katarzyna Sudnik ...................................................................................... 233
Poetizacija u romanu Mojkovaka bitka amila Sijaria
Ivana Petrovi ........................................................................................... 243
U tuem gnijezdu Huseina Baia
Olga Vojii Komatina ............................................................................... 253
Svijet teatra / The World of Theatre

Tennessee Williamss Plastic Theater
Esmeralda Subashi .................................................................................... 263
Samuel Becketts Plays: Creating an adequate aesthetic
Loran Gami ............................................................................................... 277
Hamlet komparativna analiza filmskih adaptacija
Olivijea, Kozinceva i Brane
Zoran Koprivica ......................................................................................... 287
Challenges and Practice in Theatrical Translation
Iris Klosi ..................................................................................................... 295
Jezike teme / Language Issues
Jezici u kontaktu i kontrastu
Aleksandra Banjevi .................................................................................. 307
Kognitivni pristup znaenju
Gordana urkovi ..................................................................................... 323
Lexical Cohesion in Humorous Texts
Olja Joji .................................................................................................... 333
Sintaksiki sinonimi glagolskih priloga u jeziku
Stefana Mitrova Ljubie
Milo Krivokapi ....................................................................................... 343
Poslovni engleski jezik kao deo engleskog za posebne namene
Amela Luka Zorani ................................................................................. 359
Autentinost i kontekst u zadacima za evaluaciju znanja
uenika u nastavi stranih jezika
Danijela Ljubojevi .................................................................................... 365
Jezik medija / The Language of Media

Noun Phrases in News Reports in Serbian:
Words Tightly Packed
Tatjana Marjanovi ................................................................................... 383
Polarizacija u politikom diskursu:
upotreba zamjenica u televizijskim intervjuima
Milica Vukovi ........................................................................................... 399
Vrste novinskih naslova italijanske dnevne tampe:
titolo brillante i titolo di richiamo
Deja Pileti ................................................................................................ 413
Rije Redakcije
Folia linguistica et litteraria je asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti, koji

je, u zimu 2010. godine, pokrenuo Institut za jezik i knjievnost Filozofskog
fakuleta u Nikiu, Univerziteta Crne Gore.
asopis je meunarodnog karaktera i zasniva se na instituciji anonimnih
recenzija. Njegova misija je promovisanje savremenih istraivanja u oblasti
nauke o jeziku i knjievnosti, kroz izvorne naune radove, kao i strune radove
u formi pregleda, prikaza i prevoda teorijskih tekstova. Zbog toga posebnu ast i
zadovoljstvo za potpisnicu ove uvodne rijei predstavlja injenica da autorstvo
nad prispjelim radovima za prvo izdanje Foliae pripada renomiranim kao i
mladim istraivaima iz razliitih krajeva svijeta.
Meunarodni i interkulturalni karakter ovog asopisa simbolino se reflektuje
kroz temat kojim se otvara ne samo prvo izdanje Foliae ve asopis u cjelini D.
H. Lorens kao putopisac. Ovaj putnik i buntovnik, jedan od vodeih pisaca
britanskog modernizma, proveo je ivot lutajui kontinentima, meridijanima i
kulturnim sredinama, irei horizonte, sopstvene i tue, kako o drugom tako i o
sebi. Radovi koje obuhvata temat predstavljeni su na konferenciji Evropskog
drutva za studiranje engleskog jezika (European Society for the Study of English,
ESSE) u Torinu u avgustu 2010. godine.
Po rijeima Simoneta de Filipis, profesorke sa Univerziteta u Napulju, ijim
radom se otvara temat, opredijelili smo se da razmotrimo Lorensa kao putopisca zbog toga to putovanje predstavlja
fundamentalno iskustvo naeg drutva. Osjeaj izmjetenosti i egzila,
konfrontacija sa drugim kulturama, rekonfiguracija ideje o centru i
margini, koncepti granica, nacija, kulturnog identiteta postali su fokusom
naih ivota i, posebno, naeg akademskog istraivanja.
Hrabra iskrenost Lorensovog putopisnog glasa, napredno promiljanje navodne superiornosti Zapada, odjekuju i danas savremenom naukom o knjievnosti, lingvistikom, ali i filozofijom, pogotovu kad je u pitanju potreba redefinisanja
tradicionalnog evrocentrinog pogleda u svijetu koji karakterie rasna i kulturna
koegzistencija i hibridnost. Ovu pretpostavku autorke de Filipis potvruje Izabela
Fernandez sa Univerziteta u Lisabonu, koja razmatra Lorensovo promiljanje
egzistencije drugog na primjeru putopisa Jutra u Meksiku (1925) koji je Lorens
pisao dok je ivio meu starosjedilakim stanovnitvom Meksika i Novog Meksi-
ka. Teorijski, ovaj se rad oslanja na etiku kritiku, kroz koju se Lorensov pristup
razmatra kao odgovorno odnoenje prema drugom koje je inherentno kreativno.
U radu Uznemireni putnik: uzvraeni pogled u Moru i Sardiniji, Piter Preston, dugogodinji direktor Centra za istraivanje D. H. Lorensovog djela u Notingemu i predava na tamonjem univerzitetu, razmatra nain na koji Lorens posmatra sebe u svom tekstu (kao autora i pripovjedaa), ali i kao jedinog stranca u
mjestu. Kada mjesto na trenutak prestane da bude svijet fikcije, putnik shvata kako meu stanovnitvom Sardinije izaziva zaudnost, sa jedne, ali i tretman u kontekstu nacionalnih stereotipa, sa druge strane. Pitanjem koliko na pogled odreuje ono to vidimo, a koliko je predmet naeg pogleda samosvojan i nespoznatljiv bavi se Marija Kneevi koja Lorensa posmatra u irem kontekstu moderne
knjievnosti. Ona pretpostavlja da je, u svom preovlaujuem relativizujuem duhu, problematizujui naslijeene pripovjedne konvencije, ve sam modernizam
doveo u pitanje sebe i kao pogled na svijet i kao nain izraavanja tog pogleda.
Za ovim slijedi grupa radova posveenih razliitim pojavama u oblasti svjetske
knjievnosti i knjievne teorije. Ovu sekciju otvara studija ivot, politika i estetika: Teodor V. Adorno i Volter Benjamin o istorijskoj avangardi, belgijskog profesora Arvija Sepa. Sep najprije razmatra odnos avangardne umjetnosti, pogotovu
nadrealizma, i popularne kulture, da bi sa tako ostvarenih pozicija razmotrio ne
samo tenzije koje su vidne u radu pomenutih filozofa, ve i pitanje odnosa
umjetnike autonomije, angaovane umjetnosti i modernosti. Zaboravljeno
putovanje tragovi utisnuti u bajkama prvi je dio studije Dragane Krenkovi
Brkovi koja razmatra moderne bajke kao sublimirani izraz iskonskog ljudskog
iskustva, te istrauje procese kojim se odreene osobine tradicionalnih bajki nastavljaju, odnosno ukidaju, u savremenom svijetu. Odavde prelazimo na knjievne
fenomene perioda romantizma u germanskom svijetu. Nataa Baki Miri sa
Univerziteta u Niu, bavi se kritikom recepcijom britanskog romantiara elija,
dok Jelena Kneevi razmatra simbolinu i vieznanu figuru anela u Rilkeovim
Devinskim elegijama. U radu Amerika gotska knjievnost C. B. Brown i ponovno roenje anra, Marko Luki sa Univerziteta u Zadru pokazuje kako se nacionalne specifinosti i specifinosti istorijskog trenutka izraavaju kroz pojedinane
knjievne anrove i pridaje amerikom piscu arlsu Brokdenu Braunu znaajnu
ulogu u daljem razvoju amerike knjievnosti.
Milena Kosti analizira roman Crni psi Iana Mekjuana, koji problematizuje fenomen demitologizacije u kontekstu Drugog svjetskog rata i pervertovane
drutvene prakse koja vodi nasilju, agresiji i rasizmu. U radu Oajni bogovi u romanima Bijeli tigar i Naslijeeni gubitak, Janko Andrijaevi pokazuje slina
interesovanja. On se bavi mladom generacijom angloindijskih pisaca, tanije
dobitnicima Bukerove nagrade, Kiranom Desaiem i Aravindom Adigom. Meutim,
iako je indijska kultura dominantno religiozna, kao to zapaa Andrijaevi, savremeni prikazi bogova svedeni su na nivo trivijalnih ornamenata ili su bogovi sasvim
zanemareni. Razmatrajui iskustvo migracije u romanu Kako je vojnik popravio
gramofon bosanskog pisca Sae Staniia, Maren Kaizer sa Univerziteta Fridrih

iler u Jeni pokazuje kako se isto iskustvo reflektuje kroz izbor narativne forme i
tehnike koja ukljuuje vie perspektiva i anrovski diverzitet.
Sljedea sekcija posveena je enskim glasovima u razliitim proznim ostvarenjima. Ova sekcija otvara se studijom o enskoj seksualnoj transgresiji u realistikom romanu devetnaestog vijeka profesorke Marije Mikloak sa amerikog
dravnog univerziteta Sv. Klaud. Na primjeru Floberovog romana Madam Bovary,
Tolstojevog romana Ana Karenjina i romana Efi Brist Teodora Fontane, autorka
promilja povezanost knjievnosti i nauke, konkretno medicine u devetnaestom
vijeku. U pomalo neoekivanom kontekstu pojavljuju se nasilne ene i osloboeni muevi u djelu frankofonog pisca Tahara Bena eluna. Iako pisac odbija
potinjenu ulogu i viktimizaciju ene, onu Nangia, profesor na Dravnom univerzitetu u Luizijani (Aleksandrija, SAD), razmatra mukarca koji ostaje zbunjen i
egzistencijalno skrhan nastalom disharmonijom u odnosima. Radom Govor ena
u delu ita Bernarda linka, Budimka Uskokovi sa Univerziteta u Beogradu
analizira enski govor na primjeru protagonistkinja Hane mic i mlade Jevrejke
koji u mnogome zavise od sredine i vremena u kojem sazrijevaju.
U sekciji posveenoj savremenoj crnogorskoj knjievnosti zastupljeni su radovi
dominantno naratolokog interesovanja. Ovaj dio asopisa otvara se radom posveenim romanu Hodoae Arsenija Njegovana Borislava Pekia. Koleginica Maja
Sekulovi sa Univerziteta Crne Gore koncentrie se na organizaciju vremenske ravni
u pomenutom romanu i pri tom oslanja na tumaenja vremena erara eneta. Rad
Autobiografski roman kao medijacija izmeu fikcije i stvarnosti koleginice
Katarine Sudnik iz Krakova razmatra autobiografske sadraje u romanima Mimesis
Andreja Nikolaidisa i Privatna galerija Bale Brkovia, a u duhu teorije autobiografizma francuskog naunika Filipa Leena. Poetizacija u romanu Mojkovaka bitka
amila Sijaria tema je rada Ivane Petrovi, koja detaljno analizira dominantna,
mada raznovrsna i mnogobrojna, sredstva poetizacije. Olga Vojii Komatina sa
Univerziteta Crne Gore se bavi prouavanjem poetike Baievog romana U tuem
gnijezdu, ukljuujui tematsko-motivski opseg, psiholoku konkretizaciju protagonista, anrovski sinkretizam i bogatstvo naracije.
etiri rada u ovom broju posveena su prouavanju svijeta teatra. Koleginica
sa Univerziteta u Tirani, Esmeralda Subai, bavi se plastinim pozoritem Tenesija
Viliamsa i njegovom ekspresionistikom dramom, pri emu se posebno koncentrie na eksperimentalne poteze u drami Staklena menaerija. Loran Gami prati
uticaje savremene umjetnosti, pogotovu nadrealizma, i drutvenih promjena koji
su odredili estetiku Semjuela Beketea. Gami takoe pokazuje kako u nekim
bitnim aspektima Beketov rad priziva i postavke kubizma i apstraktnog ekspresionistikog slikarstva, ali i Verfremdungseffekt Brehtovog epskog teatra.
Meu studijama o pozorinoj umjetnosti u ovom broju su i dva rada posveena specifinim problemima razliitih vrsta adaptacija pozorinih komada. U
radu Hamlet komparativna analiza filmskih adaptacija Olivijea, Kozinceva i
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Brane Zoran Koprivica razmatra filmske adaptacije uvene ekspirove drame i

zakljuuje da generike specifinosti knjievnosti i filma s gledita transpozicije
heterogenih elemenata jednog od njih [...] odreuju i sam model i tehniku
adaptacije. Koleginica Iris Klosi pristupa izazovima pozorinog prevoenja. Polazei od pretpostavke Ortruna Zubera da dramski komad zavisi od direktnog
uticaja na publiku, Klosi zakljuuje da prevodioci u pozoritu ne treba da ostanu
nevidljivi, ve da im treba dati jednak znaaj kao dramaturzima ije je makrotekstualno razumijevanje neophodno za dramaturku analizu fikcije. Klosi daje
interesantne ilustracije prevodilakih problema i nudi mogunosti njihovih
rjeenja.
Segment asopisa Folia posveen nauci o jeziku poinje radom Jezici u
kontaktu i kontrastu, koleginice Aleksandre Banjevi koja analizira puteve i
naine na koje su jezici stupali u kontakt i uticali jedan na drugi. U radu Kognitivni pristup znaenju Gordana urkovi sa Univerziteta Crne Gore ispituje kontekstualnu uslovljenost znaenja, njihovu mnogostrukost uslovljenu ne samo
jezikom ve i iskustvom i doivljajem svijeta koji ne mora biti lingvistike prirode.
U svom istraivanju, urkovi se oslanja na nalaze Alvuda, Lajonsa, Redia, Kovecesa, Lejkofa i Donsona. Deskriptivno-analitika studija naslovljena Leksika
kohezija u humoristikom diskursu, koleginice Olje Joji sa Univerziteta u
Istonom Sarajevu, ispituje naine na koji se leksike jedinice povezuju meusobno i sa drugim kohezivnim sredstvima, doprinosei tekstualnom kontinuitetu i
koherentnosti. Joji zakljuuje da se humoristiki tekstovi u mnogo veoj mjeri
nego druge vrste tekstova oslanjaju na kohezivne veze, pa se u radu daju primjeri
iz korpusa vica koji je koriten pri istraivanju. Rad Sintaksiki sinonimi glagolskih
priloga u jeziku Stefana Mitrova Ljubie, Miloa Krivokapia (Univerzitet Crne
Gore) daje minucioznu analizu jednog aspekta jezika ovog crnogorskog pisca.
Za ovim slijede dva rada posveena stranom jeziku u nastavi. Koleginica Amela Luka Zorani ukazuje na znaaj, viestruku potrebu, drutvenu i trinu uslovljenost stavljanja naglaska na poslovni engleski jezik u oblasti visokog obrazovanja, dok se Danijela Ljubojevi bavi metodikim pitanjima objektivne, validne i
pouzdane evaluacije studentskih zadataka u nastavi stranih jezika.
Znaajan dio asopisa posveen nauci o jeziku problematizuje jezik medija.
Tatjana Marjanovi sa Univerziteta u Banja Luci ispituje imenike fraze u novinskim lancima. Da bi prenio to potpuniju informaciju na malom prostoru, novinski tekst, obrazlae Marjanovi, mora da se oslanja na posebne strukturalne
izvore, te pokazuje kako su u engleskim novinama posebno skloni da koriste kompresovane imenike konstrukcije. Srpski novinski tekstovi podsjeaju na engleske,
pa autorka ukazuje na slinosti i razlike u ovom smislu. Na slian nain se Milica
Vukovi sa Univerziteta Crne Gore bavi polarizacijom u politikom diskursu na primjeru upotrebe zamjenica u televizijskim intervjuima, te predstavlja strategije koje uestvuju u graenju polarizacije u britanskim, amerikim i crnogorskim politikim intervjuima u elektronskim medijima. U radu naslovljenom Vrste novinskih
naslova italijanske dnevne tampe: titolo brillante i titolo di richiamo koleginice

Deje Pileti, sa studijskog programa za italijanski jezik Filozofskog fakulteta u
Nikiu, obrazlae se kako analiza jezika novina moe da ukae na trenutna stanja
savremenog jezika, pravce kretanja njegovih promjena i njihove mogue ishode.
Folia linguistica et litteraria zahvaljujui ovim radovima nudi avanturu itanja i

promiljanja o problemima nauke o jeziku i knjievnosti jer je asopis koncipiran
kao mjesto susreta, prepoznavanja i razmjene ideja meu ljudima od duha i intelektualne radoznalosti.
U ime Ureivakog odbora,

Marija Kneevi
Podgorica, 14.12.2010.
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From the Board of Editors
Folia linguistica et litteraria, a journal of language and literary studies, was

founded in the winter of 2010 at the Institute for language and literature of the
Faculty of Philosophy, University of Montenegro.
This is a peer reviewed international journal, with a mission of promoting
contemporary research in the fields of language and literary studies, through
original scientific or other professional papers, such as reviews and translations of
theoretical works. Therefore, special honour and pleasure for the signer of these
words comes from the fact that the authorship of the papers selected for this
first issue of Folia belongs to both renowned and young scholars coming from all
over the world.
International and intercultural character of the journal is symbolically
reflected in the theme that opens not only this issue but the journal in general
D. H. Lawrence as a Travel Writer. This traveller and rebel, one of the leading
authors of English modernism, spent his life wandering over the continents,
meridians, and various cultural milieus, expanding the horizons of both himself
and others. The papers on Lawrence that are included here were first presented
at the European Society for the Study of English (ESSE) conference held in Turin in
August 2010.
According to Simonetta de Filippis, whose paper opens the journal, we have
chosen to discuss Lawrence as a travel writer because
travelling is a fundamental experience in our society and, particularly in
the last decades, it has allowed a continuous movement of groups of
people across continents. The sense of displacement and exile, the
confrontation with other cultures, the re-configuration of the idea of
centre/margin, the concept of borders, frontiers, nation, cultural identity
have become a focus of interest in our life and, more specifically, in
academic research.
The courageous honesty of Lawrences travel writing, his avant-garde
rethinking of the supposed superiority of the West, echoes through
contemporary science of language and literature, as well as through philosophy,
answering a need to redefine traditional Eurocentrism and accept racial and
cultural coexistence of differences, de Filippis argues. This notion is confirmed in
the paper titled Creatively Responding to the Other: D. H. Lawrences Mornings
in Mexico and Ethical Criticism by Isabel Fernandez from the Centre of Foreign
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Languages, University of Lisbon. Discussing Lawrences conception of existence,

as expressed in the book of travel he wrote while living among the natives of the
American Southwest, Fernandez relies on ethical criticism and defines Lawrences
perspective as a responsible and inherently creative response to the other.
In his paper Unsettling the Traveller: The Returned Gaze in Sea and
Sardinia Peter Preston from the D. H. Lawrence Research Centre of the
University of Nottingham, analyzes Lawrence as he looks at himself in his text,
where he appears both as an author and as a narrator, and then turns his look
towards himself as a traveller and the only foreigner in the place he is travelling
through. When at one moment the place stops being a part of fiction, the
traveller becomes aware of the wonder Lawrence causes among the natives of
Sardinia, on one hand, and of being treated in the context of national
stereotypes, on the other hand. How much our gaze determines what we see,
and how much the object of our look is self-contained and unknowable, is dealt
with in the paper of Marija Kneevi, who observes Lawrences work in a wider
context of modern literature. She assumes that in its general relativizing spirit, by
interrogating the inherited narrative conventions, already modernism was
questioning itself both as a manner of seeing the world and as a way of
expressing its perspective.
This section is followed by a group of papers devoted to various phenomena
of world literature and literary theory. In his paper Life, Politics, and Aesthetics:
Theodor W. Adornos and Walter Benjamins Reflections on the Historical
Avantgarde, Arvi Sepp, from University of Antwerp and Erasmus University
College of Brussels, surveys the relation between avant-garde art, especially
surrealism, and popular culture. Sepp thus makes room to discuss the tensions
visible in Adornos and Benjamins work, as well as the general issue of relations
between artistic autonomy, committed art, and modernity. Forgotten Journey
The traces Imprinted in Fairy Tales is the first part of Dragana Krenkovi
Brkovis study that deals with modern fairy tales as sublime expression of the
genuine human experience, and researches the processes through which certain
characteristics of traditional tales are being mimicked or cancelled in
contemporary world. Moving on to the Romantic literary phenomena, Nataa
Baki Miri from the University of Ni, Serbia, introduces us to the critical
reception of the poetry of the famous British Romantic Percy Bysshe Shelley,
while Jelena Kneevi discusses the symbolical and polyvalent figure of the angel
in Rilkes Duino Elegies. This is followed by the paper entitled American Gothic
C. B. Brown and the Re-Birth of a Genre, in which Marko Luki from the
University of Zadar, Croatia, shows how national and historical specifics become
reflected by literary genres and discusses Charles Brockton Brown as a key
contributor to the successful adaptation of the Gothic genre in the United States
of America.
The first of the essays on contemporary literature is Milena Kostis analysis

of Ewan McEwens novel Black Dog, which problematizes the phenomenon of
demythologisation in the context of World War II and the perverted social
practices that lead to violence, aggressions, and racism. Janko Andrijaevis
paper The Desperation of Gods in The White Tiger and The Inheritance of Loss
has similar interests and focuses on the young generation of Anglo-Indian writers,
Kiran Desai and Aravind Adiga, pointing out that although Indian culture is
dominantly religious, contemporary images of gods have deteriorated to the
level of trivial ornaments or are utterly absent. Discussing the migration
experience in Staniis novel Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert (How the
Soldier Repairs a Gramophone), Maren Kaiser from Friedrich-Schiller-Universitt
in Jena, shows the immigrant experience as reflected through the narrative which
involves numerous perspectives and genre diversity.
The section devoted to female voices in the worlds of fiction opens with the
study of female sexual transgressions as depicted in the nineteenth century
novel. Discussing Flaubets Madam Bovary, Tolstoys Anna Karenina, and
Effi Briest by Theodor Fontane, American professor Maria Miklochak looks at the
connection between literature and science, particularly medicine, in the
nineteenth century. In a somewhat unexpected context, violent wives and
liberated husbands appear in the work of the francophone writer Tahar Bena
Jelloun. Although the author himself rejects the subordinate role and
victimisation of woman, Shonu Nangia form the Louisiana State University at
Alexandria, USA, notices the male confused and existentially broken by the new
disharmony in the male-female relations. Women`s Speech in The Reader by
Bernhard Schlink, by Budimka Uskokovi from the University of Belgrade,
analyzes female speech using the example of the novels two heroines, Hanna
Schmitz and the young Jewish girl. These womens speech generally depends on
the historical and social milieus in which they were growing up.
The papers included in the section devoted to contemporary Montenegrin
literature are primarily of narratological interest. This part of the journal opens
with the paper about Borislav Pekis novel Pilgrimage of Arsenije Njegovan by
Maja Sekulovi from the University of Montenegro who examines the novels
temporal plain. In her paper Autobiographical Novel as a Mediation between
Fiction and Reality, Kataryna Sudnik from Krakow university elaborates on the
autobiographical elements of the novels Mimesis by Andrej Nikolaidis and Private
Gallery by Bala Brkovi, drawing on the theory of autobiographism developed by
the French theoretist Philippe Lejeune. After Sudnik, Ivana Petrovi gives a
detailed analysis of the various and dominant poetical procedures in the novel
Mojkovaka bitka by amil Sijari. Olga Vojii Komatina studies the poetics of
Bais novel In Anothers Nest, involving thematic-range motives, psychological
concretization of the protagonists, and genre syncretism.
15
16
Four papers are devoted to the world of theatre. Esmeralda Subashi from the
University of Tirana deals with Tennessee Williamss plastic theatre and focuses
on his experimental drama, especially on the technioques used in his play Glass
Menagerie. Loran Gami analyzes traces of contemporary art, especially
surrealism, in Samuel Becketts poetics. He discusses the elements of cubism and
abstract expressionism, but also Verfremdungseffekt of Brechts epic theatre.
Zoran Koprivica from the University of Montenegro presents a comparative study
of film adaptations of Hamlet by Olivier, Kozintsev and Branagh. He concludes
that because of its generic specificity literary text cannot be the model for the
techniques of adaptation, but that the structural diversity of literature and film
determines the type of adaptation. Iris Klosi approaches the challenges of
theatre translations. She adopts the assumption of Ortrun Zuber that a play is
always dependent on its direct influence on the audience and that, therefore,
translators should not be left invisible in the world of theatre, but should be given
obvious credits as creators whose macro-textual understanding is necessary for
the dramatic analysis of fiction. Klosi gives interesting illustrations of various
translation problems and suggests their possible solutions.
The part of Folia devoted to language studies opens with the paper
Languages in Contact and Contrast by Aleksandra Banjevi. Investigating the
reasons of various historical contacts between languages, Banjevi mostly relies
on Rudolf Filipovi and argues that language contacts can be studied in three
directions: language acquisition, language borrowing, and translation. In her
paper Meaning in Cognitive Approach, Gordana urkovi from the University of
Montenegro analyzes meaning as multilayered and conditioned by context,
which transcends language and is a product of experience that is not necessarily
linguistic. A descriptive study titled Lexical Cohesion in Humorous Texts by Olje
Joji, from the University in East Sarajevo, presents a research on the ways in
which lexical units become mutually connected and also connected with other
cohesive means, thus enabling textual coherence. Joji concludes that humorous
texts must rely on these cohesive connectors much more than any other type of
text and draws her examples from various jokes. In The Syntactic Synonyms of
Adverbs within the Language of Stefan Mitrov Ljubia Milo Krivokapi notices
higher frequency of the glagolski prilog sadanji than the glagolski prilog
proli in the language of the Montenegrin author and gives detailed description
and analysis.
Two papers are devoted to foreign language in education. Amela Luka
Zorani from the International University of Novi Pazar points to social and
market necessity of introducing Business English within higher education, while
Danijela Ljubojevi, dealing with matters of methodology, investigates objective,
valid, and reliable evaluation methods in a foreign language classroom.
A significant part of this issue regards the language of media. Tatjana
Marjanovi from the University of Banja Luka investigates the compressed
constructions of noun phrases in English newspaper articles and compares them

to those in Serbian articles. Milica Vukovi deals with polarisation in political
discourse, using the example of pronouns in TV interviews in British, American,
and Montenegrin media. Last, but not least, Deja Pileti, from the Italian
Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Niki, analyzes titles in Italian
newspapers, showing how the language of media often reflects the momentary
conditions of language in general, mirroring its tendencies and changes, as well
as their eventual outcomes.
Folia linguistica et litteraria, thanks to the variety of papers present here,

offers an adventure in reading and rethinking language and literary phenomena.
Thus this issue meets the primary aim of Folia, whixh was conceived as a place of
meeting, recognition, and exchange of ideas between people of vivid spirit and
intellectual curiosity.
On behalf of the Board of Editors,

Marija Kneevi
Podgorica, 14.12.2010.
17
18
D. H. Lorens kao putopisac

D. H. Lawrence as a Travel Writer
19
20
UDK 821.111.09-992
D. H. Lawrence: a Traveller through Cultures
Simonetta de Filippis
Universit degli Studi di Napoli LOrientale
Abstract: Travelling is a fundamental experience in our society and, particularly in the

last decades, it has allowed a continuous movement of groups of people across
continents. The sense of displacement and exile, the confrontation with other cultures,
the re-configuration of the idea of centre/margin, the concept of borders, frontiers,
nation, cultural identity have become a focus of interest in our life and, more
specifically, in academic research. These critical perspectives have revived the interest in
D. H. Lawrence, one of the most representative literary figures of the 20 th century, who
lived all his life on borderlines, as he physically and metaphorically crossed many
borders, establishing contacts with different cultures and reflecting his experience and
his lifelong quest for a significant cultural identity in his writing. In his travel books
Lawrence appears strongly aware of his own otherness and of cultural difference; his
deep respect for otherness is particularly significant if one considers that he lived in a
time in which the idea of Empire and colonial power was still an important issue in the
affirmation of a supposed superiority of the European civilisation. Lawrences work is
still of topical interest in our world today, for its treatment of the confrontation between
different races, thus anticipating the current debate on a re-definition of the traditional
Eurocentric point of view in a world characterised by the coexistence and the mingling
of races and cultures and in which hybridity has become an accepted feature.
Key words: travel writing, cultural confrontation, otherness, race, Italy, Amerindian
cultures
Travelling is a constant element of human experience which can be

referred to any time, race, culture, and its strong symbolic value has made it a
privileged metaphor of life itself. In classic mythology, for instance, the heros
travels often represent an allegory of different phases of human life (Fussell
209). Travel writing has developed since the Renaissance as a need to describe
new lands and make them known in Europe, sparking off the subtle process
which has led the West to define its own identity as opposed to the rest of
the world, a process that Edward Said observed in studying the contrast
21
22
between West and East. In his well-known book Orientalism (1978), Said
discusses the false, deep-rooted assumptions ingrained in the western attitude
and interpretation of the Middle East, arguing that the romanticised image of
Asia and the Middle East has served as an implicit justification for the colonial
and imperialistic politics of the western world:
The Orient was almost a European invention, and had been since
antiquity a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting memories and
landscapes, remarkable experiences... [the object of a] European
imaginative geography. (Said 57-58)
The style and form of travel writing have changed through history according
to the various functions it has taken on in time. While originally it was mainly a
major source of information for the new geographical discoveries, in the XIXth
century travel books offer detailed descriptions of places, in a scientific and
realistic style, but with a strong political connotation tending to support their
open intent of moral justification for the economic and political implications
connected to the European colonial expansion.
It is in the 20th century that travel literature develops as a more autonomous
literary genre, recording the experiences of an authors journeys in a style which
becomes increasingly personal and impressionistic, focusing as it does on the
travellers consciousness rather than on travelling itself. The spreading of this
new style in travel writing leads many novelists to the writing of travel books as
an alternative to proper novels:
whereas scientists and explorers would inevitably [] put content
before form, literary writers were also beginning to travel and to write
about their travels: Dickens, Trollope, Stendhal had done so earlier in
the nineteenth century; but now writers such as Robert Louis
Stevenson, Henry James, Edith Wharton, and D. H. Lawrence began to
commit large amounts of time to travelling and travel writing. Travel
writing was becoming travel literature and was therefore taken with a
new seriousness. (Youngs 71)
After World War I a number of British artists felt the need to escape from the
moralistic and repressive atmosphere which dominated English life. As a
consequence of this widespread mobility, in the first half of the XXth century,
especially after World War II, travel literature became a privileged genre for its
flexibility and its capacity to convey a variety of experiences, expressing an
increasingly fragmented reality:
travel writing seems to be a congenial genre for an age of exploded,

world-wide mobility, an age essentially characterised by nomadism,
displacement, deterritorialisation and related phenomena considered
typical of the postmodern condition. (Korte 143-144)
Indeed, in the second half of the XXth century, the connection between
travelling and writing becomes deeper and more intimate than in the past. In
postmodern travellers such as Bruce Chatwin, the narration of the journey itself
is not the point: the focus of the tale is the exploration of a state of
restlessness, of an irresistible attraction of uprootedness which becomes, for
these artists, the essence of human existence and the major subject in their
writings. The exploration of these personal drives and inner needs is what glues
together a form of art largely made up of fragments and heterogeneous
materials such as notes, thoughts, references to other works, etc:
an emphasis on the heterogeneous, in both experience rendered and
modes of expression, characterises a whole range of twentieth century
travelogues: fragments of narrative are mixed freely with descriptions,
sketches, dialogues, scenes, passages of reflection, short essays or even
poetry. (Korte 142)
Lawrences extended travel writing falls into this trend of personal
exploration and often becomes the arena for the expression of his social
criticism, political ideals, and inner needs and feelings. Indeed, as is well known,
Lawrence abandoned England and travelled constantly, living in other countries
most of his life, taking part in that migratory movement of artists following the
Great War; indeed, not only was he one of them, but he was defined the
vanguard of the British Literary Diaspora, the great flight of writers from
England in the 20s and 30s (Fussell 11).
***
Travel writing is of paramount importance in Lawrences production as an
expression of his experience and of his poetics of movement:
All the time Lawrence was moving, he was also writing, and the settings
of his works follow upon the march of his feet [] There is probably no
other writer in literary history whose works responded so immediately
to his geographical environment as Lawrence, and certainly there is no
other modern writer to whose imagination place made such a direct
23
24
and intense appeal, and in whose works, as a consequence, place

usurps such a central role. (Schorer 17)
Lawrence was fascinated by travel literature and read many works in the
genre in the years of his intellectual and cultural formation. These readings led
him to open his mind to other worlds and to experience the contact with
different cultures in the hope of finding an ideal world:
travel literature directly inspired him to become a traveller. By making
him aware of the many alternatives to English conformity and
domesticity, the writings of the earlier travellers aroused in him the hope
that he could find an Eden if only he looked hard enough. (Tracy 6)
Travelling for Lawrence implies a search for an inspiring place for his own
writing. As David Ellis points out a chief motive for moving seems to have been
that new places provided him with stimulus for his writing (416). In his
production, travelling takes on the meaning of a search for new, significant
ways of life, for an answer to the feeling of fragmentation that he experienced
in western society. If, on the one hand, through travelling he tries to find more
authentic cultures which appear to be closer to his own structures of feeling, on
the other hand his confrontation with those alien cultures makes him reflect
upon his own culture and his own identity, calling into question well-established
perspectives, and producing a movement within the depth of his own self.
Travelling thus becomes for Lawrence a journey towards the achievement of selfknowledge and the awareness of his own identity, a process that he reflects in a
number of his fictional characters. As Paul Fussell says, Lawrences people
discover their identities through their responses to place (143).
The meaning of Lawrences travels and travel writings as an important
expression of his drive towards a confrontation with different cultures and the
consequent reassessment of his own Weltanschaung, is particularly significant
nowadays, in our contemporary multiethnic world as a result of influxes of
people from Asia, Africa, South America, Eastern Europe. Indeed, the continuous
and widespread migration movements of groups of people across continents has
determined an extensive cultural confrontation often rather conflictual which
inevitably creates a sense of displacement, if not of exile, in those people who
leave their homelands in search of better conditions of life in other countries.
This phenomenon has deeply affected the sense of cultural identity, calling into
question the Euro-centric perspective and suggesting a re-configuration of the
idea of centre/margin and the concepts of border, frontier, nation, cultural
identity all aspects which have become a focus of interest in our life.
More specifically, academic debate and research has lately centred on the
concepts of otherness and space. Nowadays, in many research fields, there is a
sort of spatial turn, a definition used by Nigel Thrift and Mike Crang in a study
entitled Thinking Space,1 a tendency which started in the mid-Eighties with the
publication of a number of studies in the humanities which even in their titles
insisted on the idea of mapping (Homi Bhabha wrote The Location of Culture
in 1994, just to mention one famous title).
The border/frontier becomes the symbol of crossing, of intercultural
exchanges, of circulation of people and ideas (and resistance to that circulation!),
negotiations and conflicts, all aspects which inevitably call into question the idea
of nation and that of cultural identity. The borderland or the Frontier is at the
same time a place of conflict and of encounter, a space where the cultural
confrontation leads to the mapping of the cultural geography of encounters.2
In his travel writing, Lawrence tried to map his own encounters and
intercultural exchanges, his own poetics of movement, and this aspect has
revived academic interest in his work. Indeed, since the 1990s Lawrence has
been studied with increasing interest as a writer whose works present issues
connected to problems of race, ethnicity, nationality, and the idea of space.
***
Lawrence lived all his life on borderlines, as he physically and
metaphorically crossed many borders, establishing contacts with different
cultures and reflecting his experience in his writing. In fact, the element of
travel is central in Lawrences production as an expression of his own personal
and inner experience, not only in those prose works that we usually refer to as
proper travel books, but also in much of his narrative production.3
A simple outline of Lawrences travels shows clearly how large a part of his
life was taken up by travelling. In the periods 1912-14 and 1919-22 he lived in
Italy;4 in 1922-25 he took his world grand tour across continents: India,
Australia, United States, Mexico; his last years were spent in Italy again (192529) and his very last journey took him to France where he died.
The physical crossing of borders, his need to travel and confront himself
with different realities, lies at the core of Lawrences life and artistic production.
1
Nigel Thrift-Mike Crang, eds., Thinking Space, London: Routledge, 2000.

This is a concept discussed by Friedman Susan Stanford in Mappings. Feminism and the Cultural
Geographies of Encounters, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998.
3
Lawrence wrote three travel books about his experience in Italy and one travel book describing the
impact of Mexico upon him: Twilight in Italy (1912, published in 1916), Sea and Sardinia (1921),
Mornings in Mexico (1924, published in 1927), Sketches of Etruscan Places (1927, published
posthumously in 1932).
4
In 1914 Lawrence went back to England for Friedas divorce and was forced to remain there by the
outbreak of World War I; therefore, only in 1919 was he able to leave England again, this time for
good, thus becoming thereafter a citizen of the world.
2
25
26
It is reflected in a number of his characters who follow in his footsteps, leaving

their homeland in search of a meaning for their own life in a more authentic
and natural society, far from England.5
Lawrences restlessness is thus reproduced in his fiction, and in his characters
he conveys that sense of displacement which is often an inevitable consequence
of the impact with different realities. The difficulty of coming to terms with
otherness becomes a recurrent element throughout his narrative production,
right from the first novels written after leaving England The Lost Girl and
Aarons Rod in which cultural contrast represents an essential ingredient of
the narration. This aspect becomes increasingly evident in the novels and short
stories written during the American period: the female protagonists of The
Plumed Serpent, St Mawr, and The Princess are all divided between their
European roots and their confrontation with aspects of the ancient Amerindian
cultures, a contrast which makes them restless and inspires their quest for a
place in which they can belong. Similarly, in The Woman Who Rode Away, the
protagonist is a Californian woman whose feeling of displacement and the
consequent need to cross the border of her own life, even putting her own
existence at risk, arise from the contrast between her own culture and the
Mexican environment in which she lives.
***
To Lawrence, travelling was in some respects a method of inner exploration
which intensified his sense of cultural identity: Travel had certainly made him
feel how English he was in many of his attitudes (Ellis 319).6 What is
interesting is how, starting from The Lost Girl, he uses what can be described as
the dynamics of escape, in a movement that tends gradually away from
England in a search for the ideal place. In his poetics of movement, places
become an inexhaustible source of inspiration particularly for his special ability
to capture the spirit of the place:
he had an uncanny way of singling out the qualities of a place and putting
them into words with the most concise and vivid directness. He saw
deeply beneath the surface, which may change from year to year, into
that which does not change, what he called spirit of place. (Clark xxiii)
5
Alvina in The Lost Girl (1920) and Aaron in Aarons Rod (1922) leave England to go to Italy; the
Somers in Kangaroo (1923) move to Australia; Lou and her mother, in the short novel St Mawr
(1925) settle in New Mexico; Kate, in The Plumed Serpent (1925) goes to Mexico; Juliet, the
protagonist of the short story Sun (1925), leaves the States to go to Italy.
6
Similar comments can be found also in Jeffrey Meyers, op. cit., pp. 1-2.
As to his own motherland, Lawrence expresses contradictory feelings

towards England in a sort of love/hate relationship. England is often portrayed
with images of death, and even described as an ash-grey coffin. When Alvina,
the protagonist of The Lost Girl leaves England, she turns her gaze on the land
she is abandoning:
For there behind, behind all the sunshine, was England, England,
beyond the water, rising with ash-grey, corpse-grey cliffs [] England,
like a long, ash-grey coffin slowly submerging. She watched it,
fascinated and terrified. It seems to repudiate the sunrise, to remain
unilluminated, long and ash-grey and dead. (Lawrence 1981: 294)
Similar feelings belong to Somers in Kangaroo:
as he looks back from the boat, when they had left Folkestone behind
and only England was there, England looked like a grey, dreary-grey
coffin sinking in the sea behind, with her dead grey cliffs. (Lawrence
1994a: 258)
Lawrences long pilgrimage, however, made him all the more aware of his
own Englishness and his own cultural identity. It is significant that, after taking
his characters with him all over the world, in the end, with his last novel, Lady
Chatterleys Lover (1928), he sends them back to England, a place of strong
conflicts but where he can indicate a way towards re-birth and where a
recovery of the most essential values of life is still possible.
***
Lawrences travel books proper can be seen as a sort of personal diary in
which he chooses to speak of himself, of the feelings and impressions that he
gets from places rather than describe landscapes or monuments. Significant in
this respect is a passage from Sea and Sardinia:
There is nothing to see in Nuoro: which, to tell the truth, is always a
relief. Sights are an irritating bore. Thank heaven there isnt a bit of
Perugino or anything Pisan in the place: that I know of. Happy is the
town that has nothing to show. What a lot of stunts and affectations it
saves! Life is then life, not museum-stuffing. (Lawrence 1976: 157-158)
Right from his first travel book Twilight in Italy the contact with otherness
and his capacity to penetrate the spirit of place are the most striking aspects:
27
28
Almost as soon as D. H. Lawrence left England for the first time in

May 1912 he began to record his reactions to the foreign. [] all the
essays were part of his continuously evolving meditation on culture,
English as well as foreign, during that period of intense and
remarkable development. (Eggert xxiii)
Lawrence appears strongly aware of his own otherness, aware of how he
was felt as other by the Italian people he was encountering. In the chapter
The Spinner and the Monks he describes the black figure of an old Italian
woman, trying to imagine her feelings towards him:
To her I was a piece of the environment [] In her universe I was a
stranger, a foreign signore [] She knew that I was an inhabitant of
lands which she had never seen [] I could not understand because
of her dialect. It never occurred to her that I could not understand.
She only thought me different. (Lawrence 1994b: 107-108)
In another chapter of Twilight in Italy, Il Duro, he shows a clear awareness
of cultural difference and his deep respect for otherness, never trying to judge
nor to establish his own superiority:
He looked at me steadily, finally. And I could see it was impossible for
us to understand each other, or for me to understand him. I could not
understand the strange white gleam of his eyes, where it came from
[] But there was nothing between us except our complete
difference. It was like night and day flowing together. (176, 178)
However, Lawrence shows mixed feelings towards il Duro, finding him at
the same time very attractive He was very handsome, beautiful rather, a
man of thirty-two or -three, with a clear golden skin, and perfectly turned face,
something godlike and somehow repelling: All the while his beauty, so
perfect and so defined, fascinated me, a strange static perfection about him.
But his movements, whilst they fascinated, also repelled (173, 178). This
attraction-repulsion mechanism in Lawrences relation with alterity appears in
most of the Twilight in Italy essays; in the penultimate essay, Italians in Exile,
Lawrence admits his own perturbation:
I did not want to see the Italians. Something had got tied up in me,
and I could not bear to see them again. I liked them so much; but, for
some reason or other, my mind stopped like clockwork if I wanted to
think of them and of what their lives would be, their future [] Even
now I cannot really consider them in thought. I shrink involuntarily

away. I do not know why this is. (204)
These mixed feelings do not prevent him from going back to Italy as soon as
the Great War is over. In his second Italian sojourn, he settles down in Sicily but
travels quite extensively through Italy. A trip to Sardinia, though very short,
inspires the writing of his second Italian travel book, Sea and Sardinia, as a
consequence of the strong impression that the Italian island made on him. At
the very opening of this book, Lawrence expresses his restlessness, his drive
towards movement as an essential need and a way to feel free and liberate his
own inner self: Comes over one an absolute necessity to move. And what is
more, to move in some particular direction. A double necessity then: to get on
the move and to know whither (Lawrence 1976: 7).
Later in the book, he describes his feelings when the ship sails away from
Palermo towards Sardinia:
To tell the truth there is something in the long, slow lift of the ship, and
her long, slow slide forwards which makes my heart beat with joy. It is
the motion of freedom [] I wished in my soul the voyage might last
forever, that the sea had no end, that one might float in this wavering,
tremulous, yet long and surging pulsation while ever time lasted: space
never exhausted, and no turning back, no looking back, even. [] let me
wander aimless across the vivid outer world, the world empty of man,
where space flies happily. (33,52)
The sense of space is what attracts him in Sardinia. Not only does it
represent a remote and primitive land, untouched by the negative aspects of
industrial society; it is also different from the rest of Italy, which makes him feel
more free than anywhere he had been up to then:
This is very different from Italian landscape [] Sardinia is another thing.
Much wider, much more ordinary, not up-and-down not at all, but
running away into distance [] This gives a sense of space, which is so
lacking in Italy. Lovely space about one, and travelling distances nothing
finished, nothing final. It is like liberty itself, after the peaky confinement of
Sicily. Room give me room give me room for my spirit. (79)
Travelling becomes then an act of self-discovery: to go to Italy and to
penetrate into Italy is like a most fascinating act of self-discovery back, back
down the old ways of time [] Italy has given me back I know not what of
myself, but a very, very great deal (131).
29
30
In the American period his contact with the Amerindian cultures made him
reflect upon otherness even more profoundly. In the short essay Indians and
an Englishman (September 1922) he writes: The point is, what is the feeling
that passes from an Indian to me, when we meet? We are both men, but how
do we feel together? (Lawrence 1964: 95)
Lawrence shows deep respect for otherness and tries to deal with it in his
writing as objectively as possible, without imposing his views and interpretations,
even trying to reproduce the sounds of their language in order to describe
aspects of Indians life for which English was inadequate:
their faces all together, their leaves all inwards, towards the drum, and
their feet going pt-pat, pt-pat on the dust, with their buttocks stuck
out a little, faces all inwards, shouting open-mouthed to the drum, and
half laughing, half mocking, half devilment, half fun. Hie! Hie! Hie! Hieaway-awaya! The strange yell, song, shout rising so lonely in the dusk
[] Almost a pre-animal sound, full of triumph in life, and devilment
against other life, and mockery, and humorousness, and the pt-pat,
pt-pat of the rhythm. (94-95)
In the first essay of Mornings in Mexico, Corasmin and the Parrots,
Lawrence expresses his awareness of race difference and his profound respect
for alterity:
And Rosalino, the Indian mozo, looks up at me with his eyes veiled by
their own blackness. [] Between us also is the gulf of the other
dimension, and he wants to bridge it with the foot-rule of the threedimensional space. He knows it cant be done. So do I. Each of us knows
the other knows. (Lawrence 1974: 16)
In another essay in Mornings in Mexico, Indians and Entertainment,
Lawrence theorises about otherness and the impossibility of bridging the gap
between two different cultures:
The Indian way of consciousness is different from and fatal to our way of
consciousness. Our way of consciousness is different from and fatal to
the Indian. The two ways, the two streams are never to be united. They
are not even to be reconciled. There is no bridge, no canal of connection.
The sooner we realise, and accept, this, the better, and leave off
trying, with fulsome sentimentalism, to render the Indian in our own
terms. (55)
It is worth noting how this is an incredibly modern, post-colonial way of

looking at otherness. Even more so if one considers that Lawrence lived in a
time in which the idea of Empire and colonial power was still an important issue
in the affirmation of a supposed superiority of the European civilisation.
Lawrence shows a positive attitude to and above all deep respect for different
cultures and otherness. This is particularly evident in the writings of the
American period, a period which appears often ideologically controversial
(mainly for the so-called leadership novels), but which also expresses an
indisputable attitude of racial tolerance which certainly does not belong to the
Fascist ideology; a clear, touching example, occurs in the short essay Indians
and an Englishman, written just after his arrival at Taos:
As for me, standing outside, beyond the open entrance, I was no
enemy of theirs; far from it. The voice out of the far-off time was not for
my ears. Its language was unknown to me. And I did not wish to knowI
stand on the far edge of their firelight, and am neither denied nor
accepted. My way is my own, old red father; I cant cluster at the drum
any more. (Lawrence 1964: 98-99)
Lawrence tries to discover the secret of vitality in the old, primitive cultures
still alive in different continents (Asia, Australia, America) in order to find a
hope of revitalisation for the dying European culture. However, his contact with
alien civilisations strengthened his sense of belonging to his own culture and
therefore, after his long quest, at the end of his life he goes back to Europe.
Although in conflict with western culture, Lawrence was a product of that very
same western world, and his intellectual formation was the result of all the
major European cultural influences. Enriched by the knowledge of different
cultures, he could try and complete his quest-journey by going back to the places
which were closer to his own cultural roots. Italy and its past could offer the
answer to Lawrences quest: in his journey to the Etruscan places and in the
attempt to decipher the Etruscans secret of life in the remains of their civilisation
and especially in the paintings still visible in the tombs of Tarquinia, Lawrence
believes he has discovered that secret and clarifies his own ideals and view of life.
By the time he wrote Sketches of Etruscan Places, he was seriously ill, and
therefore aware of the possibility and reality of death; this new dimension
makes his last travel book extremely significant as a reflection of the authors
personal journey towards the discovery of the most arcane mystery of human
existence and consequently towards the discovery of a principle of salvation.
By travelling backwards in time, he attempted to answer questions similar
to those Gaugin, another exile, posed on his most ambitious Tahitian canvas:
Do venons nous? Que sommes nous? O allons nous? (Tracy 14)
31
32
***
In conclusion, for Lawrence travelling assumed a double meaning: at one
and the same time a flight from England and from a Eurocentric vision of the
world, and a spiritual and existential search for a deeper meaning of life.
Lawrences work is still significant in our world today, for its treatment of
the confrontation between different races, thus anticipating the current
debate [] on a re-definition of the traditional Eurocentric point of view
in a world characterised by the coexistence and the mingling of races and
cultures and in which hybridity has become an accepted feature. (de
Filippis 18)
Bibliography
Clark, L. D. The Minoan Distance. The Symbolism of Travel in D. H. Lawrence.
Tucson: U of Arizona P, 1980.
Eggert, Paul. Introduction. D. H. Lawrence, Twilight in Italy and Other Essays,
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994.
Ellis, David. D. H. Lawrence: Dying Game 1922-1930. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
1998.
Fasick, Laura. Female Power, Male Comradeship, and the Rejection of the
Female. Lawrences Twilight in Italy, Sea and Sardinia, and Etruscan Places.
The D. H. Lawrence Review (21:1): 1989. 29-30.
Filippis, Simonetta de. D. H. Lawrence and Literary Genres.. D. H. Lawrence and
Literary Genres. Eds. S. de Filippis and N. Ceramella. Napoli: Loffredo, 2004.
Fussell, Paul. Abroad: British Literary Travelling between the Wars. New York:
Oxford UP, 1980.
Hulme-Tim Youngs, Peter. The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002.
Korte, Barbara. English Travel Writing: from Pilgrimages to Postcolonial
Exploration. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000.
Lawrence, D. H. Indians and an Englishman. Phoenix. The Posthumous Papers of
D. H. Lawrence. Ed. Edward D. McDonald. New York: Viking, 1964.
Lawrence, D. H. Kangaroo. Ed. Bruce Steele. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994a.
Lawrence, D. H. Mornings in Mexico and Etruscan Places. Harmondsworth:
Penguin, 1974.
Lawrence, D. H. Sea and Sardinia. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976.
Lawrence, D. H. The Lost Girl. Ed. John Worthen. Cambridge: CUP, 1981.
Lawrence, D. H. Twilight in Italy and Other Essays. Cambridge: CUP, 1994b.
Meyers, Jeffrey. D. H. Lawrence and the Experience of Italy. Philadelphia: U of

Pennsylvania P, 1982.
Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage, 1978.
Stanford, Friedman Susan. Mappings. Feminism and the Cultural Geographies of
Encounters. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1998.
Thrift-Mike Crang, Nigel. Thinking Space. London: Routledge, 2000.
Tracy, Billy. D. H. Lawrence and the Literature of Travel. Michigan: Umi Research
P, 1983.
D. H. LORENS: PUTNIK KROZ KULTURE

Putovanje je fundamentalno iskustvo naeg drutva, a posljednjih decenija
zabiljeeni su kontinuirani pokreti i seobe irom kontinenata. Osjeaj izmjetenosti i egzila, konfrontacija sa drugim kulturama, rekonfiguracija ideje o centru
i margini, koncepti granica, nacija, kulturnog identiteta postali su fokusom naih
ivota i, posebno, naeg akademskog istraivanja. Ovakve kritike perspektive
oivjele su interesovanje za djelo D. H. Lorensa, jednu od najreprezentativnijih
knjievnih figura dvadesetog vijeka, pisca koji je cijeli ivot proveo na mnogim
granicama, koje je prevazilazio i fiziki i metaforiki, stupajui u kontakte sa
razliitim kulturama, dok je njegovo pismo vjerno reflektovala njegovo putniko
iskustvo i cjeloivotno traganje za znaajnim kulturnim identitetom. Kao autor
putopisa Lorens se javlja kao lice sasvim svjesno sopstvene drugosti i kulturne
razlike; njegovo duboko potovanje prema drugosti krajeva kroz koje je prolazio
posebno je znaajno ako imamo u vidu da je ivio u vrijeme kada je Imperija i
njena kolonijalna mo bila jo uvijek jedno od vanih pitanja u afirmaciji prtpostavljene superiornosti evropske civilizacije. Zbog toga bavljenje pitanjima rasne
konfrontacije u Lorensovim djelima anticipira savremenu debatu o potrebi redefinisanja tradicionalnog evrocentrinog pogleda u svijetu koji karakterie rasna i
kulturna koegzistencija i hibridnost.
Kljune rijei: putopisna knjievnost, kulturna konfrontacija, drugost, rasa,
Italija, kultura amerikih starosjedilaca
33
34
UDK 821.111.09-992
Creatively Responding to the Other: D. H.

Lawrences Mornings in Mexico and Ethical
Criticism
Isabel Fernandes
University of Lisbon, Centre for English Studies
Abstract: In this paper I discuss D. H. Lawrences work Mornings in Mexico within an

approach theoretically derived from ethical criticism. I interpret Lawrences attitude to
the new realities he encountered in his new surroundings as instances of a
responsive/ible (inherently creative) reading thus shedding new light on and illustrating
how Lawrence creatively responded to the other in his travel writing.
Key words: ethical criticism, other(ness), responsible reading, idioculture.
To read creatively, in an attempt to respond fully and

responsibly to the alterity and singularity of the text is to
work against the minds tendency to assimilate the other
to the same, attending to that which can be barely
heard, registering what is unique about the shaping of
language, thought, and feeling in this particular work. It
involves a suspension of habits, a willingness to rethink
old positions in order to apprehend the works inaugural
power. (Attridge 80)
Derek Attridges definition of what he considers to be a creative reading of a
text encapsulates the main features of an attitude which can be said to be
operative at other levels and in other contexts, beyond the context of literary
reading. Attridges own starting point was the encounter between the self and
another human being, as conceived of by thinkers from Hegel to Levinas and
Derrida.
35
36
In my brief presentation, I will concentrate on D. H. Lawrences Mornings in

Mexico to illustrate how the writer creatively responds to the other (be it a
foreign culture, a new landscape, a tree, animals or people) in his travel writing.
I will use some notions derived from ethical criticism, namely those that are
central to the definition of the relationship between reader and text and what
is called responsible reading. My main source for this will be, as already
mentioned, Attridges work The Singularity of Literature (2004) where he argues
that what characterises the reading of a literary text is its dialogic dimension
along with its performative or event-like nature and its creative aspect.
When you consider the opening paragraph of Mornings in Mexico, the first
thing that will strike you is Lawrences characteristic denial of any sort of
abstraction when dealing with living realities:
One says Mexico: one means, after all, one little town away South
in the Republic: and in this little town, one rather crumbly adobe house
built round two sides of a garden patio: and of this house, one spot on
the deep, shady veranda facing inwards to the trees, where there are
an onyx table and three rocking-chairs and one little wooden chair, a
pot with carnations, and a person with a pen. We talk so grandly, in
capital letters about Morning in Mexico. All it amounts to is one little
individual looking at a bit of sky and trees, then looking down at the
page of his exercise book. (9)
This gradual reduction form a macro- to a microcosmic level is a means of
emphasizing the sense of what I would call situatedness, the idea that any
true human apprehension of a contextual reality is inevitably rooted in a
particular position, defined both in spatial and in temporal terms. This
historically determined condition of the speaker/writer/viewer is an undeniable
given, reminding us that any act of apprehension is contextually informed and
determined by a particular and restricted point of view.7 Lawrence calls
attention here to the inevitably relative position that he occupies when
speaking about the Mexican reality that surrounds him, at a particular moment
7
This reminds us also of what M. M. Bakhtin tells us in his Art and Answerability:
When I contemplate a whole human being who is situated outside and over against me, our
concrete, actually experienced horizons do not coincide. For at each given moment, regardless of
the position and the proximity to me of this other human being whom I am contemplating, I shall
always see and know something that he, from his place outside and over against me, cannot see
himself: parts of his body that are inaccessible to his own gaze (his head, his face and its expression),
the world behind his back, and a whole series of objects and relations, which in any of our mutual
relations are accessible to me but not to him. As we gaze at each other, two different worlds are
reflected in the pupils of our eyes. It is possible, upon assuming an appropriate position, to reduce
this difference of horizons to a minimum, but in order to annihilate this difference completely, it
would be necessary to merge into one, to become one and the same person. (23)
in time. This is the vision of a singular, unique human being occupying a certain
place in time and space, not a general assertion about Mexico as an abstraction
or about the general nature of mornings spent there. Moreover it is a position
culturally informed, not a neutral one. Lawrence identifies himself as one of the
tribe of the white monkeys, (33) as he ironically calls Western people, as seen
from what he imagines to be the perspective of the Mexican Indians. He is a
white male, coming from Great Britain, form a working class background,
occupying a place in the intellectual circles of his time and writing about his
experience as a traveller. In short, he exemplifies the multiple belongings8 that
characterise each persons situation at any particular time in his/her life, a
unique configuration that Attridge calls idioculture.9 In his dealings with the
Mexican Indians, the Mexican landscape, fauna and flora, this idioculture will
inevitably impinge upon his way of relating to these realities.
But at the same time, what is also unmistakable is Lawrences general
attitude of hospitality to register and accommodate everything new, his
attention to the minute details of an unknown reality, his willing suspension of
habits of thought that are obviously out of place in a new setting and a
correspondent openness to see anew. This involves a dual movement of both
passivity and active response. The passivity is, however, of a special kind, since
it does not preclude a high degree of alertness, on the contrary (Attridge 81).
There must be a just10 response to what is perceived. The senses must be
receptive and alive. Notice how the opening section proceeds by registering
olfactory sensations first:
There is a little smell of carnations, because they are the nearest
thing. And there is a resinous smell of ocote wood, and a smell of
coffee, and a faint smell of leaves, and of Morning, and even of Mexico.
Because when all is said and done, Mexico has a faint, physical scent of
8
In his essay on murderous identities, Les Identits Meurtrires (1998), the Lebanese-born writer
Amin Maalouf examines the perils of the notion of sameness applied both to ones relation to the
other, and to ones relation to the self: he contends that murderous tribal identities issue from
notions that equate identity with a single belonging and therefore fail to acknowledge ones
multiple and diverse belongings, be they linguistic, religious, ethnic, national, or others, including le
sentiment dappartenir aussi laventure humaine (188). I thank my colleague Teresa Casal for
calling my attention to Maaloufs text and for the information in this note.
9
I shall use the term idioculture to refer to this embodiment in a single individual of widespread
cultural norms and modes of behaviour. Although a large part of an individuals idioculture may
remain stable for some length of time, the complex as a whole is necessarily unstable and subject to
constant change; and although one is likely to share much of ones idioculture with other groups
(ones neighbours, ones family, ones age peers, those of the same gender, race, class, and so on) it
is always a unique configuration. (21)
10
I use the word just in the sense in which it has been defined by J. Hillis Miller: A just reading is
a reading that goes beyond theoretical assumptions to respond to the unique demand the text
makes for a fresh judgement, one analogous to the judgement of the just judge. (23)
37
38
her own, as each human being has. And this is a curious, inexplicable
scent, in which there are resin and perspiration and sunburned earth
and urine among other things. (9)
He then records auditory sensations, in an equally scrupulous, detailed way:
And cocks are still crowing. The little mill where the natives have their
own corn ground is puffing rather languidly. And because some women
are talking in the entrance-way, the two tame parrots in the trees have
started to whistle. (10)
This is by way of introducing the parrots, the dog, Corasmin, and Rosalino,
the servant the nearest companions to the writer in his Mexican retreat in
this particular morning of December 1924. For we never lose sight of the
particular, since it is the very notation of the details in the immediate context
that opens up for us the sense of otherness and the sense of place the text aims
at creating. It is the ungeneralizable relation between Lawrence as viewer and
his particular context that paradoxically gives rise to the experience of this
place (with its inhabitants, its flora and its social rituals) as at once singular and,
at the same time, shareable and recognizable.
This encounter with the other, however, is not only passively incorporated
but rather generates a reconfiguration of the viewers position, a shift (even if
subtle) in the subjects frameworks of understanding and feeling that makes
possible the acknowledgement of the other. We know how the experience in
New Mexico was responsible for a new phase in Lawrences thought and work,
how his contact with a new landscape, a new people, new cultures (the Aztec,
for instance) and rituals altered the writers position and outlook which would
find artistic expression in works such as St. Mawr, The Woman Who Rode
Away, The Princess, and The Plumed Serpent (all produced at this stage).
This attests to the genuine dialogical nature of Lawrences relationship to New
Mexico. As an example, I will offer the significant occurrence of a reference to
the Indian goddess of love who brings forth a stone knife (32) reminiscent of
the sacrificial ritual at the end of The Woman who Rode Away.
The other dimension of Lawrences genuine acts of attention in relation to his
new surroundings is his refusal to sentimentalize his response towards human
beings and their behaviours. This corresponds to what Attridge considers to be
the reduction or assimilation of the other to the same, an attitude that impairs a
just or responsive reading. In fact, sentimentalizing the Indian, for instance, is
simply a way of understanding him in our own terms; there is no effort
whatsoever of leaving our own (pressu)position(s) and trying to meet him
elsewhere, where our own mindset is no longer of use.11 But this leap into the
unknown is exactly what is called for by a creative and responsive attitude and
Lawrence is ready for it.
It is almost impossible for the white people to approach the Indian
without either sentimentality or dislike. The common healthy vulgar
white usually feels a certain native dislike of these drumming
aboriginals. The highbrow invariably lapses into sentimentalism like the
smell of bad eggs.
Why? Both the reactions are due to the same feeling in the white
man. The Indian is not in line with us. Hes not coming our way. His
whole being is going a different way from ours. And the minute you set
eyes on him you know it.
[...]
The Indian way of consciousness is different from and fatal to our
own way of consciousness. Our way of consciousness is different from
and fatal to the Indian. The two ways, the two streams are never to be
united. They are not even to be reconciled. There is no bridge, no canal
of connexion.
The sooner we realize, and accept this, the better, and leave off
trying, with fulsome sentimentalism, to render the Indian in our own
terms. (Lawrence 1971: 54-55)
How does Lawrence forego this attitude? By attending to that which can
be barely heard, in Attridges words (80) and by registering what is unique
(Ibid). According to Iris Murdoch, in her Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals, the
sense of and the access to the unique is possible through a kind of glaring, of
animal gaze that transcends understanding: Where virtue is concerned we
often apprehend more than we clearly understand and grow by looking (246).
This glare or animal gaze can be found, for instance, in Lawrences description
of the Indian dances (the Hopi Snake Dance and the Dance of the Sprouting
Corn) and is appropriately rendered in poetic, incantatory language, with the
characteristic repetitions and alliterations:
They [the dancers] lean from right to left, two seed-like shakes of the
rattle each time and the heavy rhythmic stamp of the foot, and the low,
sombre, secretive chant-call each time. It is a strange low sound, such
as we never hear, and it reveals how deep, how deep the men are in
11
As Lawrence says, in his poem on the American Indians, O! Americans: Dont sentimentalise
about him./Realize. (Poems 776)
39
40
the mystery they are practising, how sunk deep below our world, to the
world of snakes, and dark ways in the earth, where the roots of corn,
and where the little rivers of unchannelled, uncreated life-passion run
like dark, trickling lightning, to the roots of the corn and to the feet and
loins of men, from the earths innermost dark sun. They are calling in
the deep, almost silent snake-language, to the snakes and the rays of
dark emission from the earths inward Sun. (Lawrence 1971: 80)
Here we have Lawrences unmistakable signature; by responding in a
responsible, even if intuitive, way he puts in play his own singularity, lets it show
through, as should be, each time in the same way and each time differently
(Derrida 67).
The last section of Mornings in Mexico, A Little Moonshine with Lemon,
already written in Italy, several months later (November 1925)12, is curiously
nostalgic and attests to the affective impact of Lawrences life experience in
New Mexico. In Attridge we find an explanation for this element of affection as
part of a responsive reading that endures, thus ensuring the survival of the
experience (in this case, not of a work of literature but of a new place, a new
culture, and new people):
The otherness brought into existence by the work of literature need
not be disturbing or startling; indeed, for the work to survive it must
be, at least in some way, pleasurable that is to say, it must be
sufficiently positive to arouse a desire for repetition. (Attridge 76)
If we translate this experience of the literary text into an experiencing of
the other inherent in the contact with a new place, we would say that for this
connection to survive there must be in it something sufficiently positive to
determine a wish for revisiting that place. In this respect, Lawrences words
(characteristically avoiding sentimentality) are, nevertheless unmistakeably
affectionate, as he alternates a description of his immediate Italian surroundings
with vivid reminiscences of what it would be like at that same time in his New
Mexican ranch:
There is a bright moon, so that even the vines make a shadow, and
the Mediterranean has a broad white shimmer between its dimness. By
the shore, the lights of the old houses twinkle quietly, and out of the
wall of the headland advances the glare of a locomotives lamps. It is a
feast day, St. Catherines Day, and the men are all sitting round the
little tables, down below, drinking wine or vermouth.
12
For all chronological information I rely on Keith Sagars A D. H. Lawrence Handbook.
And what about the ranch, the little ranch in New Mexico? The
time is different there: but I too have drunk my glass to St. Catherine,
so I cant be bothered to reckon. I consider that there too, the moon is
in the south-east, standing, as it were, over Santa F, beyond the bend
of those mountains of Picoris. (Lawrence 1971: 90-91)
There is a blurring of boundaries between the here and now and the vivid
experience of the past as a possible present, precisely like that alternative
dimension that is created while you are reading a book, when the life of the
characters, the actions and descriptions, the authors own idiom imaginatively
snatches you from your immediate context disrupting it.
I wonder if I am here, or if I am just going to bed at the ranch.
Perhaps looking in Montgomery Wards catalogue for something for
Christmas, and drinking moonshine and hot water, since it is cold. Go out
and look if the chickens are shut up warm: if the horses are in sight: if
Susan, the black cow, has gone to her nest among the trees, for the
night. []
In a cold like this, the stars snap like distant coyotes, beyond the
moon. And youll see the shadow of actual coyotes, going across the
alfalfa field. And the pine trees make little noises, sudden and stealthy, as
if they were walking about. And the place heaves with ghosts. [...] It is
the ghosts one misses most, the ghosts there, of the Rocky Mountains,
that never go beyond the timber and that linger, like the animals, round
the water-spring. I know them, they know me: we go well together. But
they reproach me for going away. They are resentful too. (92)
After all, the ghosts of a place can be as enticing and as grudging as those of
a literary text!
Bibliography
Attridge, Derek. The Singularity of Literature. London: Routledge, 2004.
Bakhtin, M. M. Art and Answerability: Early Philosophical Essays by M. M.
Bakhtin. Eds. Michael Holquist and Vadim Liapunov. Trans. and notes by
Vadim Liapunov, supplement trans. by Kenneth Brostrom. Austin: U of Texas
P, 1990.
Derrida, Jacques. Acts of Literature. Ed. Derek Attridge. New York-London:
Routledge, 1992.
Lawrence, D. H. Mornings in Mexico. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971.
41
42
Lawrence, D. H. The Complete Poems of D. H. Lawrence. Vol. 2. Eds. Vivian de Sola

Pinto and Warren Roberts. London: Heinemann, 1972.
Maalouf, Amin. Les Identits Meurtrires. Paris: Grasset, 1998.
Miller, J. Hillis. On Literature and Ethics An Interview with J. Hillis Miller by
Constanza del Rio lvaro and Francisco Colado Rodriguez. The European
English Messenger 15,1 (2006): 23-34.
Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Chatto & Windus,
1992.
Sagar, Keith. A D. H. Lawrence Handbook. New York: Barnes and Noble Books;
Manchester: Manchester UP, 1982.
RESPONDENDO CRIATIVAMENTE AO OUTRO:

MORNINGS IN MEXICO DE D. H. LAWRENCE E A CRTICA TICA
Nesta comunicao, discuto a obra Mornings in Mexico, de D. H. Lawrence,
no mbito duma abordagem teoricamente derivada da crtica tica. Interpreto
a atitude de Lawrence em relao s novas realidades encontradas nos novos
espaos que ia cruzando como exemplos duma leitura responsvel (e por isso
mesmo, criativa), assim procurando fazer luz e ilustrar o modo como Lawrence
respondia criativamente ao outro na sua escrita de viagens.
Palavras-chave: crtica tica, outro / alteridade; leitura responsvel;
"idiocultura"
UDK 821.111.09-992
Unsettling the Traveller:

The Returned Gaze in Sea and Sardinia
Peter Preston
D. H. Lawrence Research Centre
University of Nottingham, UK
Abstract: As a travel writer who passed through many cultures, Lawrence became
acutely aware of how the tourist gaze may be returned emphasising the traveller's
cultural difference. This issue arises with special force in Sea and Sardinia (1921)
where the returned gaze of the native inhabitants lead to questions concerning the
narrator's identity and in particular how his Englishness results in his being treated in
ways which see him in terms of a national sterotype that he energetically rejects.
Key Words: travel writer, cultures, tourist gaze, cultural difference, Sea and Sardinia,
returned gaze, narrator's identity, Englishness, national sterotype
Lawrence travelled through many cultures but through none more rapidly
than that of Sardinia. His little dash (3L 646) of a visit occupied a mere ten
days, from 4 to 13 January 1921. He spent only five of these days on the island,
but from this brief experience Lawrence created a vivid and accessible travel
book, Sea and Sardinia: a work full of sharp observations and lively and
evocative descriptions; but also one in which Lawrence confronts his feelings
about Europe, masculinity and most significantly for the purposes of this paper,
the encounter with otherness. The trip was undertaken because he and Frieda
wanted to see whether it would be possible for them to live on the island. Since
March 1920 he had been living at the Fontana Vecchia in Taormina on Sicily,
but he was now disillusioned by the town, which he described as too
sophisticated and foreigner-flooded (3L 645) though he never seems to have
considered himself to be part of that flood. Lawrence was now seeking, as he so
often did, somewhere with its own cultural integrity intact, more authentic and
less compromised by modernity or the invasion of tourists, whom he always saw
43
44
as other, different from his status as traveller and temporary resident.13 He was
seeking somewhere outside the circuit of civilisation (SS 9).
In this respect his immediate impressions were favourable, of a place that
had remained outside the main flow of European history. It seemed to occupy a
kind of liminal space, lost between England and Africa and belonging to nowhere and left outside of time and history (57). In the great, dark, unlighted
eyes of the Sardinians, their eyes of soft, blank darkness, all velvet, with no imp
looking out of them, Lawrence believed that he glimpsed the eyes of old
Greece before the soul became self-conscious: before the mentality of Greece
appeared in the world (67). In marked contrast to the Sicilians, it was as if the
intelligence lay deep within the cave [] like some unknown creature deep within
its lair (67-68). The phrase like some unknown creature does not mean that
Lawrence saw the Sardinians as somehow less than, or other than, human;
rather that the presence of what may appear to be a primitivistic or animalistic
quality suggested that they were closer to a more purely human state, one that
was uncontaminated with the kind of cerebral self-interrogation that he often
attributed to the ancient Greeks. And as far as Lawrence was concerned, these
features of the Sardinian personality mean that, by contrast with the more
outwardly warm and friendly, but perhaps not always sincere behaviour of the
Sicilians, visitors were held at what was regarded as an appropriate distance,
with a proper acknowledgment of their difference.
To describe Lawrences reception of and in Sardinia in these terms, however,
only tells part of the story, for writes not only about what he saw on the island,
but also about what the islanders saw in him. The books narrative gaze is often
reversed, turned upon itself, not introspectively this is a text that lays great
stress on the appearance of things but precisely in order to present the
narrator as a spectacle and an object of curiosity. The narrator is therefore a
rather fluid individual, sometimes to be identified with the author, at other times
seen from an objective distance. Both he and his wife, the queen-bee or q-b
as she is called, thus function in the book as both the subjective consciousnesses
experiencing Sardinia and as objects of regard, manipulated by the author for
comic purposes. This process begins very early in the book as they prepare for
their journey. They do not have much luggage: the kitchenino, contains their
rudimentary cooking equipment and supplies of food, while everything else is in
the knapsack, carried by the narrator. At any point in Sea and Sardinia the reader
is likely to know the whereabouts of these items and who is carrying them. The
knapsack, in particular, is often seen being shouldered or shed, and it is an object
that draws public attention to the narrator, as a sign that he is a traveller and a
stranger. When he joins the train in Sicily, he tells us that some of his fellow13
Lawrence continued to live largely in Taormina until his departure for Europe in February 1922.
His stay of 23 months was one his longer sojourns after 1919.
travellers view my arrival with a knapsack on my back as if I had arrived riding on

a pig (12). And in Palermo he actually articulates the disapprobation of the
inhabitants as he and the q-b, like a travelling menagerie, pass along the towns
main street: big brown knapsack! And a basket with thermos flask etc! No, one
could not expect such things to pass in a southern capital (23).
Some of this attention was attracted by the narrators language and his
nationality. In Trapani, still on Sicily, schoolchildren follow the English couple
with bated breath, to hear the vocal horrors of our foreign speech (40).
Sardinia offers its own vocal horrors, on the train to Sorgono, where the cries
of two peasants clearing sheep or cows from the line are described as the most
weird, unnatural, high-pitched shrieks, entirely unproduceable by any ordinary
being (91). It is characteristic of this book, however, that the narrator should be
as aware of his own vocal horrors as he is of the shepherds strange cries. He is
concerned not only to represent the otherness and difference of Sardinia, but
also to remain conscious of his own otherness in the eyes and ears of the Sicilians
and Sardinians. And it is equally characteristic of his approach, with its refusal to
operate from within the expected national frame of reference, that when he is
asked in Mandas, if he understands Sardinian, he answers not in relation to
English, but to Sicilian:
But Sardinian is more difficult than Sicilian. It is full of words
utterly unknown to Italian.
Yes, but, say I, it is spoken openly, in plain words, and Sicilian is
spoken all stuck together, none of the words there at all. (79)
Understanding the language is not a matter of vocabulary, grammar or
syntax; it has to do with what the narrator calls the human approach, so that
where Sicilian is gluey and evasive, Sardinian is open and manly and
downright, and Lawrence attributes this difference in speech rhythms to the fact
that the Sicilian has an over-cultured, sensitive, ancient soul (79). Once again, in
Lawrences mind, Sardinia seems preferable because it is outside the circuit of
civilisation (9).
The crucial encounter in Sea and Sardinia and the one in which the impact of
the returned gaze is most powerfully felt takes place in Sogorno. At the towns
dirty and unsatisfactory inn the narrator and the q-b watch while an extremely
old man begins to roast a kid for dinner. The party is then joined by a girovago a
peddler or huckster and this man of the road, who rests nowhere for more than
a night at a time, and sleeps on a mat on the floor, proves strangely attractive to
the narrator. He introduces life and energy and is loud [and] jovial, given to
sudden movements. He is a burly man in the prime of life, dressed in dark
brown velvet, with a blond little moustache and twinkling blue eyes and a tipsy
look, who asks questions in a boisterous familiar fashion (101). He peers
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impudently right under the narrator and the q-bs hat brims to see who they are
and is highly sceptical of their claim that they are on Sardinia merely for pleasure
he can only imagine that they are there to sell something. With the q-b he is
the only Sardinian in the book who addresses her at any length he is teasing
and challenging, and slightly resentful when she immediately identifies the secret
language he speaks with his partner as thieves Latin. With the narrator he adopts
a different tone: although at one point he addresses him flatly and rather
spitefully he also speaks to him softly, secretly and cajolingly, slyly (104). The
narrator responds to the girovagos sharp intelligence and his commanding
personality and his intimacy of address, which, although the q-b does not much
like it, is rather after my own secret heart (105). Equally subversive and
challenging is the girovagos relationship with his partner, a man whom he refers
to as his wife, because they spend so much time together. This changes the
atmosphere in the room: there is an instants fatal pause that draws attention
to the sexual ambiguity playing around the two men.
The fact is that although the narrator entertains strong reservations about
the girovago his personality, trade and sexuality he is forced to acknowledge
that he has encountered a kindred spirit. When the girovago tries to persuade
the narrator to change his travel plans and accompany him to Tonara, he admits
that To tell the truth I should have liked to go to Tonara with him and his mate
and do the brisk trade (105). Afterwards Lawrence reflects on this encounter:
He was by far the strongest personality in the place, and he had the
keenest intelligence. So he hated having to fall into the background,
when he had been dragging all the lime-light on to himself all the
evening. To me too he was something of a kindred soul that night. But
there we are: fate, in the guise of that mysterious division between a
respectable life and a scamps life divided us. There was a gulf between
me and him, between my way and his. He was a kindred spiritbut with
a hopeless difference. There was something a bit sordid about himand
he knew it. That was why he was always tipsy. Yet I like the lone wolf
souls bestbetter than the sheep. If only they didnt feel mongrel inside
themselves. Presumably a scamp is bound to be mongrel. It is a pity the
untameable, lone wolf souls should always become pariahs, almost of
choice: mere scamps.
Top and bottom of it is, I regretted my girovago, though I knew it
was no good thinking of him. His way was not my way. Yet I regretted
him, I did. (106)
The girovago is a visitor from another world, one which Lawrence would like
to enter, but from which he knows he is barred by his personality and upbringing.
The freedom of the road, the sense of always moving on and belonging nowhere,
are very attractive to him, but the sordid, shady and perhaps sexually deviant
aspects of the girovagos life make it impossible for him to follow. The text
emphasises difference and otherness in words and phrases like mysterious
division, gulf, hopeless difference and His way was not my way, but there
is clear a strong emotional pull in the other direction. In his recognition of a
kindred spirit and in the regretful rejection of his example, Lawrence, for the only
time in Sea and Sardinia, is brought into real and dramatic confrontation with
aspects of his own being. A book that is usually known for its lightness and
comedy suddenly becomes very serious indeed.
Earlier, I referred to Lawrences tendency in Sea and Sardinia to make
comparisons not between Sardinia and England but between Sardinia and Sicily.
In some respects this was inevitable he was comparing a new location with the
place he had just left and with which he had grown weary and dissatisfied. But
beneath this commonsense explanation of the terms on which the text operates
lies another, deeper motive which has to do with Lawrences feelings about his
own national identity. The years from 1914 to 1919 when he was detained in
England by the First World War and longed only for departure, had profoundly
affected his feelings about his native country. The prosecution and suppression of
The Rainbow in 1915; his harassment by the authorities culminating in the
farcical episode of his expulsion from Cornwall in 1917; the difficulty in finding
English publication for his work; and his increasingly bitter feelings about the war
all these factors combined to make him feel resentful of England. His departure
for Italy in the autumn of 1919 had come as an enormous relief.
These negative feelings about England resonate in Sea and Sardinia in his
refusal to be identified as an Englishman. In most respects, the narrator himself
would prefer to be outside the circuit of a civilisation he associates with
northern Europe and one of the things he relishes most about his journey is the
opportunity it offers of a temporary escape from his accustomed self, from an
identity he is anxious to shed. His desire to slip the bonds of his familiar life is
expressed in the narrators objection to being identified by his nationality. This
problem first arises on the steamer to Cagliari, which is forced to move slowly
because, as the other passengers make clear to the narrator, its owners cannot
afford enough expensive English coal to make it sail any faster. Furthermore, as
fellow-passengers point out, English currency is also expensive, so that the rate
of exchange is always in favour of visitors. Il carbone and il cambio are
therefore inevitably identified with lInghilterra. But the narrator refuses to be
identified with his country in this manner: he may be English, he asserts, but, I
am not England. I am not the British Isles on two legs (50). He is no more than
a single human soul wandering my lonely way across these years, but in Italy
he too readily becomes a perfected abstraction (51) deriving from his
nationality that denies his individual, distinctive identity. And although he
suffers in Sardinia from some of this England-coal-exchange stereotyping, the
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islands comparative remoteness, the firmness with which it seeks to keep its
own identity intact, offers some release from the straitjacket of English identity.
Yet in the final section of Sea and Sardinia, Back, Lawrence is to be found
defending England and the English against a certain kind of Italian hostility. On
the journey home he meets an Italian schoolmistress who attacks him on the
matter of cash exchange:
You English, with your money exchange, you come here and buy
everything for nothing, you take the best of everything and with your
money you pay nothing for it. Whereas we poor Italians, we pay heavily
for everything at an exaggerated price, and we can have nothing. Ah, it is
very nice to be English in Italy now. You can travel, you go to the hotels,
you can see everything and buy everything, and it costs you nothing.
(175-176)
Lawrences response to this harangue is very angry Has not this song been
sung at me once too often, by these people? (175) and tries to explain (to no
avail) the true costs of living in Italy. Am I always, Lawrence remarks
despairingly, to have the exchange flung in my face, as if I were a personal
thief? (175). Later in the voyage Lawrence hears more anti-English spite from of
a young bounder (179), an Italian commercial traveller, who is resentful of
Englands dominant economic presence in Europe in the wake of the First World
War. Echoing the schoolmistress, he asserts what could be better for [the
English] than Italy now: they had sun, they had warmth, they had abundance of
everything, they had a charming people to deal with, and they had the cambio
(182). In response to Lawrence pointing out that England is in as perilous a
financial condition as any other European country, he manifests some relish for
the day when England might be ruined. Altogether, writes Lawrence, I had had
enough of it (182).
Although on both these occasions Lawrence responds to Italian hostility by
defending England and the English he does so in very non-assertive terms. He is
not interested in England or any other nation being top dog, and his economic
arguments derive very much from his personal experience of living in Italy for
two years. Yet he finds himself in the position of spokesman for his nation, a role
he is anxious to reject. Reflecting on these conversations Lawrence says that
the Italians are not to blame for their spite again us. We, England, have
taken upon ourselves so long the role of leading nation. And if now, in
the war or after the war, we have led them into a real old swinery []
then they have a legitimate grudge against us. (186)
Nonetheless, he refuses to be imprisoned within his national identity and

continues to assert his individuality against the labelling of nationality: I must
insist that I am a single human being, an individual, not a mere national unit, a
mere chip of lInghilterra or la Germania. I am not a chip off any nasty old block.
I am myself (186). Two months later, in a letter, written on 25 March 1921, he
told Robert Mountsier that his present situation was a sort of crisis for me. Ive
got to come unstuck from the old life and Europe (3L 693). For the writer
whose next moves would be to America by way of Ceylon and Australia, coming
unstuck from Europe also involved becoming unstuck from Englishness.
Bibliography:
The Letters of D. H. Lawrence. Vol. 3. 1916-21. Ed. James T. Boulton and
Andrew Robertson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1984. Abbreviated as
3L.
D. H. Lawrence. Sea and Sardinia. Ed. Mara Kalnins. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
1997. Abbreviated as SS.
UZNEMIRENI PUTNIK: UZVRAENI POGLED U MORU I SARDINIJI
Kao putopisac koji je proputovao kroz mnoge kulture, Lorens je bio akutno
svjestan procesa na koji pogled turiste moe da bude uzvraen tako da se
naglasi kulturna drugost putnika. Ovo pitanje posebno se namee u putopisu
More i Sardinija (1921.) u kojem ovaj uzvraeni pogled starosjedilakog stanovnitva vodi ka pitanjima koja se tiu identiteta pripovjedaa i konkretno injenice da njegovo englesko porijeklo ini da putnik bude tretiran u kontekstu
nacionalnih stereotipa koje on energino odbija.
Kljune rijei: putopisac, kulture, kulturne razlike, pogled turiste, More i
Sardinija, uzvraeni pogled, identitet pripovjedaa, englesko porijeklo, nacionalni
stereotip
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UDK 821.111.09
Facing the Other to Death14
Marija Kneevi
University of Montenegro
Abstract: Reconsidering Joseph Conrads, E. M. Forsters, and D. H. Lawrences

hermeneutic hesitations, this paper proposes that the rejection of inherited epistemology
traceable in their texts carries an existential risk and points out that already modernism
thought itself an inadequate approach to the other. Conceptualized as not-me, utterly
unapproachable by means through which I know I am, the other becomes synonymous
with death. In approaching the amoral geographical phenomena of the other, the texts of
all the three travellers abound with strikingly similar imagery, of holes and reptiles,
which is intrinsically abhorrent in Euro-Christian signification. In addition, the otherness
unbearable to the accessible literary medium and the deceptiveness of the symbolical
exchange are pointed out, in all the three cases, by sudden textual ruptures.
Key words: inherited epistemology, hermeneutic hesitation, the other, death,
culturalism, symbolical exchange
Elsewhere I have observed that in their anti-imperialist poetics, focusing on

the depiction of geographical as amoral phenomena, Joseph Conrads, E. M.
Forsters, and D. H. Lawrence interrogate the inherited epistemology and
emphasise the precarious nature of interpretation.15 Their works abound with
hermeneutic hesitations, when the reality of foreign places is concerned, and are
characterised by semantic underdevelopment, i.e. with the repetition of
modifiers which subsume negation mostly belonging to the semantic scope of
unknown, dark, formless or empty. Reassessing this matter, I move from
a postcolonial reading of the works in question to broader issues of modernist
poetics, wondering if the very denoucement of the imprisoning signifiers carries
an existentialist risk for the authors in questions. Their works poignantly reveal
14
The title of this paper is inspired by Peter Prestons paper Seeing Florence to Death, in which
Preston discusses the deadening tourist gaze.
15
Marija Kneevi and Milena Mrdak Miovi, Silence of the Other in Modern English Fiction,
Facta Universitatis (Linguistics & Literature), Vol. 7, No 2, Univerzitet u Niu, 2009, pp. 201 207.
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that, despite its prevailing interrogative spirit, already modernism thought itself
an inadequate approach to the other.
The same can be applied to their emphasized tendency of self-exile, which,
paradoxically, in yet another way and ironically so, pointed to the determining
power and the omni-presence of culture. Therefore, I find the argument against
culturalism that Terry Eagleton develops in After Theory helpful in the
recosinderation of the modernists relation to the other.
To convert the whole world into culture is one way of disavowing its
independence of us, and thus of disowning the possibility of our death. If
the world depends for its reality on our discourse about it, then this
seems to lend the human animal, however, decentred, an imposing
centrality. It makes our existence appear less contingent, more
ontologically solid, and so less of a prey to mortality. We are the precious
custodians of meaning, since we are all that stands between reality and
utter chaos. It is we who give tongue to the dumb things around us.
Culturalism is right that a natural event like death can be signified in
myriad cultural styles. But we die anyway. Death represents Natures
final victory over culture. The fact that it is culturally signified does not
stop it from being a non-contingent part of our creaturely nature. It is
our perishing, not our bestowals of meaning, which is necessary. The
dumb things around us fared perfectly well before we happened upon
the scene. Indeed, they were not at that time dumb at all, since it is only
we who define themselves as mute. (162-163)
Although modernists would agree with this judgement, they found a delicate
correlation between perishing and the bestowals of meaning Eagleton mentions.
Rejecting positivist reifying relation with cosmos, modernists believed that
artistic creation is always a revelation, and therefore, not only a religious, but also
an ontological act, an instant in which words stop being only referential. As in his
A General Introduction for my Work W. B. Yeats said, apart from being
determined by inheritance, imaginative, and psychological history, a poet is also
an intention, the result of deliberate act of poetic imagination, achieved with
increasing precision, but whose poetical identity could be rendered absolute
only by his death (Cf. Web xxi). For Yeats, it seems, a writers poetical becoming
was also a constant flirting with death, or cessation of speaking; as if writing is
like being at the edge of extinction, a maintenance of balance between the two
ways of not-being the past (the already said) and the unspeakable.
In his essay The Storyteller, Walter Benjamin argues that the relativization
of truth in the Einstein era, as well as the rush of life brought by industrialization,
influenced a decrease in storytelling. He quotes from Paul Valry who, describing
the patient mimicking of the works of nature in the old sculptures, claims how
modern man no longer works at what cannot be abbreviated and concludes

that it is almost as if the decline of the idea of eternity coincided with the
increasing aversion to sustained effort (18). Following Valry, Benjamin assumes
that the
idea of eternity has ever had its strongest source in death [...] If this idea
declines [...], the face of death must have changed. It turns out that this
change is identical with the one that has diminished the communicability
of experience to the same extent as the art of storytelling has declined.
(18)
He observes how during the last couple of centuries the thought of death
has declined in omnipresence and vividness, and how the nineteenth
centurys hygienic and social efforts enabled avoidance of the sight of dying,
whereas once it used to be the most important and a most exemplary public
process in a mans life. In contrast to medieval pictures in which deathbeds are
surrounded with groups of people, dying, he argues has been pushed further
and further out of the perceptual world of the living (19). If stories are made
not only of knowledge or wisdom, but also of real life, then one mans real life
first assumes transmissible form at the moment of his death. Just as a
sequence of images is set in motion inside a man as his life comes to an
end unfolding the views of himself under which he has encountered
himself without being aware of it suddenly in his expressions and looks
the unforgettable emerges and imparts to everything that concerned
him that authority which even the poorest wretch in dying possesses for
the living around him. This authority is at the very source of the story.
(19)
When he claims that death is the sanction of everything the storyteller can
tell. He has borrowed his authority from death, Benjamin does not only imply
that death gives a value to life, which, in turn, is celebrated in literature. His
words more importantly suggest that the general spirit of relativism threatens
to render an author silent and that this writing from the absence of the sacred
may have allowed for the modernist pronounced self-consciousness. I cannot
help thinking of Alfred Tennysons stanza from In Memoriam.16 Namely, the
poet is crushed by realization that to be so blessed as to possess pure faith
that has centre everywhere (303) in life and love, is not possible in the
16
The complete title of the poem is In Memoriam A.H.H. It was completed in 1849 and devoted to
the poets Cambridge friend Arthur Henry Hallam who prematurely died in 1833.
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recklessly speculative age.17 The earth he inhabits, which to some wild poet,
when he works / Without conscience or aim (304) is the round of green, this
orb of flame, / Fantastic beauty, devoid of faith becomes darkness at the
core. Therefore, if there were not any higher or nobler purpose to this life, if
God bequeathed the poet but to choose / Of things all mortal, he must use a
little patience, i.e. rely on his virtuosity, ere I die, he says. As irony does not
become Tennyson, he understands that if only his death would render his art
transcendent of the boundaries of matter
Twere best at once to sink to peace
Like birds the charming serpent draws,
To drop head-foremost in the jaws
Of vacant darkness and to cease.
In Tennysons poetry the cessation of singing, i.e. silence, is identified with
vacant darkness, i.e. blindness. The term vacant darkness is also highly
reminiscent of Emanuel Levinas conception of il ya, or there is. Il ya is
described as an existence without existents, an impersonal, anonymous, yet
inextinguishable consummation of being, which murmurs in the depth of
nothingness itself. Being devoid of humanity, il ya is utterly amoral. But as this
universal absence is in its turn a presence, an absolutely unavoidable presence,
it is, therefore, also utterly terrorizing. Rustling of there is, Levinas says, is
horror (Qt. in Watson 84-85). Horror, which romantics perceived as the highest
instance of the sublime, is ungraspable for ordinary knowledge or understanding
and is, therefore, in the essence of the other. The other, which is not-me, which is
ultimately inaccessible to me, endangers my known self and is, therefore, utterly
terrorizing, i.e. the horror.
Whereas Tennyson was a Victorian and compromise was not unbecoming
to him, patience did not go together with the modernist courageous attack on
culture. Perhaps their insistence on perishing and absence was even more
courageously honest than that verbalized by our contemporary philosophers
because these modernists show what happenes when we are left at the
threshold of il ya, when there are no gods and ideals to support us, to enlighten
our horizons, or format our perspectives. In Mornings in Mexico, Lawrence
presumes that we cannot see the other without endangering our own integrity,
what he elsewhere calls the old stable ego.
To pretend to express one stream in terms of another, so as to identify
the two, is false and sentimental. The only thing you can do is to have a
17
Tennysons own widely quoted comment on his poem offer particular insight: Maud is the
history of a morbid poetic soul, under the blighting influence of a recklessly speculative age.
little Ghost inside you which sees both ways, or even many ways. But a
man cannot belong to both ways, or to many ways. One man can belong
to one great way of consciousness only. He may even change from one
way to another. But he cannot go both ways at once. Cant be done. (56)
Whether we put the other aside as unrecognizable or assess it as a reflection
of ourselves (when we do have symbolical exchange, as the other is identified
with us), the other is denied existence (the real expires and becomes allegory of
death, Baudrilliard says), an exchange is disabled, and so is narrative which
provides existence to the speaker. In such a case, the speaker must take speech
as a compromise, a negotiation with death, and it is awareness of this gambling,
of this game being lost in advance, that makes the works in question essentially
human and deeply poignant. Tennysons patience, or Valrys sustained effort,
therefore, is an artists conscious act of compromise with this authority. Coming
back to the examples from Conrads, Forsters, and Lawrences work, my claim is
that, perceiving foreign landscapes, both physical and metaphorical, they have
worked patiently, wondering over the manner the unfamiliar, the other, the
not-me, reveals itself in front of their disillusioned perception. This patience is a
courageous facing an absence of means through which I know myself, or death,
but it is also only a momentary action because in all the three cases it is suddenly
broken by a self-conscious irony concerning the speakers hopeless limitedness.
This irony always produces rapture in the text. It is a polyglot play with broken
English in Conrads case, an unexpected authorial intrusion in the text in Forsters
case, and, in Lawrences case, it is a deliberate break of the textual charm. Yet,
this rapture is not less mimetic of the authors textual and existential situations
than were their previous attempts to depict the other.
Because creatio ex nihilo is allowed only to God, it is not surprising that the
travellers language of emptiness (as we defined it in the mentioned paper)
gathers around imagery of holes, and, therefore, speaks of horror vacui. In
physics, horror vacui, or plenism, is a theory that nature abhors vaccum, for
which reason empty spaces always try to suck in gas or liquids to avoid being
empty. Besides, in all the considered authors the experience is connected to
reptile imagery, as these slippery beings coming from clammy subterranean
darkness, have always emitted a feeling of primordial formlessness,
(Dictionary 845) and here stand for the absence of a perceivable form.
***
In Conrads Heart of Darkness central Africa wears an aspect of a vacuum
as it sucked Kurtz in and threatens to suck in everyone else. It is perceived as
an unknown planet, (63) it seemed unearthly, (65) its vegetation was like a
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rioting invasion of soundless life, (57) while [a]n empty scene, a great silence,
an impenetrable forest, (61) sent no comprehensible sign to the perceiver,
who felt how confoundedly big, was that thing that couldnt talk, and perhaps
was deaf as well (54). This thing is obviously something which cannot be
verbalised enough or really imagined as a collocutor. Thus, it strongly rejects
identification to the speaker who, therefore, assumes a schizophrenic posture.
Being a derangement of several retrospective layers that repeatedly
redefine the present importance, decentre the subject, delay the action, the
narrative mimics this feeling. The frame story is given within the quotation
marks that comprise several citations from the original, removing the tellers
from the intended signified, thus deliberately mocking their only raison dtre.
The anonymous narrator relates Marlows story, which is composed of his
shifting reflections, and is about his vague perception of the darkness and its
signals. Marlow clearly says that he couldnt see (the darkness, the jungle, the
man) while the first, an anonymous narrator, said that the night had come
while Marlow was speaking and that, therefore, he could not see Marlow, i.e.
that the story was enveloping without human lips.
At the beginning of his narration, using the present perfect tense, Marlow
identifies Thames the space he occupies with Kongo, while a little bit later,
Kongo takes the form of a snake uncoiled which fascinates Marlow as snake
would a bird a silly little bird, (36) as though knowledge of it presupposes
denial of the self. Ultimately, in his travel Marlow is forced to abandon mimesis.
When he approaches Kurtz and his admirer, whom he identifies with a
harlequin, Marlow cries out the greatest paradox of humanity: Ive never seen
anything so unreal in my life (51). This unreality, which for Marlow has a taint
of death, a flavour of mortality, goes as deep as the very heart of darkness,
the original Kurtz, (77) who, as half of Europe contributed in the making of
him, inevitably presented himself as a voice. Finally this vacuity is embodied
in the image of Kurtzs mouth that voraciously opens wide to gulp the
surrounding including the onlooker, Marlow. Identifying with Kurtz, Marlow
can do no better than assume the accursed inheritance, (77) i.e. Kurtzs voice,
and meet the cost of profound anguish (63) with a lie. His regret, which turns
into his possessed speech on the Nellie, is powerfully juxtaposed to the
scathing contempt uttered in so far unheard English of an indolent native,
who states: Mistah Kurtz he dead (98).
In an effort to resist the desire to contain the intangibilities of the East
within the western lucidity, (Suleri 245) the expected climax of E. M. Forsters
story in A Passage to India takes place in a cave. But the Marabar caves soon
deceive our diegetic impulse: When asked what happened there, Forster
confesses, I dont know (Childs 22). In his description, though, Forsters narrator
tries to abide by the facts: The caves are readily described. A tunnel eight feet
long, five feet high, three feet wide, leads to a circular chamber about twenty
feet in diameter (Forster 138). However, the general denial is insistent, because
having seen one such cave, having seen two, having seen three [] the visitor
returns to Chandrapore, a place previously described to be made of formless
mud, uncertain whether he has had an interesting experience or a dull one or
any experience at all. Despite the narrators pains to unearth a word from the
rich soil of his cultural heritage, nothing, nothing he can name attaches to
them, as their, what is paradoxically called, reputation, does not depend upon
human speech. The narrator is brought to an (epistemological) impasse, an
ironical suggestion, that the cave is probably, like all the caves, symbolic of
both the underworld and the world we experience with senses and, therefore, it
mirrors its own darkness in every direction infinitely (139). The climax of this
notion is responded by a disturbing echo which incomprehensibly ou-boums to
whatever sound humanity is capable of producing. For an honestly attending
visitor, the oppressive indifference of the soil generates a spiritual muddledom
[] for which no high-sounding words can be found. Thinking of what had
spoken to her in the cave, Mrs Moore imagines something very old and very
small. Before time, it was before space also. But as she must imagine something,
it is something snub-nosed, incapable of generosity the undying worm itself.
Because [t]he abyss may also be petty, invites Mrs. Moore here, the serpent
of eternity may as well be made of maggots. When her universe becomes
emptied of high ideals, Mrs. Moore herself becomes emptied of human care and
eventually dies. Besides, as the meanings collapse so does the narration.
Therefore the narrator unexpectedly addresses the reader: Visions are supposed
to entail profundity, but wait till you get one, dear reader! (213) By this
intrusion into his modernist text, Forester does not only break the illusion that his
art can transcend the materialistic universe in search for a truth, but he also
blatantly states the experience he shares with the other modernists that of the
grasped but unspeakable (meaning both: beyond description and horrifying, even
disgusting) realities.
On his travels D. H. Lawrence has certainly gathered a vast collection of holes
and reptiles, such as Egyptian Uraeus, Asiatic Kundalini, Aztec Quetzalcoatl.
Famous is his hazardous conversation, which he, actually defined as a division of
speech, with the old spinner on the Lake Garda during his first grand travel
described in Twilight in Italy (1916). To his eyes the spinner first appears as a dark
stain in the landscape, then is identified with the stone by which she sits; her
eyes are like the morning of the world, but with them she doesnt see him,
cannot know him, by which he is denied existence, and he, in his black coat,
becomes himself a dark stain, a hole, in the landscape.
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When the strange reality of World War I had crushed the European
mechanical oneness in smithereens,18 the post-war Europe appeared to
Lawrence a bit empty altogether, (Boulton 215) with no past to stay one, and
no future to wonder over. He left to search for some fullness across other
continents and meridians, yet all the approachable coasts emitted emptiness: the
palms and elephants and apes and peacocks, (234) and the gorgeous and
barbaric colours of the east turned into a black, dark, empty apathy and the
general formlessness of Asia. Finally, this living at the periphery of life, (237)
provoked in him feeling of uprootedness (I feel I dont belong and never
should,) and an unexpected nostalgia for England after all, Taormina, Ceylon,
Africa, America as far as we go, they are only the negation of what we ourselves
stand for, and he felt that looking for the foundation of life in foreign icons
(Buddhist and Hindu) was a betrayal of ones own self. Travelling to Australia, he
hoped for an unexplored quality of the place that would allow him escape the
conflicts of the known world. As soon as he arrived in Perth, on May 4, 1922, he
wrote that Australia seemed
a most mysterious country to disappear into. When one has had
enough of the world when one doesnt want to wrestle with one
single thing, humanly [] just to drift away, and live and forget and
expire [] It is a land where one can go out of life. (237)
He seemed fascinated with Australian difference, its being
weird [] empty and untrodden. The minute the night begins to go
down, even [] Sydney [] begins to feel unreal, as if it were only a
daytime imagination, and in the night it did not exist. That is a queer
sensation: as if the life here really had never entered in: as if it were
just sprinkled over, and the land lay untouched. (243)
Yet, his letters show that he could hardly cope with Australias unburdening
atmosphere that soon turned into a general sense of futility. What he seems to
most disagree with is commercial democracy, the simple materialisation of life,
which to Lawrence was equivalent to human hollowness, that brings
everything down to the mere vulgar level of wages and prices, electric light and
water closets, and nothing else. You never knew anything so nothing, Nichts,
Nulluds, niente, as the life here, he says as if echoing Conrads Marlow.
18
Hereby I refer to Lawrences idea of the spirit of the place, which is always strange and eludes
the gaze. Our mechanical age tries to override it. But it does not succeed. In the end the strange,
sinister spirit of the place, so diverse and adverse in differing places will smash our mechanical
oneness into smithereens and all that we think the real thing will go off with a pop, and we shall be
left staring. p. 62.
Because of the barreness of the uncommitted life, one could never make a
novel out of this people, he says and even adds, they havent got any insides
to them, to write about. Just as Richard Lovatt Somers, the protagonist of his
novel Kangaroo felt emptied and uncharged in the place of inverted seasons,
which not surprisingly begets the form of a reptile, Lawrence felt that if he
lived in Australia for ever I should never open my mouth once to say one word
that means anything (italics M.K.). Yet, as soon as he announced leaving it,
Lawrence produced some of his best pieces of travel writing, but even there
Australia appears as an empty hole that cannot be seen:
I feel I slither on the edge of the gulf, reaching to grasp its atmosphere
and spirit. It eludes me, and always would. Its too far back. It seems to
me that generation after generation must people it with ghosts, and
catastrophes water it with blood, before it could come alive with a new
day of its own. Too far for me: strains my heart, reaching. But I am very
glad to have glimpsed it. (246)
Recognizing Australias unconquerable otherness, Lawrence exclaims: But
nobody has seen Australia yet: cant be done. It isnt visible. (246)
In his furor scribendi, while trying to save the perceived thereness of the
savage and unbreakable Southwest from our Pale-face and Hebraic
monotheistic insistence, (Buskley 35) the saviours will to set the claws of
[our] own white egoistic benevolent volition into [the natives], (Roberts 81)
Lawrence was also aware of his own little individual[s] looking at a bit of sky
and trees, then looking down at the page of his exercise book (Lawrence 1974:
9). Therefore, Lawrence again abandons his room with a view and tries to
divine the grey-blue sage-bush highlands of the Taos Indians, the high plateau
of death, (1996: 44) the grey country of snakes and eagles, (1974: 62)
parched between the volcanic violence under the earth, and the electric
violence of the air above (1996: 283). The inevitable fantastic dimension of the
landscape, unsullied and unconcerned, (1988: 137) was, to Lawrence,
menacing and reassuring at the same time. The suspense of a strange invisible
influence coming out of the livid rock [and] fastness in the bowels of those
uncreated Rocky Mountains, (133, italics M.K.) dismays the perceiver who
needs to express it as an underlying ugliness, a sort of squalid evil, (1996: 14)
and present in bestial images, as monsters watching gigantically and terribly
over their lofty, bloody cradle of men (40, italics M.K.). Alien, belonging to
the great dragons of the Aztecs and the Toltecs, their pressing weight denied
that soaring or uplift or exaltation, as there is in the snowy mountains of
Europe. At this point, the fatality of the place predictably becomes the
inconceivable silence [] of vacuity, arrest, and cruelty: the uncanny empty
unbearableness, (83) the silent, serpent-like dark resistance of [] natives.
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(45) Hoping for a mystical connection with the place, he dives into the chimerical
constitution and confusion of contradictory gleams of meaning of the Aztecs
god Quetzacoatl, the Plumed Serpent, with its dragon that resides in the earths
dark centre, where he holds his dark sun [] round which our earth coils its
folds like a great snake, (1974: 68) and eagle that brings down the life of the
sun (1996: 67).
Yet, an ordinary Sicilian viper is probably most famous of Lawrences snakes,
which appears in the poem Snake which was written in 1923 while he was
living in Taormina, Sicily. Not only does this viper powerfully tests the phallocentric culture, but the complex intertextual net of the poem allows the implied
drama to deepen from the mere dialogue with the voices of his education. For its
power to renew its skin and deliver eggs like a bird and for its ability to transform
from male to female appearance, the snake gives special impetus to the
treatment of sexual instinct, reflecting the inner drama that is taking place within
the poetical persona who, at the moment of creation, is transcended into a
liminal creative subject (neither male nor female, neither born nor yet dead). At
this moment, although he feels possessed and perverse, he is facing this snake
he had caught a moment of vision but the triumph remains unspeakable.
On the hot July day near Taormina, this viper happened in front of the poetic
persona at his water-trough. Seeing that the snake has come first to the water,
the poet waits in the deep, strange-scented shade of the great dark carob-tree,
(1964: 349) a silent place which does not only give shelter from the heat but, with
a slight tone of strangeness and freshness, also becomes a strong reminiscence of
Eden. Lawrences choice, and, actually, creation of attributes to the snakes
trailing movement, in his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied down, is richly
mimetic, and the poet imagines that the snake is a person, a someone, a
possible collocutor. Finally, the viper becomes the peer of the realm, like a king
in exile, strange presence, which to him is still unreadable, vague. Despite the
rich mimesis, we still dont see the face of the snake. Soon the poets consciousness creates unavoidable association to the dark charmer, coming from the fires
of the underworld being earth-brown from the burning bowels of the earth,
which image is grounded in the nearby active Etna, and he hears the voices of his
Christian and male education trying to persuade him to kill the snake, because it
is repulsive and venomous: And voices in me said, If you were a man / You
would take stick and break him now, and finish him off. Yet, as he knows that
these are seldom life-affirming voices, the snake of the secret earth becomes
manifestation of the rising tide of libido, embodiment of the procreative powers
man has been unnaturally taught to fear and despise. Therefore, his infatuation
with the slimy curvy creature with the flickering tongue, like a forked night on
the air, so black, may be read as fear or perversity.
The poets struggle to justify his infatuation makes him incapable of eluding
cultural determinants and he turns the snake into a mythological noble being, like
that from Blakes visionary worlds (Cf. Gilbert 174). At that moment, when the
viper averts his eyes and, snake-easing his shoulders, retreats into the earth,
A sort of horror, a sort of protest against his withdrawing
Into that horrid black hole,
Deliberately going into the blackness, and slowly drawing
Himself after,
Overcame me now his back was turned (Lawrence 1964: 350)
At this moment, as if the vipers charm collapses and the scene inverses.
The hole of its retreat becomes that dreadful hole, that horrid black hole, in
the wall which is now my wall-face, the earth-lipped fissure, at which at
the intense still noon I stared with fascination. When the same horrifying
solipsism overcomes the onlooker, he frightens the viper back into the earth: I
picked up a clumsy log / And threw it at the water-trough with a clatter, (1964:
351) breaking the charm of the moment and the charm of the mimetic sibilant,
slithering alliterative ss, the slack undulating rhythm of the poem (Sagar 121).
Although he doesnt hit the snake, he frightens him so that suddenly that part
of him that was left behind convulsed in undignified haste, being finally
rendered repulsive. At this point, the poet also feels his own being abject. He
regrets his inability to hold the present of the pure vivid life, thinking how
paltry, how vulgar, what a mean act! he has performed. Finally, since horror is
the highest instance of the sublime, it must also be divine, by which the poets
clatter appears as the sign of his pathetic poetic pettiness. The snake now
becomes the albatross and my snake, i.e. the poets source of unending
regret, the source of his obsessed speech by which he hopes to recompense for
the lost moment of life.
And so I missed my chance with one of the lords
Of life.
And I have something to expiate;
A pettiness.
The examples from these modernist texts show that if a poet is an intention,
as Yeats said, the result of deliberate act of poetic imagination, then the
other makes imagination possible and also determines its limits. In this way,
the other is the primary determinant of the existence of a poet and, therefore,
not the object but the source of thought not the other but the first. Its primacy
is ontological, and epistemological, for which reason it is unrepeteable. Because
it is a constant, it is also incomprehensible to our mind which grows on shifts and
changes, becomings and perishing, and repetitions. Rejecting Victorian mimesis
in art, Conrad, Forster, and Lawrence insisted on the impossibility to imitate the
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first and tried to suggest what a naked encounter between I and Thou would be
like horrifying, if imaginable at all, the one in which the roles are inversed and in
which the human animal, as Eagleton implies, stays decentered, while
monumental meanings keep perishing...
Bibliography:
Benjamin, Walter. Storyteller. Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader. Ed.
David Lodge. Edinburgh: London, 2000.
Boulton, James T. The Selected Letters of D. H. Lawrence. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Buskley, W. K. D. H. Lawrences Gaze at the Wild West. D. H. Lawrence Review.
Austin: U of Texas P, 1996.
Childs, Peter. E. M. Forsters A Passage to India: A Sourcebook. London-New York:
Routledge, 2002.
Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness & Other Stories. With an introduction and
notes by Gene M. Moore. Ware: Wordsworth, 1999.
Dictionary of Symbols. London: Penguin, 1996.
Eaglton, Terry. After Theory. New York: Perseus, 2003.
Forster, E. M. A Passage to India. Ed. O. Stallybrass. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
2000.
Gilbert, Sandra. Acts of Attention. New York: Cornell UP, 1972.
Kinkead-Weekes, Mark. Decolonising Imagination: Lawrence in the 20s. The
Cambridge Companion to D. H. Lawrence. Ed. Anne Fernihough. Cambridge:
CUP, 2001.
Lawrence, D. H. Complete Poems. Eds. Vivian de Solo Pinto and Warren Roberts.
New York: Viking, 1964.
Lawrence, D. H. Mornings in Mexico. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974.
Lawrence, D. H. Phoenix II. Eds. Warren Roberts and Harry T. Moore. London:
Heinemann, 1961.
Lawrence, D. H. St. Mawr. Harmodsworth: Penguin; Heinemann, 1988.
Lawrence, D. H. Studies in Classic American Literature. Harmondsworth: Penguin;
Heinemann, 1977.
Lawrence, D. H. The Plumed Serpent. Ware: Wordsworth, 1996.
Lawrence, D.H. Sea and Sardinia. With an introduction by Richard Aldington.
London: Heinemann, 1976.
Levinas, Emanuel. There is: Existence Without Existents. Trans. Alphonso Lingis.
The Levinas Reader. Ed. Sean Hand. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.
Preston, Peter. Seeing Florence to Death: D. H. Lawrence and the Lily Town. A
paper delivered at D. H. Lawrence and the Poetics of Movement. Paris:
Nanterre University, 2006.
Roberts, Neil. D. H. Lawrence, Travel and Cultural Difference. New York:

Macmillan, 2004.
Sagar, Keith. The Art of D. H. Lawrence. London: Cambridge UP, 1966.
Suleri, Sara. The Geography of A Passage to India. Literature in the Modern
World. Ed. Denis Walder. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1990.
Tennyson, Alfred. The Collected Poems of Alfred Lord Tennyson.Ware:
Wordsworth, 1994.
Watson, Garry. Opening Doors: Thoughts From (and of) the Outside. Davies:
Aurora, 2008.
Web, Timothy. Introduction. W. B. Yeats, Selected Poems. Ed. Timothy Webb.
London: Penguin, 2000.
Yeats, W. B. A General Introduction for My Work, 1937. < http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5897046>.
PRED LICEM DRUGOG DO SMRTI

Ponovo sagledavajui hermeneutika oklijevanja Dozefa Konrada, E. M.
Forstera i D. H. Lorensa, u ovom radu sugerie se da odbijanje naslijeene epistemologije vidljivo u njihovim tekstovima znai i egzistencijalni rizik i naglaava da je
ve modernizam uoio neadekvatnost sopstvenog pristupa drugom. Koncipiran
kao ne-ja, apsolutno nepristupaan sredstvima kroz koje poznajem sopstveno postojanje, drugi postaje sinonim smrti. U pristupu geografskim fenomenima drugog podneblja, tekstove ova tri putnika karakterie zapanjujua slinost vizuelnog
izbora, na prvom mjestu rupa i reptila, ija odbojnost lei u srcu evro-hrianske
simbolike. Pored toga, u sva tri sluaja, tekstualna nepodnoljivost drugosti, kao i
varka simbolike razmjene, sugeriu se iznenadnim tekstualnim prskanjem.
Kljune rijei: naslijeena epistemologija, hermeneutiko oklijevanje, drugi,
smrt, kulturalizam, simbolika razmjena
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Svjetska knjievnost i knjievna teorija

World Literature and Literary Theory
65
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UDK 111.852 19
Life, Politics, and Aesthetics: Theodor W.

Adornos and Walter Benjamins Reflections on
the Historical Avantgarde
Arvi Sepp
University of Antwerp
Erasmus University College of Brussels
Abstract: This contribution will be concerned with Adornos and Benjamins

philosophical reflections on avantgarde art (mainly surrealism). The first part of this
paper will draw attention to the relations between popular culture and the historical
avantgarde. Then the problem of the tensions in the avantgarde between artistic
autonomy and political commitment in Adornos and Benjamins philosophy of art will
be dealt with. Finally, referring to Jrgen Habermas and Peter Brger, the general
question will be treated how political commitment and art relate to one another in
modernity.
Key Words: Avantgarde, Adorno, Benjamin, popular culture, politics / Avantgarde,
Adorno, Benjamin, Populrkultur, Politik
The Polemic of the Avantgarde19

While Benjamin positioned himself in 1929 in Der Srrealismus: Die letzte
Momentaufnahme der europischen Intelligenz (BGS I/2: 295-310)20 as a
contemporary of surrealism, Adorno writes in 1956 in his article Rckblick auf
den Surrealismus (Adorno 1958: 153-160) from the position of the intellectual
after Auschwitz. In Rckblick auf den Surrealismus Adorno emphasizes the
movements static character of the anti-subjectivist juxtaposition of images,
which in his opinion reflected the unprotesting reification of modern life. Adorno
characterizes the montages of Max Ernst, for example, as an expression of a
19
All translations in this essay are mine unless otherwise marked. Italics in quotations are taken
from the original text unless otherwise indicated.
20
Throughout this contribution I will refer to Benjamin Gesammelte Schriften as BGS followed by
the Roman and Arabic number of the volume and the corresponding page reference.
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subjectivity which has been alienated from both the world and itself (see Adorno
1958: 157). Contrary to Benjamin who believed, in 1929, that he could recognize
revolutionary moments in surrealism, Adorno in 1956 can only find witnesses of a
general objectification, a demise of abstract freedom in the face of the
predominance of things. According to Adorno, surrealism brings together subject
and object in a non-dialectical fashion and without the manifestation of social
antagonisms. For this reason material objectivity cannot be revealed through the
passive medium of the surrealist artist. At the most, there can be a reflection of
the world of appearances. In sthetische Theorie Adorno writes against this
background:
The programme [of the Surrealists] rejected art, yet without being able
to shake itself free of it. Their truth was that it would be better not to
have art than to have a false one. But they fell to the mercy of a
semblance of an absolute subjectivity existing purely for itself and
objectively mediated, yet without the ability to go beyond the position of
being-for-itself. Surrealism expresses the foreignness of the alienated
only by seeking recourse in itself. Mimesis ties art to individual human
experience, which is now exclusively that of being-for-itself. (Adorno
1970: 52)21
For Benjamin, it is precisely the collective character of the surrealistic
experience which is truly revolutionary. The successful revolt is a socialized
form of profane illumination which casts its spell physically over the entire
collective. Only when the body and the pictorial space interpenetrate so deeply
that all the revolutionary tension turn into physical collective innervations, and
all the bodily innervations of the collective become revolutionary discharge has
reality transcended itself and fulfilled the communist desideratum (see BGS I/2:
309-10). Here Benjamin rejects the subjectivism cultivated by Breton, Aragon
and other surrealists, who regarded profane illumination as a strictly individual
experience (see BGS V/2: 1057).
In this contribution I want to trace the role of avantgarde art in the Adornos
and Benjamins considerations on the philosophy of art and their respective
understanding of the relationship between politics and aesthetics. In the first part
of this paper I will draw attention primarily to the relationship between popular
21
[D]as Programm [...] [der Surrealisten] sagte der Kunst ab, ohne sie doch abschtteln zu knnen.
Ihre Wahrheit war, da es besser keine Kunst als eine falsche gbe, aber es rchte sich an ihnen der
Schein der absolut frsichseienden Subjektivitt, die objektiv vermittelt ist, ohne da sie sthetisch
die Position des Frsichseins zu berschreiten vermchte. Die Fremdheit des Entfremdeten drckt
sich nur im Rekurs auf sich selbst aus. Mimesis bindet Kunst an die einzelmenschliche Erfahrung,
und sie ist allein noch die des Frsichseienden.
culture and the historical avantgarde. Then I will turn to the problem of the
relation between artistic autonomy and political commitment in Adorno and
Benjamin. I will conclude with a reflection inspired by Jrgen Habermas and Peter
Brger on how political commitment and art are related to one another in
modernity.
Popular Culture and the Avantgarde

The claim to overcome the separation between art and life and instead
preserve the continuity between the two is shared by popular culture and the
historical avantgarde of Breton or Marinetti. Of course this by no means implies
a conflation of the two.
The avantgardist explicitly did not strive for realistic possibilities of
identification or any agreeable amusement, but wanted to transform all
ordinary observers into shapers of their own everyday life or at least to
draw them into (artistic) happenings by means of disturbing effects.
(Hecken 35)22
In spite of these profound differences some shared features remain, which
make original, modern-avantgardist judgments of taste in regard to popular
culture possible. In view of their capacity to incense or shock, those trashy novels
or lurid films are welcomed which most anger the bourgeoisie. Marinetti
proclaimed in 1912, for example, that a futuristic vaudeville show should live
from its topicality and serve purely practical purposes such as laughter or erotic
excitement. A few years later the Berlin Dadaists make use of the hatred of the
educated bourgeoisie towards the press and advertising to celebrate precisely
this sensation.
In his landmark essay The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical
Reproduction (Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit), which was written in 1936 but only became famous in the 1960s, Walter
Benjamin elaborates on what he means by distraction in a positive sense. Like
Siegfried Kracauer he values its diverting, disintegrating and discontinuous
quality. But unlike Kracauer he attributes this quality quite fundamentally to the
nature of the media themselves. Consequently Benjamin does not need to attack
the old works of art aggressively; he knows that this attack has already been
anticipated at the technical level by the mass reproduction, for example in
22
Die Avantgardisten streben ausdrcklich keine 'realistischen' Identifikationsmglichkeiten und

auch kein angenehmes Vergngen an, sondern wollen alle gewhnlichen Betrachter zu Gestaltern
ihres eigenen Alltagslebens erheben oder sie zumindest durch verstrende Wirkungen in das
(knstlerische) Geschehen hineinziehen.
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photographic form, of works of art. The aura of a work of art, which is

determined by its uniqueness, the here and now of a particular place, dissolves
in the face of swift, unproblematic reproduction and with the dissolution of
the aura contemplative immersion in work at the receptive level becomes
impossible. From a materialist perspective, therefore, Benjamin emphasizes
that as a result of the changed conditions of reception art shifts from the
sphere of autonomy into a political context.
In Benjamins opinion the distracted attitude of the public in the cinema
serves as an excellent instrument for practising the necessary changes in
perception. In view of the historical situation the forms of perception, which
call for a swifter apperception on the part of the people living in the big cities
and a more collective apperception by the proletarian masses, must necessarily
differ from the attitude of individual contemplation. The filmic isolation of
everyday objects (close-ups, slow motion) and the swift montage of individual
images, which do not allow the eye an unchanged point of rest, triggered off a
shock effect among the viewers, which as an alert attitude is appropriate to
the state of distraction.
Benjamin makes use of this finding on distracted alertness as an opportunity
to emphasize the similarity between technical cinematic and avantgardist effects.
Both not only aim at the prevention of contemplation; they are also
characterized by a highly tactile quality. However, whereas the provocation of
the historical avantgarde needed the destructive gesture in order to evoke moral
indignation, the technical medium of the film inevitably strikes the observer as
a purely physical shock effect. The revaluation of an entire series of popular
genres would thus be completed the medium would thus ensure its own
unsurpassable esteem:
[T]he ultimate emancipation of art from its cultic origin, emancipates
the recipient as well; in place of the passive contemplation of the
auratic work of art that subdued the irrational individual viewer, the
post-auratic work permits the collective recipient to adopt a critical and
rational stance. (Berman 44)
Adornos scepticism about Benjamins evaluations leads him to a criticism
of the latters diagnosis that the cinema auditorium brings about a welcome
destruction of auratic art. In a letter of March 18, 1936 to Benjamin, Adorno
points out that Benjamin overestimates the de-auratizing effect of montage
and reproduction just as strongly as the non-bourgeois attitudes of the mass
proletarian audience. In his essay Wissenschaftliche Erfahrungen in Amerika
(Adorno 1977: 702-740) Adorno similarly criticizes the fact that Benjamin
underestimated the dangers of the culture industry, as he attempts to rescue
precisely this problematic sphere [of the culture industry] in an all too
unbroken fashion23 (Ibid 706).
The sublation of art is paradoxical: It is not possible to break out of the
institution of art without the sublation of artistic existence. In other words: The
avantgarde movement does not wish to be a form of art, but it must remain so
in order to function as anti-art. For Benjamin artistic production is the place in
which the truth and untruth of the world can be manifested to a particular
degree. The technological transformation of surrealism is coupled with a
liberating transformation of experiential structures.
In the Arcades Project (Passagenwerk) the idea of the surrealistic awakening
is related to Prousts aesthetics of memory.24 Dream and intoxication dissolve the
rigid division into subject and object and consolidate individuality (see BGS II/1:
197). As in Proust, surrealism discovers a new approach to the object by means of
the rediscovery of an associative intellectual power which, according to
Benjamin, had for a long time been stifled by the operations of the intellect.
Surrealist associations are mediated by the tactile sensory impressions of the
directly present and concrete object, so that hitherto unrecognized associative
structures in language and experience can be opened up: The Surrealists tended
to equate the resulting decentering of the human subject with political
liberation (Jennings 32). In Proust the self-sacrificing subject appears as the
dialectically indifferent momentum between subjectivity and objectivity; the
same is true of surrealism. Benjamin claims to observe in surrealism the historical
materialist reinterpretation of theology, which sees the truly creative conversion
of religious illumination in a profane materialist source of inspiration. In his late
works Benjamin mistrusts all aesthetics and aestheticizing historical philosophy,
which mixes ethical and aesthetic reflection.
Autonomy and Commitment

Adornos consistent insistence on the autonomy of the work of art and the
work categories is clearly opposed to the intermedial and actionist character of
the avantgarde. He rejects the tendencies towards the dissolution of art in
action as in Dadaism, expression as in expressionism and the revolutionization
of everyday life as in surrealism by refusing to take into account the possibility
of transgressing boundaries in avantgarde art:
23
eben jene problematische Sphre [der Kulturindustrie] [...] allzu ungebrochen zu 'retten'
trachtete.
24
The fragmentary structure of the textual montage in the Arcades Project as well as in One-Way
Street (Einbahnstrae) is indicative of Benjamins encounters with surrealism and dadaism. On this
point see e.g. Arendt (1971: 58-59).
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By equating the avantgardist project of the liquidation of art, i.e. the

sublation of art in life practice, with the destruction of the self-contained
work of art, Adorno interprets the attack on the institution of art as an
attack on one of its categories and thus retransforms the questioning of
the autonomous status of art into an inner-aesthetic problem. This
means that Adorno opposed the avantgardes claim to sublation [...]
Unlike Adorno Benjamin not only took up the sublation theorem but
placed it in the centre of his theoretic endeavours.25 (Brger 1983: 12-13)
The avantgardist attack on the autonomy of art was Benjamins starting point
for his thesis concerning the loss of the aura. Adorno by contrast attempts to
insure that the border separating art from life is not violated, against the
tendencies of collapsing art into action (dadaism), expression (expressionism),
and the revolution of everyday life (surrealism) (see Brger 1990-91: 56).
The anti-aesthetics of the historical avantgarde subjects the bourgeois
understanding of art and the idealistic normative aesthetics to a radical
criticism, for the autonomy of the work of art at the same time signifies social
impotence. Purely aesthetic goals are explicitly exchanged for epistemological
claims; the mission of the historical avantgarde is aimed not at art but at
human experience. Following Joseph Frchtl, we can characterize Adornos
philosophy of art as sovereignty aesthetics (Souvernittssthetik). Modernist
art and literature in Adornos view can on their part infiltrate other areas, but
they cannot be corrupted by the codes of other subsystems. Adornos
sovereignty aesthetics attempts to strengthen the autonomy of the work of art
and hence its critical potential against the levelling demands of the
avantgarde. Adorno, Frchtl emphasizes,
defends [...] autonomy aesthetics against the vociferously presented
social-revolutionary levelling tendencies [...] [of the avantgarde].
Appalled, [he is forced to] recognize that the spheres of art and reality
telescope together, surrealism changes politically into terrorism nd
aestrhetic phantasy generally atrophies in the triviality of everyday life.
[...] As an autonomous entity art stands [...] alongside the other cultrual
spheres and as a sovereign entity it at the same timne stands above
them As an autonomous entity it can, like the other cultural spheres,
25
Indem Adorno das avantgardistische Projekt der 'Liquidation der Kunst', d.h. der Aufhebung der
Kunst in die Lebenspraxis, mit der Zerstrung des geschlossenen Kunstwerks gleichsetzt, interpretiert
er den Angriff auf die Institution Kunst als einen Angriff auf eine ihrer Kategorien, wodurch die
Infragestellung des Autonomiestatus der Kunst in ein innersthetisches Problem zurckverwandelt
wird. Das heit aber, da Adorno sich gegen den Aufhebungsanspruch der Avantgarde stellt. [...]
Anders als Adorno hat Benjamin das Aufhebungstheorem nicht nur aufgenommen, sondern er hat es
zum Zentrum seiner theoretischen Anstrengungen gemacht.
take shape within its own boundaries; as a sovereign entity it can, unlike
the other cultural spheres, cross its own boundaries. Whereas science,
philosophy, morality and law cannot inluence art, it can inversely have a
subversive influence on them and precipitate a crisis in them.26 (Frchtl
40-41)
To Adorno authentic art is art which is free of any kind of practical interest
and can thus work against instrumental rationality. Explicit political protest
would thus be useless and counter-productive in modern capitalism: If
surrealism now seems obsolete, it is because human beings are denying
themselves the consciousness of denial that was captured in the photographic
negative that was surrealism.27 (Adorno 1958: 160) Surrealism has abandoned
the ideal of shaping form according to Adorno (1970: 158): The work of art
ceases to be a work of art, when the material is no longer formed in it, but
simply appears in its raw form.
For Adorno the social function of art in developed capitalistic societies
consists in its purposelessness (Zwecklosigkeit). The social function of art
resides in being socially dysfunctional. In this sense autonomous art should
work in a compensatory fashion; it should be a safe harbour for what is higher,
beautiful, genuine and true, whereas the industrial capitalist social order is
stricken by the loss of values. Adorno pleads for an autonomous, anti-moral or
anti-ethical aesthetics, but not for an anti-aesthetic ethics (see Frchtl 41-43).
As primus inter pares the autonomous sphere of art can open up a
compensatory totality perspective, as Gnther has it:
In this inherent autonomy there lies freedom, in the negative sense as a
denial of the norms of the life world, and positively in the innovation
and production of new and different forms of perception. In the
modern period this freedom is enhanced and converted into a
26
verteidigt [...] die Autonomiesthetik gegen die lautstark vorgebrachten sozial-revolutionren

Nivellierungstendenzen [...] [der Avantgarde] [M]it Schrecken [muss er] erkennen, da sich die Sphren
von Kunst und Realitt ineinanderschieben, der Surrealismus politisch in Terror umschlgt und die
sthetische Phantasie generell in der Trivialitt des Alltags verdet. [...] Als autonome steht die Kunst
[...] neben den brigen kulturellen Sphren und als souverne zugleich ber ihnen. Als autonome kann
sie sich, wie die brigen kulturellen Sphren, innerhalb ihrer Grenzen ausbilden, als souverne aber
kann sie ihre Grenzen, anders als die brigen kulturellen Sphren, auch berschreiten. Whrend
Wissenschaft, Philosophie, Moral und Recht auf die Kunst keinen Einflu haben, kann sie umgekehrt
jedoch einen subversiven Einflu auf jene ausben und sie in eine Krise strzen.
27
Wenn [...] heute der Surrealismus selber obsolet dnkt, so darum, weil die Menschen bereits jenes
Bewutsein der Versagung sich selbst versagen, das im Negativ des Surrealismus festgehalten ward.
73
74
permanent self-criticism of aesthetic conventions; in fact, the aesthetic

rules now refer exclusively only to themselves.28 (Gnther 35)
Adorno ended with art because he felt he could no longer talk about
rationality of gratification or give it comprehensible political form in the context
of late capitalism, leaving critical theory with no discourse other than art (see
Agger 154). The authentic, advanced modernist work of art becomes for
Adorno the preeminent medium of a non-reified cognition and, at the same
time, the paradigm for a non-repressive integration of elements into a whole,
where the particular is not sacrificed to the universal and the other to the
autocratic subject. Modernist literature transcends ideology and exchange
because it re-presents in a reflexive way indifference and ideology.29
The sovereignty aesthetics of Adorno lends apolitical modernist aestheticism
the power to resist the affirmative access of instrumental rationality due to its
lack of communicability and negativity (see Adorno 1970: 9-11). Peter Brger
who like Benjamin adopts a more equivocal approach to aesthetic autonomy
rejects Adornos position in as far as he believes that the failure of the historical
avantgarde reveals a defunctionalization of the critical potential of art (see
Brger 12). From this point of view a polarity between the truth content
(Wahrheitsgehalt) and the social content (Sachgehalt) is inherent to a work of
art. In regard to explicitly committed art Adorno points out that the truth content
and the social content cannot be rendered equivalent. The cognitive quality of art
lies in its truth content, which passes beyond empirical knowledge and the
specific historical moment. In this respect Adorno writes:
The content of the works is not was pumped into them in the way of
spirit, but rather the opposite. The accent on the autonomous work is
itself of a socio-political nature. [...] It is not the time for political works of
art; rather politics has migrated into the autonomous work of art and it
has penetrated most deeply into works that present themselves as
politically dead, as in Kafkas parable about the childrens guns, where
28
In dieser Eigengesetzlichkeit liegt zugleich die Freiheit, im negativen Sinne als Verneinung der
lebensweltlichen Normen positiv in der Innovation und Produktion neuer, differenter
Wahrnehmungsweisen. In der Moderne steigert sich diese Freiheit zur permanenten Selbst-Kritik
sthetischer Konventionen; ja, die sthetischen Regeln beziehen sich schlielich nur noch auf sich
selbst.
29
Brger criticizes Adorno for overemphasizing the social importance of modernist literature: [He]
accepts only one artistic material that is actually at its peak. As a consequence, he follows the
narrowness of a canon in which literary modernism ends up being practically reduced to Proust, Kafka,
Joyce, and Beckett. (Brger, 2000: 32).
the idea of non-violence is fused with the dawning awareness of an

emerging political paralysis.30 (Adorno 1965: 134-35)
However, the importance of non-identity plays a less central role in
Benjamin than in Adorno. Consequently the rescue of subjectivity is of much
less significance in Benjamins theory. His Dialectics at a Standstill (Dialektik
im Stillstand) was more static and indirect than in the critical theory, and
Benjamins social theory permitted more ambivalence in regard to the ultimately
positive side of the reification of the world and technicized consumer culture (see
Adorno 1970: 130-31; BGS V/1: 578). In Benjamins essay The Work of Art in the
Age of Mechanical Reproduction (BGS I/2: 431-508) technological art production
is linked to the liberatory transformation of experiential structures.
According to Adorno the explicitly politicized de-autonomization of art as
advocated by the avantgarde would, however, exclude every kind of critical
normativity at the outset, because it wishes to be one with life practice, which
would amount nolens volens to its appropriation by the dominant doxa. For
Adorno art arises in the field of tension between autonomy and commitment; it
cannot be traced back to one of these two elements. The rudiments of the
meanings which come from outside literature are what is ultimately non-artistic
about art. The formal principles inherent to every form of art are not derived
from the meanings but from the dialectics of the mimetic and the conceptual.
An aesthetics of contents (Inhaltssthetik) such as that of Lukcs or the
littrature engage of Sartre does not go far enough in Adornos opinion.
Whereas Adorno bases his concept of autonomy on Kant, he accepts Hegels
criticism of Kant in as far as he rejects the aconceptuality of art. As Adorno
emphasizes in his article Engagement (1965: 109-135) the motive force of art
is its inherent formal principle. The political tendency is expressed immanently
in the forms of art.
With its montage techniques surrealism leaves the extra-aesthetic sphere
unformed within itself and thus expresses the fact that material is not really
capable of art. No picture arises which passes beyond raw facticity (see Adorno
1970: 158, 382-83). The designations, objects, images become the designated.
From Benjamins point of view, however, only the eschewal of the socially
mediated and mediating structures of rational subjectivity can lead to
revolutionary activity. An originally esoteric, hermetic doctrine of meaning is
remodelled into a purely exoteric, accessible form in which there is an inherent
30
[D]er Gehalt der Werke ist berhaupt nicht, was an Geist in sie gepumpt ward, eher dessen
Gegenteil. Der Akzent auf dem autonomen Werk jedoch ist selber gesellschaftlich-politischen
Wesens. [...] An der Zeit sind nicht die politischen Kunstwerke, aber in die autonomen ist die Politik
eingewandert, und dort am weitesten, wo sie politisch tot sich stellen, so wie Kafkas Gleichnis von
den Kindergewehren, in dem die Idee der Gewaltlosigkeit mit dem dmmernden Bewutsein von
der heraufziehenden Lhmung der Politik fusioniert ist.
75
76
belief that the reading of cultural artefacts as signs, as something designated, can
lead to revolutionary images. In his famous essay on the work of art Benjamin
contrasts the consumption oriented fascist art, which leads to an aestheticization
of political life, with the communist politicization of art, which has a productive
character as proletarian class art and aims to overcome the undialectical
separation of creation and fabrication (see BGS I/2: 467-69, 506-8).
Art, Politics, and Modernity

Western Marxism conceives the modern as a symbol of a structural loss of
meaning. The modern thus implies the infiltration at all levels of a scientific and
political predominance of instrumental reason. It is this fallenness of the modern
which Adorno and Horkheimer describe in their ideology-critical analysis of the
culture industry in Dialectic of Enlightenment. Benjamin shows greater interest in
the ambivalence of reified reality, as in his case in contrast to Adornos
analyses the tangible can both darken and illuminate the real. The loss of aura
is an ambivalent phenomenon to Walter Benjamin (see BGS I/2: 486, 508).
Adorno, on the contrary, objects to what he sees as the vulgar materialism of
Benjamin (see Adorno 1951: 182, 188).
Adorno remains true on principle to the separation of art and life practice. It
is precisely because he regards the programme of the historical avantgarde for
mistaken in this respect that his aesthetics is basically not in a position to do
justice to avantgarde art, for which performance and expressivity are
fundamental characteristics. In his aesthetic theory Adorno actually presents a
dialectics of anti-art (surrealism, Dada, futurism) and autonomous art. Both
depend upon each other to an equal degree, by delimiting themselves from one
another. For this reason the avantgarde cannot be understood as a phenomenon
standing outside the artistic system.
As a dialectical logic of totality the aesthetics of Western Marxism makes the
meaning of art and literature dependent on epistemological and ethical-political
assumptions legitimate literature has an emancipatory value. Through the
mediation of aesthetic experience a capacity to manifest the truth is attributed to
the work of art. Avantgardist art and literature are founded ultimately upon a
value system external to aesthetics, which includes the possibility of a totalizing
discourse, which reformulates the diverse partial spheres in the comprehensive
meta-language of a neo-Marxist philosophical discourse.
From a systems theory perspective Habermas rejects the overestimation of
the social effectiveness of art in the avantgarde. According to the philosopher
aesthetic modernism renders any kind of normative statement impossible.
Surrealism fractured communication and cognitive meanings, which constitutes
in his view an act of terrorism. The aim of bridging the gap between art and life
is consequently subjected to sharp criticism, for example in his well-known

essay Die Moderne ein unvollendetes Projekt:
All attempts to bridge the disjunction between art and life [...], the
attempt to declare everything art and everyone an artist, to abolish all
criteria and to equate aesthetic judgments with the expression of
subjective experience: all these undertakings, well analysed as they have
been, can be seen today as nonsense experiments which involuntarily
illuminate all the more brightly the very structures of art they were
intended to dissolve.31 (Habermas 1981: 457-58)
In Legitimation Crisis, originally published in 1973, Habermas sees the
function of bourgeois art since the process of autonomisation in the eighteenth
century as a compensatory one. Unlike privatized religion, science or utilitarian
morality, art did not take on tasks in the political and economic sphere. Art was
still able to collect residual needs that had become illegitimate in contemporary
society, like communication without imperatives of strategic rationality, free
imagination or mimetic relation with nature:
Only bourgeois art, which has become autonomous in the face of
demands for employment extrinsic to art, has taken up positions on
behalf of the victims of bourgeois rationalization. Bourgeois art has
become the refuge for a satisfaction, even if only virtual, of those needs
that have become, as it were, illegal in the material life-process of
bourgeois society. (Habermas 1975: 78)
In this autonomy lies precisely the freedom of the literary sphere, which can
produce new, different modes of perception or, negatively, reject ruling norms
of the life-world. In modernity, the importance of the freedom of continuous
self-criticism of aesthetic conventions increases, which, at the end, become
merely self-referential.
Habermas criticizes in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, what he
calls, this romantic anti-capitalist utopianism of Critical Theory by objecting that
as a result of a totalistic and undialectical understanding of the meaning of
modernity. Adorno and Horkheimer are not capable of comprehending future
sources of social change in a totally administered world (see Habermas 1987:
114). In consequence of this diagnostic incapacity, emancipatory prognoses
31
Alle Versuche, die Fallhhe zwischen Kunst und Leben [...] zu beseitigen; die Versuche, alles als
Kunst und jeden zum Knstler zu deklarieren; alle Mastbe einzuziehen, sthetische Urteile in die
uerung subjektiver Erlebnisse anzugleichen diese inzwischen gut analysierten Unternehmungen
lassen sich heute als Nonsense-Experimente verstehen, die wider Willen genau die Strukturen der
Kunst, die verletzt werden sollten, nur um so greller beleuchten.
77
78
could not be located in historical present and necessarily took on an unrealistic,

aestheticised and utopian turn, stressing the social importance of (modernist)
art and literature (see Wolin: 64-65). But art was unable to bear the heavy
burden accorded to it in their framework. The belief in the almightiness of
literature, because of its specific polysemy and autonomy, would appear to
scandalise and desecrate ethical normativity rather than to confirm it. After all,
the greater the complexity and ambiguity of literature, the smaller its effective
illustrative significance; the smaller the complexity and ambiguity of literature,
the more susceptible it is to monopolisation by commerce and ideology.
Literature, as Hauke Brunkhorst has it, is a precarious affair for the idealistic
moral philosopher or the Marxist literary theoretician, as it discursively erodes
clear and unequivocal concepts and standards, which at the same time, however,
is the very reason it is praised:
Ethics and aesthetics are two different matters. If they are mixed up, this
eventually leads to life making too little sense or art making too much
sense. [] Both idealistic-hermeneutic and materialistic-Marxist theory
attribute something to aesthetics that destroys art and commands
conciliation in life: the establishment of ultimate life sense. As art is more
appropriate for destroying and for keeping morality and ethics at an
ironic distance, its destructive productivity should remain distinguishable
from life. (Brunkhorst 55)32
Each proclaimed social relevance with regard to the removal of reification
and alienation does not comply with the autonomous artistic condition, as is
spelt out in the field-immanent rules and within the assignment boundaries of
the structurally differentiated aesthetic sphere; art as a societal subsystem
cannot change things on which it has no grip:
Not only is art just one cultural domain amongst others, for which it
cannot substitute, but, moreover, everyday life does nothing else than
32
Ethik und sthetik sind zweierlei. Werden sie vermengt, macht am Ende entweder das Leben zu
wenig oder die Kunst zu viel Sinn. Erstere wre eine sthetik der Existenz im Geiste Nietzsches: denn
die Umwertung aller Werte wre im Leben nichts anderes als die Entwertung aller Werte. Letzteres,
aus der Kunst zuviel Sinn zu schlagen, ist das Dilemma von Heidegger und Lukacs. Die idealistischhermeneutisch ebenso wie die materialistisch-marxistische Theorie mutet der sthetik etwas zu,
was die Kunst zerstrt und im Leben die Vershnung erpret: die Stiftung letztgltigen Lebensinns.
Weil die Kunst eher dazu geschaffen ist, Sinn zu zerstren und Moral und Ethik auf ironische Distanz
zu bringen, mu ihre destruktive Produktivitt vom Leben unterscheidbar bleiben.
lending it experiences, modes of expression, and evaluations, without

ever allowing to be questioned in its entirety by art. (Rochlitz 418)33
Therefore, according to Jrgen Habermas, the balance between different
rationality complexes can only be regained in non-reified everyday
communicative practice, and not by allowing blind one-sided specialised
knowledge to penetrate the public domain, which would disrupt the balance of
the communicative infrastructure of the life-world as this would lead to
aesthetisisation, scientificisation or moralisation of separate life domains.
Habermas theory of communicative action is an attempt to save modernity from
what Weber and Lukcs consider to be its inherent social pathologies. The
incommensurable domains of science, ethics and aesthetics are constitutive:
subjecting literature to a moral-political telos for the purpose of attributing it a
potential for change would lead to an ethics that covers the aesthetic form of
rationality in ethical terms. Modernity is seen in the light of an expressive
totality that dialectically gives meaning to the societal subdomains. The demise
of this unity is fiercely criticized by Peter Brger:
For Habermas, the differentiation of the spheres of science, ethics and
art is a historical progression; he sees the attempt to call them into
question as a conservative striving. However, one can hardly deny that
one serious problem of our culture consists in the fact that the various
cultural spheres have become isolated from one another. The uncoupling
of politics and ethics was progress in the days of Hobbes; but it becomes
problematic in an era in which the capacity to destruct has grown to such
an extent that human life on earth could be wiped out. [] As far as art is
concerned, the continuation of the so-called specificity of the aesthetical
is at the same time progress and a loss of dimensions, which can only be
related to art when it ventures out of the safe domain of the aesthetic to
which it was assigned. (Brger 1987: 200)34
33
Non seulement lart nest quun domaine de la culture parmi dautres auxquels il ne peut se
substituer, mais la vie quotidienne ne fait que lui emprunter des expriences, des modes dexpression
et des valuations, sans se laisser remettre en question dans sa totalit.
34
Fr Habermas ist die Ausdifferenzierung der Sphren Wissenschaft, Moral und Kunst ein historischer
Fortschritt; der Versuch, sie in Frage zu stellen, ist ihm als Regressionswunsch verdchtig. Nun lt sich
jedoch kaum lgnen, da ein gravierendes Problem unserer Kultur darin besteht, da die einzelnen
kulturellen Sphren gegeneinander abgedichtet sind. Die Abkopplung der Politik von Moral ist zur Zeit
von Hobbes ein Fortschritt gewesen; sie wird jedoch problematisch in einer Epoche, in der das
Zerstrungspotential derart angewachsen ist, da das menschliche Leben auf der Erde vernichtet werden
kann. [] Was die Kunst angeht, so ist die Verfolgung dessen, was man den Eigensinn des sthetischen
nennen kann, zugleich ein Fortschritt und ein Verlust an Dimensionen, die der Kunst nur erreichbar sind,
wenn sie sich aus dem sicheren Bezirk des sthetischen herausgibt, der ihr zugewiesen ist.
79
80
Neo-Marxist literary theory, as exemplified in the above quote by Brger,

frequently subordinates literature in Hegelian fashion to a broader value and
truth issue. Luhmann, however, has emphasized in Art as a Social System,
originally published in 1995, that the more the autonomisation process of
modernity proceeds, the less it allows to ascribe any ethical or political unity to
social systems (see Luhmann 2000). Therefore, autonomous art is often seen by
Marxist critics as a threat, because the artistic sphere as a functionally
differentiated subsystem might attract all attention to itself and thus push the
social agenda into the background. The compensatory aesthetic purism of
Adorno, which, thanks to its incommunicability and negativity, gives priority to
modernistic aestheticism in order to escape from any affirmative, reified, hold of
instrumental rationality, is disparaged by Brger, who adopts a much more
ambiguous position vis--vis aesthetic autonomy, for being a defunctionalisation
of the critical potential of art, which is exemplified by the failure of the historical
avantgarde.
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Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1951.
Adorno, Theodor W. Noten zur Literatur I. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1958.
Adorno, Theodor W. Noten zur Literatur III. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1965.
Adorno, Theodor W. sthetische Theorie. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1970.
Adorno, Theodor W. Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft II. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp,
1977.
Agger, Ben. The Discourse of Domination: From the Frankfurt School to
Postmodernism. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1992.
Arendt, Hannah. Walter Benjamin Bertolt Brecht. Zwei Essays. Mnchen: Piper,
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Benjamin, Walter. Gesammelte Schriften. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1972-1989.
Berman, Richard A. The Aestheticization of Politics: Walter Benjamin on Fascism
and the Avant-Garde. Stanford Italian Review 8.1-2 (1990): 35-52.
Brunkhorst, Hauke, Ansichten des Intellektuellen. Vom deutschen Mandarin zur
sthetik der Existenz. Raum und Verfahren. Eds. Jrg Huber and Alois Martin
Mller. Zrich-Frankfurt/Main: Stroemfeld/Roter Stern, 1993. 43-64.
Brger, Peter. Theorie der Avantgarde. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1974.
Brger, Peter. Zur Kritik der idealistischen sthetik. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp,
1983.
Brger, Peter. Der Alltag, die Allegorie und die Avantgarde. Bemerkungen mit
Rcksicht auf Joseph Beuys. Postmoderne: Alltag, Allegorie und Avantgarde.
Eds. Christa and Peter Brger. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1987. 196-212.
Brger, Peter. Adornos Anti-Avant-Gardism. Telos 86 (1990-91): 49-60.

Frchtl, Joseph. sthetische Erfahrung und moralisches Urteil. Eine
Rehabilitierung. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1996.
Gnther, Klaus.Das gute und das schne Leben. Ist moralisches Handeln
sthetisch und lt sich aus sthetischer Erfahrung moralisch lernen? Ethik
und sthetik. Nachmetaphysische Perspektiven. Eds. Gerhard Gamm and
Gerd Kimmerle. Tbingen: Edition Diskord, 1990. 11-37.
Habermas, Jrgen. Legitimation Crisis. Trans. Thomas McCarthy. Boston: Beacon,
1975.
Habermas, Jrgen. Kleine politische Schriften (I-IV). Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp,
1981.
Habermas, Jrgen. The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity. Twelve Lectures.
Trans. Frederick G. Lawrence. Cambridge: Polity, 1987.
Hecken, Thomas. Theorien der Populrkultur. Dreiig Positionen von Schiller bis
zu den Cultural Studies. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007.
Jennings, Michael. Walter Benjamin and the European avant-garde. The
Cambridge Companion to Walter Benjamin. Ed. David S. Ferris. CambridgeNew York: Cambridge UP, 2004. 18-34.
Luhmann, Niklas. Art as a Social System. Trans. Eva M. Knodt. Stanford: Stanford
UP, 2000.
Rochlitz, Rainer. De lexpression au sens. Perspectives esthtiques chez
Habermas. Revue Internationale de Philosophie 49.4 (1995): 409-35.
Wolin, Richard. The Terms of Cultural Criticism. The Frankfurt School,
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ZWISCHEN POLITIK UND STHETIK: DIE AVANTGARDE-AUFFASSUNGEN THEODOR W.

ADORNOS UND WALTER BENJAMINS
Im vorliegenden Beitrag soll einerseits der Frage nachgegangen werden,
welche Stellung Avantgarde-Kunst in den kunstphilosophischen berlegungen
Theodor W. Adornos und Walter Benjamins einnimmt, andererseits soll untersucht
werden, wie das Verhltnis zwischen Politik und sthetik konzeptualisiert wird.
Das Hauptaugenmerk im ersten Teil gilt der Beziehung zwischen Populrkultur
und der historischen Avantgarde. Dann richtet sich der Blick auf die Problematik
der knstlerischen Autonomie und Eigengesetzlichkeit bei Adorno und Benjamin.
Zum Schluss soll unter Rckgriff auf Jrgen Habermas und Peter Brger auf
allgemeiner Ebene nachgegangen werden, wie politisches Engagement und
literarisches Schreiben sich zueinander verhalten.
Schlsselwrter: Avantgarde, Adorno, Benjamin, Populrkultur, Politik
81
82
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bajkama (I deo)
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Apstrakt: Moderne bajke nastale tokom XIX i XX veka svoje ishodite nalaze u
tradicionalnim bajkama. Ova dva oblika, oslanjajui se na ono to je narod upamtio, tako
postaju jezgro najdubljeg iskustva ljudi i klju za otkrivanje istine o njihovom postojanju
od praiskoni do danas.
Moderne bajke istovremeno nastavljaju i ukidaju odreene osobine tradicionalnih bajki.
Ova studija istrauje te procese. Govorei o njihovim zajednikim osobinama, ona istie
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Istraujui nepodudaranja, ovaj rad se bavi razliitim odnosima tradicionalne i moderne
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Ova studija je zasnovana na uporednoj analizi tradicionalnih (Pepeljuga, Sneana i
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kronike, Hobit, Silmarilion i Gospodar prstenova).
Kljune rei: bajka, tradicionalna, moderna, slinosti, razlike, mitsko naslee, arhetipski
sklop, jezgro iskustva, sublimacija stvarnosti.
Svaka bajka u sebi nosi trag jednog zaboravljenog putovanja, onog koji je
jednom davno ljude vodio i iza granice ovog naeg, nama jedino poznatog,
sveta. Na tom putu ljudi su imali ansu da proniknu u Veliku Tajnu koju svet od
svog postanka sa sobom nosi.
Vremenom ljudi su zaboravali na taj put, kao i na odgovore do kojih su doli.
83
84
Zato treba itati bajke i pri tom paljivo oslukivati bajka u sebi i danas krije
klju kojim se ova Tajna moe odgonetnuti.
Uvod
Bajka je prastara forma, ponikla u maglovitim poecima ovekovog hoda
kroz prostor i vreme. Najee tretirana kao fantastina pria iz sveta arolija
(braa Grim) (Renik knjievnih termina 61), ili kao narodna pripovetka fantastine sadrine (61), ili kao mesto gde se realizuje imaginacija jednog naroda
(Abraham 154)35, bajka je trajna tvorevina prisutna u svim vremenima i zajednicama. Davno je uoeno da se u bajkama moe sagledati ono to je jednom
narodu bilo dragoceno i sveto i to je, poput kamena meaa, utisnuto u njegovom seanju. Time se bajka javlja kao projekcija linih i zajednikih htenja, elja,
udnji, nada i uverenja. Ona osvetljava put kojim smo ili, rezimira smisao naeg
trajanja i, kao metafora, uspostavlja novi odnos izmeu sadanjice, vremena koje je prolo i nekog trenutka koji e tek doi, stapajui taj vremenski niz u jedan,
jedinstven i celovit, tok.
Moderno doba karakterie negovanje starih, tradicionalnih bajki, ali i stvaranje novih, koji odiu modernim senzibilitetom. Posmatrati bajku danas, na poetku novog milenijuma, u asu izvitoperavanja mnogih vrednosti koje karakterie trajanje ove civilizacije, znai pokuati uroniti u vidljive znake, simbole i
unutranje slojeve jednog skrivenog, na prvi pogled nevidljivog poetskog jezika
koji taj specifini umetniki izraz sa sobom nosi. Ozbiljan i neizvestan zadatak,
iji ishod trai pronalaenje novih puteva, ali i oslanjanje na ve odgonetnute i
davno utvrene odnose.
Pitanje termina
Ve prvi susret sa literaturom koja razmatra ovu problematiku otkriva esto
preklapanje termina. Bajka, legenda, mit, saga, predanja i dr., kao vidovi tradicionalnog narodnog stvaralatva, razliito se odreuju i do dananjeg dana oni nisu
35
We do not know who created them [myths and legends], not who first recounted them, they
were handed down from generation to generation, undergoing many additions and changes in the
process. It is in legends and fairy-tales that the fantasy of a nation is revealed. Freud has already
done some research in this field and has discovered more than one psychological analogy between
legends and the works of individual fantasy.
(Mi ne znamo ko je stvorio mitove i legende, niti ko ih je prvi prepriao, oni su prenoeni sa jedne
na drugu generaciju, prolazei pri tom kroz mnoga prilagoavanja i promene. Kroz legende i bajke
realizuje se imaginacija jednog naroda. Frojd je ve nainio odreena istraivanja u ovom polju, otkrivi vie aspekata na osnovu kojih se mogu uporeivati legende sa delima individualne imaginacije)
(prevela D. Krenkovi Brkovi).
blie i preciznije utvreni. Zato se, na samom poetku, namee potreba za ilustrovanjem ovih nepodudarnosti i razlika i za preciznijim odreenjem terminologije.
Za Andre Jolesa jednostavni oblici jesu knjievna vrsta koja izvorno pripada
usmenoj knjievnosti. Dakle, to su oblici koji neposredno nastaju iz samog jezika. Tu spadaju mit, legenda, bajka, skaska, zagonetka, saga, poslovica, itd. U
svom delu Jednostavni oblici on istie da ove forme uslovno moemo smatrati
umetnikom prozom. Oni su predknjievna jezika kreacija, iako se na posredan
ili neposredan nain unose u sloene oblike, novelu i roman. Po ovom autoru,
bajke, prie, legende i predanja, zadravajui ulogu koju je jednom imao mit,
nastavljaju njegov ivot, ali sada kao jednostavni oblici.
Svetozar Petrovi smatra da se kod nas jo od XIX veka traga za ekvivalentom
Grimove podele na Mrchen i Sage (Petrovi 228235). Ako Mrchen odgovara
onom to je Vuk Stefanovi Karadi oznaio kao gatka, a to bi se u modernoj
terminologiji moglo oznaiti kao bajka, termin saga ostaje bez odgovarajue oznake. Zato se kod nas najee upotrebljavaju termini pria, skaska, legenda i predanja. Petrovi govori i o tome da se termin predanja, koji je u upotrebi u novije
vreme, teko moe odrati kao ekvivalent za sage jer se koristi u srodnom, ali i u
irem znaenju.
S druge strane, ni re legenda nije pravi ekvivalent za bajku poto kao termin
ima uobiajeno ue (to je pria o ivotu svetaca koja je namenjena itanju prilikom jutrenja) i ire znaenje (ovako shvaena legenda javlja se kao trag, nanos ili
naslaga pria iz daleke prolosti).
Petrovi analizira i odnos izmeu termina mit, bajka i pria. On pie: Ponekad je mit sinonim za bajku, ili se bajka uzima kao drugi naziv za mit, a re pria
kao naziv za bajku (283284).
Neki ruski autori, istie Maja Bokovi Stuli, vide u bajci oznaku za sage
uopte (Bokovi Stuli 121136). Drugi autori prihvataju taj termin kao sinonim
za predanja, dakle, kao supstituciju, talog drevnih pria (Andri 25)36, a trei
upotrebljavaju taj termin kao narodnu priu u ijoj osnovi lee izmiljeni likovi,
po pravilu integrisani u udo i fantastino (Abraham 166).
Ivo Andri esto upotrebljava termine legenda, bajka i pria. Za njega su legenda i bajka neto slino, a obe su obuhvaene pojmom pria (i to priom koja
je shvaena kao in kreiranja stvarnosti pomou rei). O tome Andri kae: Za
bosansko dete mitovi i legende imaju mo majinog mleka. Neto tajanstveno i
stravino, to postanje nosi sa sobom, ulazi u nas u obliku drevnih predanja
36
Ima nekoliko taaka ljudske aktivnosti oko kojih se kroz sva vremena, sporo i u finim naslagama,
stvaraju legende [...] Te naslage stalno, iako sve manje verno, ponavljaju oblik onog zrnca istine oko
kojeg se slau, i tako ga prenose kroz stolea. U bajkama je prava istorija oveanstva, iz njih se da
naslutiti, ako ne i potpuno otkriti, njen smisao. Ima nekoliko osnovnih legendi oveanstva koje pokazuju ili bar osvetljuju put koji smo prevalili, ako ne i cilj kome idemo. Legenda o prvom grehu, legenda o potopu, legenda o Sinu oveijem, raspetom za spasenje sveta, legenda o Prometeju i o
ukradenoj vatri
85
86
(Andri 258259), a drugom prilikom naglaava sledee: U legendama i mitovima smetene su prarei i prasvest predaka koji su nas posadili na zemlju (258).
Odnos bajki, pria, legendi i mitova predmet je analize i drugih teoretiara.
Mire Elijade zakljuuje:
Veliki broj bajki, pria, legendi, aljivih priica prihvata [...] ulogu mita.
Kao i mitovi, svaki predmet usmene knjievnosti otkriva situaciju tip i
takoe izgrauje oblik realnosti ili ljudskog ponaanja kao model
imitiranja. Usmena knjievnost primitivnih naroda [...] predstavlja jedan
niz situacija kljueva, onih koji odreuju ukupnost ljudske sudbine
(Sveto i profano 9).
Za Elijadea, iznosi Dek Zajps, jasno je da je mit prethodio narodnoj prii i
bajci i da je imao svetiju funkciju u ljudskim zajednicama i drutvima nego svetovne prie37 (Fairy tale as myth, myth as fairy tale 2).
Govorei o svom odnosu prema bajkama i mitovima, Zajps navodi: ini se
da mitovi i bajke znaju neto to mi ne znamo. Takoe, oni se javljaju vezujui
nau panju, drei nas u svojim rukama, oaravajui i opinjujui nas. Mi im se
stalno vraamo po odgovore. Koristimo ih na razliite naine, od toga da su nam
lino sveti do toga da su samo sredstvo u reklamama pri prodaji neega. Izgovarajui: Ovo je samo bajka ili Ovo je tek mit mi se odnosimo prema njima
kao da su lai, ali ove nas lai esto vode i upravljaju naim ivotima38 (34).
Sigmund Frojd i Karl Abraham shvataju grau mita kao grau sna. Po Petru
Dadiu, i pojedini pisci kao Ivo Andri i Tomas Man razumeju legendu na analogan nain, legenda za njih predstavlja izraz potisnutog i nesvesnog u oveku
(Dadi 8596). U svom delu Snovi i mit Abraham govori i o Frojdovom stavu
da osnovne tenje oveanstva, koje se ogledaju u razliitim verovanjima i emotivnim stanjima, oblikuju sadraj legendi, kao to oblikuju i smer kretanja psihe
pojedinaca i grupa.
Za Abrahama, i san poput mita ima dimenziju univerzalnog. On podvlai:
Postoji tvrdnja da su snovi produkt pojedinaca, a da mit kondenzuje
unutranji ivot naroda. Zbog te razlike svako njihovo poreenje moglo bi
da izgleda lano. Ova tvrdnja se lako moe odbaciti. ak i da je proiziao
iz emocije jednog subjekta, san je sainjen od emocija koje su univerzalno
37
It is clear that the myth preceded the folk and fairy tale and that it had a more sacred function in
communities and societies than the secular narratives. (prevela D. Krenkovi Brkovi).
38
Myths and fairy tales seem to know something that we do not know. They also appear to hold our
attention, to keep us in their sway, to enchant our lives. We keep returning to them for answers. We
use them in diverse ways as private sacred myths or as public commercial advertisements to sell
something. We refer to myths and fairy tales as lies by saying, oh, that s just a fairy tale or that s just
myth . But these lies are often the lies that govern our lives. (prevela D. Krenkovi Brkovi).
ljudske. Ova vrsta emocija ispoljava se u snovima koje je Frojd nazvao tipinim snovima. Frojd je pokazao i da ta grupa snova ima poreklo u zajednikim eljama ljudi, kao i da te iste elje oblikuju neke bazine ideje.
U vezi sa tim Frojd kae: Mitovi su verovatno deformisani ostaci fantazije celih nacija i korespondiraju sa tenjama i stremljenjima mladog oveanstva.39 (Creative Writers and Day-dreaming, Standard Edn., 9. 155)
Ovim se lista autora koji razmatraju problematiku odnosa bajki, pria, legendi i mitova ne iscrpljuje. Iako se svi oni iskazuju kao raznorodni teoretiari,
postoji neto to ih povezuje to je njihova zajednika sklonost da pojedinano
vide natkriljeno optim koje, dalje, uspeva da od prolosti naini pozornicu
venog jue.
Ovaj rad se zasniva na uporednoj analizi tradicionalnih i modernih bajki pa
se namee potreba za bliim odreenjem i ovih pojmova.
Termin tradicionalan se odnosi na one bajke koje su posle mnogo oblika,
varijacija i transformacija koje su pretrpele tokom usmenog prenoenja sa
jedne na drugu generaciju do nas doprle u varijanti koju je zapisao arl Pero
(Uspavana lepotica, Maak u izmama, Plavobradi) ili braa Grim (Pepeljuga40,
Crvenkapa41, itd), odn. u francuskom prevodu Antoana Galana ili engleskom
prevodu Riarda Bartona i Edvarda Lejna (Bajke iz 1001 noi42).
39
It will be argued that dreams are products of the individuals, whilst myths as it were contain the
collective imaginative life of the people. Therefore the comparison will seem false. This objection
can easily be disposed of. Even though dreams derive from individual emotions, yet there are
emotions common to the whole human race. These are to be found expressed in what Freud calls
typical dreams . Freud proved that this group of dreams has its origin in certain wishes shared by all
mankind and that these same wishes also form the basic ideas. There he says: Myths are probably
the distorted residue of wishful fantasies of whole people representing the strivings of early man.
(prevela D. Krenkovi Brkovi).
40
Najstarija verzija ove prie potie iz I veka pne. Grki istoriar Strabo zapisao je u svojoj knjizi
Geografija (, 17-ta knjiga, 1.33) priu o devojci Rodopis ili Rodopa /u prevodu sa oima
rue/, robinji koja je ivela u grkoj koloniji Naucratis u antikom Egiptu, radei u kui egipatskog
gospodara. Jo jedna verzija ove prie, Ye Xian, pojavila se oko 860. u antologiji pria Razni komadi iz
Youyanga Tuan Ch'eng-Shiha (Youyang se odnosi na junu padinu planine You, malog brda koji se
danas nalazi u oblasti Huaihua u Hunanu). U ovoj verziji jedna vredna devojka se sprijateljila sa
ribom, reinkarnacijom njene majke, koju je ubila devojina maeha. Ye Xian je sauvala majine
kosti i one su joj pomogle da se obue za sveanost. Kad je posle brzog odlaska sa dvora izgubila
papuu, kralj je pronaao Ye Xian i zaljubio se u nju. Nekoliko razliitih verzija ove prie pojavilo se i
u srednjovekovnoj knjizi Hiljadu i jedna noi. Sve one obrauju temu proganjanja mlae sestre/brata
od strane ljubomornih starijih sestara/brae. Najstarija evropska verzija je iz 1635. Pojavila se u knjizi
Il Pentamerone italijanskog pesnika, dvoranina i sakupljaa bajki ambatista Bazila /Giambattista
Basile/. Pria nosi naziv La Gatta Cenerentola. Ova verzija je predstavljala osnovu za poznije
varijante prvu je 1697. objavio arl Pero /Charles Perrault/ a drugu pod nazivom Aschenputtel
braa Grim /Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm/ u XIX v.
41
Razliite verzije prie o maloj devojici koja sree vuka bile su poznate u folkloru mnogih
evropskih naroda. Jednu od njih je u XVII v. zabeleio . Pero, a braa Grim su svoju verziju zapisali u
XIX v. Govorei o Crvenkapi i njenim ranijim srednjovekovnim verzijama, pre svega o prii Egberta od
87
88
Govorei o sloenim odnosima izmeu pria iz usmenog predanja i njihovih

pisanih verzija43 (6), Ziolkovski je zapisao:
U razmatranju tako raznolikog i kompleksnog fenomena kao to je bajka,
nije mudro traiti njeno poreklo samo iz jednog izvora. Kao to su mnogi
ukljueni u stvaranje Biblije, tako su, takoe, proroci bajki kako oni koji
su doista svojim govorom odgovarali pojmu prorok (onaj ko govori kao
da je prethodnik), tako i oni koji su beleili poput pisaca Jevanelja sa
perom u ruci bili bezbrojni.44 (6)
I Rut Botighajmer je istraivala pitanje odnosa bajki koje su zapisali braa
Grim i njihovih izvora. Ona istie:
Tradicionalna istorija bajki je do dananjih dana zadrala gledita
Vilhelma Grima /Wilhelm Grimm/ i tvrdila da su prie koje se pojavljuju
u kolekciji brae Grim oduvek postojale i da su preivele zato to su se
stalno i kontinuirano regenerisale, misteriozno i neobjanjivo ostajui
Lia /Egbert of Liege/ De puella a lupellis seruata, Ziolkovski u knjizi Bajke pre bajki: srednjovekovna
latinska prolost divnih lai kae: Mi ne znamo sa koliko mnogo drugih tekstova je spojena i
integrisana pria O devojici koja je spaena od mladog vuka ili pre koliko vremena se to desilo dok
nije postala ATU 333 [] Verzija prie koju je Egbert tako oblikovao da odgovara crkvenim
potrebama je moda irena ili je prola kroz mnoge promene pre nego to se ponovo pojavila u
usmenoj tradiciji (Ziolkowski 122). [ATU je skraenica za knjigu Hans Jorg Utera /Hans-Jrg Uther/
Vrste meunarodnih narodnih pria. Klasifikacija i bibliografija /The Types of International Folktales.
A Classification and Bibliography. Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia/ Academia scientiarum fennica,
Helsinki, 2004. Podvukla i prevela D. K. B.]
We do not know with how many other urtexts About a Girl Saved from Wolf Cubs amalgamated or
over how long a span of time before becoming ATU 333 [] The version of the tale that Egbert
molded to suit ecclesiastic purposes may have spread and undergone changes before reappearing
in oral tradition.
42
Hiljadu i jedna no je zbirka pria i bajki sabrana u periodu od oko 100 godina. Kod nas je poznata
pod imenom 1001 no, Arapske noi ili 1001 arapska no. Jezgro pria potie iz vremena persijske
dinastije Sasanida i tadanje knjige Hazr Afsnah /Hiljadu mitova/. To je bila kolekcija pria nastalih
u VIII v. na irokom prostoru od Persije do Indije. Veruje se da je te prie preveo i zapisao arapski
propovednik Abu abd-Alah Mohamed el-Gaigar u IX v. Uvodna pria sa eherezadom i kraljem
ahrijarom dodata je u XIV v. da bi prie dobile povezanu strukturu. Prvo novije izdanje na arapskom
pojavilo se u Kairu 1835. U Evropi su prve dve knjige sirijskog rukopisa Hiljadu i jedna no iz XIV v. po
prvi put tampane 1704, u prevodu francuskog orijentaliste i arheologa Antoana Galana /Antoine
Galland/, a poslednja, dvanaesta knjiga, posle Galanove smrti, 1717. Poznati su i engleski prevodi
Riarda Bartona /Sir Richard Burton/ i Edvarda Lejna /Edward Lane/.
43
between oral folktales and written versions of them.
44
In dealing with a phenomenon as multifarious and complex as the fairy tale, it is unwise to press to
hard for a single origin. Just as many different mouths and hands were involved in the creation of the
Bible, so, too, the prophets of the fairy tale both those who where true to the speech implied by the
etymology of the term prophet ( one who speaks beforehand ) and those who accord better with the
image of the quill-bearing Gospel writers were numberless. (prevela D. Krenkovi Brkovi).
nepromenjene i mone, i to sve zbog svoje sposobnosti da ponovo

stvore sebe po svom sopstvenom imidu (Bottigheimer 36).
I dalje.
Prie nisu imale autore (ve) anonimne pripovedae koji su se pojavljivali na osnovu podeljenih iskustava i shvatanja, zagnjureni u jednu istu
trajnu usmenu tradiciju (36).45
Tako su braa Grim svoje prie uli od devojaka i mladih ena iz Jakobovog
i Vilhemovog socijalnog kruga u gradiu Kasel u centralnoj Nemakoj (28).46
Botighajmer navodi ime 14godinje Doren Vajld, jedne od est keri gradskog
apotekara Rudolfa Vajlda, potom, njenu majku i 20godinju sestru Green kao
one osobe koje su Vilhemu ispriale nekoliko pria (est labudova, Kraljevi
abac); dalje, tri keri iz konzervativne bankarske porodice Hasenpflug, Mari,
anet i Ameli, koje su Jakobu obezbedile desetine bajki (Crvenkapa, Plavobradi,
Uspavana lepotica, Sneana); potom, Frederik Manel, pastorovu erku, koja im
je ispriala pet pria za prvo izdanje i Doroteu Vihman, erku gonia stoke i
suprugu krojaa, dakle enu iz drugog socijalnog miljea, inae najvaniji Jakobov
i Vilhemov izvor bajki za drugo izdanje njihove knjige Deje i porodine prie47.
Zato je Vilhem Grim, objanjava Rut Botighajmer, prvo podrazumevao, a kasnije tvrdio, da su relativno novije bajke bile onoliko stare koliko i izvorne drevne
prie (Bottigheimer 37).48 Govorei o tome, ona jo naglaava:
Kao to je Vilhem ignorisao [] istorijske granice u svojim opisima
narodnih pria i bajki, tako je on brisao i geografske granice. Meutim, u
sluaju geografije, on je razmatrao i lokacije pria koje je sakupio u
Danskoj, Norvekoj i vedskoj, Engleskoj i Velsu, paniji, Francuskoj i Italiji. Ove prie, koje su jako liile jedna na drugu, dolazile su iz tampanih
knjiga i, poto nije imao nita drugo kako bi mogao da nastavi, Vilhem je
pretpostavljao da je veliko more pria bacalo svoj Mrchen na mnoge
obale, ak i na one koje su bile meusobno jako udaljene (37).49
45
The tales had not been authored they were anonymous narratives that had arisen from shared
experience and perceptions, had dipped into one and the same everlasting oral tradition.
46
girls and young women in Jacobs and Wilhelms social circle in the small central German town of
Cassel.
47
Kinder- und Hausmrchen, prvi put tampana 1812. Ova kolekcija je danas poznata kao Grimove
bajke /Grimms Mrchen/.
48
First implied and later claimed that the relatively new fairy tales were as old as the genuinely
ancient folk tales.
49
Just as Wilhelm ignored [] over historical limits in his description of folk and fairy tales, he also
erased geographical boundaries. In the case of geography, however, he had evidence that he
89
90
Meutim, Rut Botighajmer se ne slae sa Grimom, smatrajui da je novo

doba u velikoj meri izmenilo drevne prie i da im je dalo peat modernog duha.
Ona pie:
Iznad svega, istorija tampanih bajki pokazuje da su se bajke pojavile
kada su se ukrstili takvi elementi kao to je pojava razvijenih gradova,
pismenih ljudi u njima i raznih mogunosti koje je grad pruao. Venecija
je bila prvi grad u kome su se na jednom mestu i u istom trenutku sreli
neometana i slobodna trgovina, proizvodnja, rasprostranjena pismenost i jeftino tampanje knjiga. Svaki od ovih uslova bio je neophodan
elemenat za stvaranje meavine koja je dovela do bujanja bajki kakve
danas poznajemo. Zato ne treba da udi da je upravo Venecija bila mesto gde su, po prvi put, nikle voljene prie u kojima se uz pomo magije
od sirotinjskih prnja stizalo do bogatstva i braka. Te moderne bajke su
restaurirale stare prie, koje su dugo zabavljale ljubitelje evropskih
bajki. U novom dobu bujale su bajke koje su tako postale sasvim nove
prie prilagoene ljudima kao to smo mi. (114115)50
ini se da Rut Botighajmer, navodei ove argumente, gubi iz vida jednu
vanu osobinu bajki njenu sposobnost da se menja i prilagoava kako vremenu, prostoru i duhu epohe u kojoj egzistira, tako i karakteru, pogledima na svet,
potrebama i eljama pojedinaca koji je pripovedaju.
Zato moemo rei da gradovi nikli sa pojavom kapitalistikog drutva, o
kojima govori Botighajmer, nisu izvrili nita vei uticaj na bajku, niti su ostavili
neki dublji peat na njoj od bilo kog prethodnog perioda razvoja ljudskog
drutva. Savremene bajke jesu onoliko stare koliko i izvorne drevne prie (kao
to je to tvrdio Vilhelm Grim) i to bez obzira na uticaje kojima su bile izloene u
raznim epohama.
considered sound, because he had located tales of the sort he was collecting in Denmark, Norway and
Sweden, England and Wales, Spain, France, and Italy. These tales, which closely resembled one
another, came from published books, and with nothing else to go on, Wilhelm assumed that a great
sea of story had tossed its Mrchen onto many shores, even ones that were far distant from one
another.
50
Above all, a book-based history of fairy tales shows that fairy tales emerged when cities, literate
city people, and city possibilities intersected and became a reality in urban peoples lives. Venice
was the first place where large-scale commerce, manufacturing, wide-spread literacy, and cheap
print existed in the same place at the same time. Each of these conditions was a necessary element
in the mix needed to produce fairy tales as we know them in the modern world. And so it can be no
surprise that it was in Venice where, for the first time, the beloved plot of modern rags-to-richesthrough-magic-and-marriage fairy tales sprang into existence and joined the old restoration plots
that had long entertained Europes tale lovers. Rise fairy tales were new stories for a new age. They
were stories about people like us.
Sa druge strane, termin moderan se odnosi na one bajke, nastale tokom XIX
i XX veka, koje nisu imale neku prethodnu verziju/prethodne verzije. Ove bajke
su, odraavajui duh epohe u kojoj su nastajale, donele niz novih osobina koje
su u znaajnoj meri uticale na poetsko tkivo tradicionalnih bajki, modifikujui ga
i uobliavajui na osoben i zanimljiv nain.
Neke zajednike osobine tradicionalne i moderne bajke

Moderne bajke, nastale tokom XIX i XX veka, svoje ishodite nalaze u
tradicionalnim. Crpei materijal, verovanja, strukturu i vizije iz prastarih pria i
mitskog naslea, ove umetnike tvorevine su, na indirektan nain, pokazale da i
dananji ovek u svojoj potrebi da pojmi smisao svog postojanja ide davno
obeleenim putevima. Istovremeno, postalo je oevidno i da struktura fantazije
izraena u starim priama, mitovima i legendama odgovara elementima strukture
fantazije ne samo prolog, ve i modernog oveka.
Via optost to je ono zajedniko u nama od iskoni (Dadi 9).51 Sugeriui da vreme nema linearni, ve ciklini koncept (sve se vraa kroz odreeni broj
oblika i stanja, koji su modifikovani samo spoljnim elementima), autori kako
tradicionalnih, tako i modernih bajki sugeriu da je bajka sredstvo sreivanja
ljudskog iskustva. Ta funkcija bajke mogua je zbog jednostavne injenice
istoriju ne ini samo hronoloki niz dogaaja, ve i vizija onog o emu misli i
mata jedan narod i ire ljudski rod tokom svog trajanja.
U tom obliku posmatrano, i moderna bajka je, poput tradicionalne, ne samo
projekcija nesvesnih vizija i skrivenih elja, ve i oplemenjivanje i uzdizanje
stvarnosti. Ova njena osobina upuuje na injenicu da se bajka, oslanjanjem na
osnovna stremljenja oveanstva izraena kroz mitske vizije, istovremeno pokorava i jednoj unutranjoj nunosti u kojoj duh univerzalnog oveka ima najvei
udeo.
Izgleda kao da bajka postaje odraz sveg potisnutog u nama dodirujui nae arhetipske niti, ona uspeva da ostvari vezu sa najdubljim slojem, koji je od
praiskoni u nama. Uspostavljanjem ove veze, bajka dobija mogunost da svoju
vizuru usmeri u posebnom pravcu. U tom novom smeru ona sada pojedinane
predmete, odnose i lica sagledava kroz veo trajnog ime postojee uspeva da vidi u sastavu vie optosti.
51
Arhetipska imaginacija izdvaja i akcentuje to to je zajedniko u nama od iskoni, tako da u delima te vrste ponekad izgleda da nema sutinske razlike u dogaajima i ljudima koji se javljaju na
razliitim vremenskim nivoima (sadanjost prolost davna prolost), da nema prave raznolikosti
u kretanju, da se procesualnost usmerava krunom linijom.
91
92
Ova posebna vrsta matovitosti nosi obeleje arhetipskog. U ovakvom tipu

imaginacije52 (Dadi 9) dogaaji i odreene osobine ljudskog ponaanja upuuju na ono to je bilo. Arhetipska imaginacija kao da doziva davnine i zapoveda
senkama da ive (Sekuli 54), traga za matricom dogaaja i optim u pojavnom.
Njena snaga ogleda se u njenoj sposobnosti da pojedinano obujmi i prekrije
optim. To je sloj metafizikog znaenja ka kome tee i tradicionalna i moderna
bajka.
Prenosei tradicionalnu sliku ljudske prirode i sudbine, moderna bajka prenosi i duhovni sadraj starih oblika verovanja, koji je nastao u sam osvit civilizacije. Time ona uvek iznova otkriva i tajanstveni, nedokuivi poredak prirode.
U svom traganju za vaeim, i danas prisutnim prauzorima, bajke se oslanjaju na mit. Govorei o dubokoj vezi izmeu bajke i mita, Dek Zajps zapisuje u
svom delu Bajka kao mit, mit kao bajka sledee: Bajka je mit. I to zbog toga to
je tradicionalna bajka prola kroz proces mitologiziranja. Bilo koja bajka u
naem drutvu, ukoliko tei da postane prirodna i vena, mora postati mit
(5).53 Na drugom mestu Zajps istie: Bajka poput mita ima izuzetnu snagu u naem svakodnevnom ivotu i njeni oblici su viestruki, transformacije neobine i
zauujue. Mi esto zaboravljamo ili nismo svesni koliko su bajke mitske i
promenljive (16)54.
Ve prva blia analiza bajki otkriva da njena poetska struktura neodoljivo
podsea na sliku ledenog brega u dalekim severnim morima. Naunici tvrde da
su te ledene gromade tek svojim desetim delom iznad povrine vode, a da je
ostatak sakriven od ovekovih pogleda i zarobljen u dubinama vodenih basena.
Ako prvu ravan bajki onaj sloj prie izraen kroz jasno definisanu temu, sie,
fabulu, karaktere i kompoziju dela, dakle, sloj koji je oblikovan jezikom
strukturom i posebno odabranim i organizovanim jezikim materijalom identifikujemo sa vidljivim delom ledenog brega, ostalih devet desetina pripadaju slojevima psiholoke, drutveno-istorijske, kulturoloke, simbolike, egzistencijalne i
52
To je imaginacija koja pojedinaan predmet vidi kao nagovetaj jedne vie optosti. Nema izolovanih pojavnosti, postoji kontinuitet akcije u kontekstu trajanja. U tom kontekstu uoavamo, pre
svega, da priroda i ivot ne raspolau neogranienim brojem kombinacija i da se te kombinacije ponavljaju, kao i zbivanja u svetu, kao i ljudski likovi. Tako se postojee ogleda u onom to je postojalo,
sadanje u prolom. To je priroda vie optosti, kao i onog reda i zakona, esto pominjanih u delima
nekih pisaca XX veka. Univerzalna matrica stalno produkuje homologne situacije, odnose, karaktere.
Tako ta prolost prevazilazi vremensku lokalizaciju i dosee plamteu taku univerzalnosti u kojoj se
spajaju trenutak i trajnost.
53
The fairy tale is myth. That is, the classical tale has undergone a process of mythicization. Any
fairy tale in our society, if it seeks to become natural end eternal, must become myth. (prevela D.
Krenkovi Brkovi).
54
It is the fairy tale as myth that has extraordinary power in our daily lives, and its guises are
manifold, its transformations astonishing. We often forget or are unaware of how mythic and
changable fairy tales are.
ontoloke ravni. Te ravni poput svojevrsne vertikale prodiru u jezgro postojeih

stvari i odnosa i oblikuju autorovu sliku sveta i viziju celog ljudskog kolektiva.
Stvari se uslonjavaju kada se uoi da kod tradicionalnih bajki ista kompozicija moe biti u osnovi razliitih siea i da itav fond bajki treba posmatrati kao
lanac razliitih varijanti (Prop 8).
Pratei eme Vladimira Propa uoiemo da najvei broj bajki koje on posmatra poinje otmicom ili bekstvom nekog od lanova porodice, oduzimanjem nekog dragocenog predmeta ili eljom junaka da ga poseduje. Posle brojnih tekoa
junak ili junakinja najzad su nagraeni svadbom i sreom do kraja svog ivota.
Prouavanjem motiva i siea tradicionalnih bajki moemo da uoimo evidentne slinosti sa modernom bajkom u osnovnim oznakama prve ravni, ravni
prie. I u bajkama XIX i XX veka nailazimo na temu proganjanja (Runo pae), potrage (za blagom u Hobitu, za putem kojim bi se junak vratio u svoj svet u arobnjaku iz Oza i Alisi u zemlji uda, za boljim i lepim svetom u Malom princu), na
temu enje za novim svetom (Mala sirena) ili na temu rtvovanja i nagrade (Gospodar prstenova).
Tu je i vera bajke u ciklino organizovano vreme. Prihvatanjem ponavljanja
kao osobenog kosmikog i egzistencijalnog ritma raanjarazvojasmrtiponovnog raanja tradicionalne i moderne bajke usvajaju drevnu ideju o veitom
vraanju, prisutnu u drugim knjievnim oblicima u epovima, raznim svetim
spisima ili znaajnim tekstovima svih velikih civilizacija.55
Ideja o krunoj putanji po kojoj sve buja, nestaje i ponovo buja u svojoj osnovi
odraava veru u nepresunu i neizmernu snagu ivota samo je ivot taj koji ima
sposobnost i mo da se neprekidno obnavlja iz unitenog.
Ideja o ivotnoj obnovi afirmie i ivotne nagone, pomaui oveku da
podnese svoju smrtnost. Ona mu prua nadu da nijedna katastrofa, nijedna
tragina okolnost nije vena (Eliade 107). Ritmovi prirode odgovaraju ritmovima
oveka i bajka ih na najbolji nain prati.
Ovim se slinosti izmeu tradicionalne i moderne bajke ne zavravaju. Sumirajui ih, moemo uoiti da se i tradicionalna i moderna bajka sagledavaju kao:
A.
epistemoloka metafora
B.
pozitivna vrednost kolektivnog iskustva
C.
refleks kako individualnih, tako i kolektivnih snova, elja i napora
55
U zbirci svetih spisa poznatoj kao Sveto pismo ili Biblija, u Knjizi propovednikovoj, zapisano je: to
je bilo to e biti, to se inilo to e se initi, i nema nita novo pod suncem. Takvi su i drugi primeri:
Narataj jedan odlazi i drugi dolazi, a zemlja stoji u vijek (4, 1); Sve rijeke teku u more, i more se
ne prepunja; odakle teku rijeke, onamo se vraaju da opet teku (7,1); Ima li to za to bi ko rekao:
vidi, to je novo? Ve je bilo za vijekova koji su bili prije nas (10,1); to je bilo to je sada, i to e biti
to je ve bilo. (15,3). I mitovi i prie indijsko-helenskog porekla obojeni su verom u stalno vraanje.
U indijskim (Purana, Mahabharata) i kineskim spisima (Knjiga promena) veito ponavljanje osnovno
je naelo opteg razvoja. U starom Vavilonu postojalo je uenje o sedam svetskih uda koja se stalno
smenjuju. I antiko shvatanje vremena je u znaku zatvorenog kosmikog kruga.
93
94
D.
relativna negacija izmeu prolosti sadanjosti budunosti
E.
umetnika tvorevina koja sublimira stvarnost, a mitskom oduzima
mo i aroliju
F.
umetnika tvorevina koja je, svojim apstraktnim stilom, izvan
mogunosti empirijske provere.
Pomenute osobine potvruju injenicu da bajke pamte, bez obzira na trenutak kada su nastale nekada davno kada su ih prvo priali daroviti besednici tako da su one, bazirane na ritualima, teile da podare znaaj i smisao
svakodnevnom ivotu lanova plemena56 (Fairy tale as myth, myth as fairy tale
10) ili tokom XIX i XX veka, kao anr umetnike bajke i kao estetsko i socijalno sredstvo putem kojih su reavana pitanja i problemi drutva, pravilnog ponaanja, a u mnogim sluajevima, kao simbolini gestovi subverzije vezani za
pitanje standarda vladajueg ukusa i ponaanja (11).57
Njihovo seanje dopire do vremena pre rei i maglovitih poetaka naih predaka. To seanje se tek suptilno nagovetava tako da izgleda kao da su bajke uronjene u posebnu atmosferu, onu koja je zasiena magijskim nainom miljenja.
Uoavajui ovu osobinu tradicionalnih i modernih bajki, mi ujedno otkrivamo
i na koji nain su prastare legende i mitovi prisutni i u naoj epohi i svesti
modernog oveka.
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Bahtin, Mihail Mihajlovi. O romanu. Beograd: Nolit, 1989.
56
Fairy tales were first told by gifted tellers and were based on rituals intended to endow meaning
to the daily lives of memebers of a tribe.
57
The genre of the literary fairy tale... as an aesthetic and social means through which questions
and issues of civilit, proper behaivor and demeanor in all types of situation, and in many cases, as
symbolical gestures of subversion to question the ruling standards of taste and behavior. (prevela
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Biti, Vladimir. Bajka i predaja. Zagreb: Povijest i pripovijedanje, 1981.
Bokovi Stuli, Maja. Usmena knjievnost kao umjetnost rijei. Zagreb: Mladost,
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Bottigheimer, Ruth B. Fairy Tales: A New History. Albany-New York: State Uof
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FORGOTTEN JOURNEY THE TRACES IMPRINTED IN FAIRY TALES (PART I)

Fairy tales of the 19th and 20th century have their origin in traditional stories,
and traditional and contemporary stories share common features. These stories,
remembered over the ages, reveal the core of peoples deepest experience and
the key to discovering timeless truths. This paper considers direct correlations
between traditional and modern stories, both of which deal with collective
experiences and the projection of peoples unconscious visions and hidden
desires. Also, this paper explores discrepancies between approaches of classical
and contemporay fairy tales to the world they describe, to different ways of
shaping a story, and to different ideas about time and place and about humans
and the supernatural. It considers similarities and differences between the way
the traditional and modern stories portray mythical heritage, archetypal
frameworks, core experiences, and sublimation of reality.
This study is based on comparative analysis of classical fairy tales (Cinderella,
Snow White, Little Red Riding Hood, Hansel and Gretel, Sleeping Beauty, Beauty
and Beast, Puss in Boots, and 1001 Arabian Nights) and ones written in the 19th
and 20th century (The Little Prince, Alice in Wonderland, Pinocchio, The Little
Mermaid, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, The Happy Prince, The Hobbit, and The
Lord of the Rings).
Key Words: fairy tale, clasical, contemporary, similarities, differences,
mythical heritage, archetypal framework, core experience, sublimation of reality.
97
98
UDK 821.111.09
Percy Bysshe Shelley An Overview of His Life,

Major Poetry and Critical Reception
Nataa Baki Miri

University of Ni
Abstract: Percy Shelley was a democrat, a humanist and an idealist of the 19 th century, a
man consumed by the search for experience and understanding at times even haunted by
his own Doppelgnger. He is thought to be one of the greatest writers of the Romantic
Movement who rejected all conventions that he thought stifled human freedom.
Shelleys reputation as a rebel against English politics and the conservative values of the
day began early in his career by setting out his radical creed that triggered the tradition
of modernist poetry by instigating a revolution of ideas that changed the face of the
world today. His most famous works, including Prometheus Unbound, Mont Blanc,
Hellas and Adonais are recognized as leading expressions of his brilliant poetic thought,
while his odes and shorter lyrics are considered among the greatest in the English
language.
Key words: poetry, love, freedom, intellectual beauty, revolution
Being Shelley
Shelleys life is an adventure story of his search to discover in his own words
whence I came, and where I am and why. Instead of a secure and carefree
future kindly provided by his strict father Timothy, Shelley took a different path
that of atheism, free love, republicanism and democracy everything that is
mischievous to society (Holmes 99-100). In 1811, after being expelled from
Oxford for publishing a pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism where he and his
college friend Thomas Jefferson Hogg, questioned the existence of God,
disinherited and penniless, he eloped with Harriet Westbrook. She instantly fell
under his spell and was sweet talked into believing that the two of them were
destined to break the rules of the conservative and hypocritical English society.
Although a proponent of free love, Shelley married Harriet in England in 1814
only to ensure the legitimacy of their children. Weeks later, however, he fell in
99
100
love with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, the daughter of the late 18th century
intellectual giants the radical English philosopher William Godwin and his first
wife the radical first-wave feminist Mary Wollstonecraft. Albeit Harriet declined
to join this new household as only a sister, he still continued to provide for
her and their two children, but lived with Mary (Wroe 155). This was not
enough for poor Harriet so she committed suicide by drowning. Shortly after
her suicide, Shelley united with Mary in a holy matrimony and sought custody
of his children, but the Westbrook family successfully blocked him in a lengthy
lawsuit. In court, citing his poem Queen Mab, in which he denounced established
society and religion in favor of free love and atheism, the Westbrooks convinced
the court that Shelley was morally and in every other way unfit for a parent. In
1818, motivated by ill health, financial worries and the fear of losing custody of
his and Mary's two children, Shelley relocated his family to Italy where he
renewed his friendship with Byron that actually began through Claire
Claremont, Marys step-sister and a lover of Byron's who bore one of his
children. The group spent the summer of 1816 together at Byron's house on
Lake Geneva where it is believed, on one stormy night, the idea for Mary
Shelley's Frankenstein was born. During his stay in Italy, Shelley also became an
assiduous frequenter of the Italian opera (together with Maria Gisborne) which
was to leave a mark in his masterpiece Prometheus Unbound (Quillin, pars 1-5).
Shelley and Mary remained in Italy until Shelley's death in a boating accident
off the coast of Lerici in 1822 caused to a large degree by his own foolhardy
nature. But perhaps there was no more fitting end to such a fiery, unstable and
creative man as him consumed by the search for his own identity, sexuality,
experience and understanding. His body was cremated, but the heart emerged
from the flames intact a symbol of religious power in an age without religion;
it was wrapped in the manuscript of Adonais and given to Mary for safekeeping
(Baki-Miri 2009: 202-203).
On the Wings of Imagination Shelleys Major Poetry

Sifting through his poems, letters, diaries and pamphlets, his translations
from Greek, Spanish, German, and Italian and bearing in mind that he died at
thirty, and was, besides, engaged in a multitude of affairs, his pen can scarcely
ever have been out of his hand. And not only was he constantly writing; he read
gluttonously. No wonder then that his intellectual beauty produced such
archetypes of poetry that sprang from his revolutionary and humanistic
idealism where he sought refuge from the world he experienced as cruel,
individualistic and ultimately devoid of all emotion (Baki-Miri 2008: 100-108).
It would be hard to recollect a name of a poet who has kept his art more free
from all representation of the real, making it not only an instrument for
creating something life-like, but a more and more intimate echo of his own
restless spirit. Shelley was first and foremost in love with poetry which made
him not only a prolific but also a versatile poet. Before the age of twenty
Shelley had published two Gothic novels, Zastrozzi and St. Irvyne and two
collections of verse, Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire and Posthumous
Fragments of Margaret Nicholson co-authored with his Oxford friend Thomas
Jefferson Hogg. During the period between 1812 and 1821, Shelley wrote his
best known works: An Address to the Irish People (1812) which argued for
home rule and Catholic emancipation, A Letter to Lord Ellenborough (1812) one
of Shelley's most significant early literary works in which he established himself
as a champion of free speech arguing that Lord Ellenborough had broken
judicial conduct by permitting the Attorney General to influence the jurors, a
pamphlet on the death penalty On the Punishment of Death (1815) where
Shelley sees the punishment of death as the usurpation of a decidedly poetic
design (Canuel 56-60), a fragment where he discusses reforms in England, A
Proposal for Putting Reform to the Vote Throughout the Kingdom (1817) and
tragedy The Cenci (1818) an intense gothic melodrama set in late 1500's Italy
based on the history of an Italian Count Cenci who raped his daughter and was
in turn murdered by her. The year 1818 also produced Rosalind and Helen, a
comparatively weak poem, begun in England and finished in Italy and Julian and
Maddalo, a very strong one, written in the neighborhood of Venice
demonstrating in Shelley a singular power of seeing ordinary things with
directness and at once figuring them as reality and transfiguring them into poetry
and Ozymandias (1818), a short poem that represents Shelleys most powerful
depiction of the relation between bad government and degraded environment,
a poem full of despair in the context of fallen power that can also be read as
postcolonial literature (Baki-Miri 2008: 832-833):
My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:
Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!'
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.
In 1819 Shelley wrote a radical pamphlet Philosophical View of Reform
where he argues that the exploitation of labor by capital was the key to
understanding oppression and injustice, that both political and economic reforms
were needed and that this could be won only by a mass democratic movement
and revolutionary upheaval, somewhat bizaare satire Peter Bell the Third (1819)
about a fellow-poet William Wordsworth and Oedipus Tyrannus or, Swellfoot the
Tyrant (1820) a mock tragedy on the British royal family. The Witch of Atlas,
written in 1820, is considered one in line of the most perfect among all Shelley's
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longer poems, though at moments the least interesting of them all. It may be
rated as a pure exercise of roving imagination guided, however, by an intense
sense of beauty and by its author's exceeding fineness of nature. The witch of
this subtle and magical invention seems to represent that faculty which is termed
the fancy using this assumption as a clue. Another of Shelley's best-known
works is undoubtedly Adonais, written in 1821, as Shelley's lament over death of
John Keats. Throughout this very Wordsworthian allegory, Shelley does not miss
an opportunity to flagitiously attack 19th century critics whom he blames for
Keats untimely death and concludes that only after death are the great poets
really appreciated:
I weep for sweet Adonais he is dead!
Oh, weep for Adonais! Through our tears
Thaw not the frost which binds so dear a head!
And thou, sad Hour, selected from all years
To mourn our loss, rouse thy obscure compeers,
And teach them thine own sorrow, say: With me
Died Adonais; till the Future dares
Forgets the Past; till the Future dares
Forget the past, his fate and fame shall be
An echo and a light into eternity!
Almost scary quest for love, beauty, freedom and the meaning of life is
depicted in The Triumph of Life (1821) which is Shelleys last unfinished major
poem very complex in ideology, allegory and metaphor. In this fragmentary
poem Shelley suggests the destruction of all false ideologies especially those
not enlightened by the light of imagination and worships intellectual beauty
which he compares with the morning star and incarnation of all desire. This is
the only poem where he equally celebrates great love of life and death which
was, in his own opinion, only a door to eternal zest (Hogson 595-622):
Life, like a dome of many-coloured glass,
Stains the white radiance of Eternity,
Until Death tramples it to fragments. Die,
If thou wouldst be with that which thou dost seek!
Bearing in mind his productiveness in poetry at a very young age, it goes
without saying that Shelley was, among other things, a philosophical poet. It
was philosophy that gave substance to his character and chiseled his intellect.
At the same time, it is essential to see how all his thoughts and feelings were
shaped by philosophy and by the influence of one particular doctrine
Platonism. The intellectual system, based on the aforementioned, he rightly
saw, lead to the view that nothing existed except a single mind and that was
the view which he found or thought that he found, in the dialogues of Plato and
which gave to his whole being a shape it was never to lose. Having thus grasped
the notion that the whole universe is one spirit, he absorbed from Plato a
theory which accorded perfectly with his predisposition - the theory that all the
good and beautiful things that we love on earth are partial manifestations of an
absolute beauty or goodness, which exists eternal and unchanging and from
which everything that becomes and perishes in time derives such reality as it
has. Hence our human life is good only in so far as we participate in the eternal
reality and the communion is effected whenever we adore beauty, whether in
nature or in passionate love or in the inspiration of poetry. Consequently, this
leads mankind nearer to the eternal ideal Intellectual Beauty which is the only
abiding reality. This is surely the touchstone of his literary philosophical
manifesto Defense of Poetry (1821) the zeitgeist of Shelleys time where he
likens reason to analysis and imagination to synthesis; reason examines the
workings of particulars and imagination, while keeping the particulars in mind,
offers a more holistic view. Poetry, states Shelley, expresses the imagination and
is entwined with the origins of humanity. He exalts poetry as the bearer of
humanitys most profound truths; these truths speak of universality, disregarding
time and location, of order and beauty that legislates the world. Shelley asserts
that poetry a name which includes for him all serious art is the very texture
out of which all that is valuable and real in life is made. Without poetry, the
progress of science and of the mechanical arts results in mental and moral
indigestion, merely exasperating the inequality of mankind making it more
human only to end the manifesto with the famous sentence that poets are the
unacknowledged legislators of the world (Holmes 300-305):
Poets are the hierophants of an unapprehended inspiration; the mirrors
of the gigantic shadows which futurity casts upon the present; the words
which express what they understand not; the trumpets which sing to
battle, and feel not what they inspire; the influence which is moved not,
but moves. Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world. (48)
The appearance of a visionary and semi-autobiographical work Alastor; or,
The Spirit of Solitude (although written five years before his prose masterpiece
Defense of Poetry) was the actual endorsement of the idea of the omnipotent
power of poetic imagination that earned Shelley a recognition of a serious poet
with a serious philosophy of poetry. The poem that is very often interpreted as
an allegory is actually a powerful statement about a quest for love of beauty
and knowledge which seems never to satisfy the poet. It actually represents a
journey of the young poet who tries to discern the very source of nature that
finally leads to immanence within nature's very structure and to a world free of
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decay and change. In Alastor the speaker ostensibly recounts the life of a Poet
who zealously pursues the most obscure part of nature in search of strange
truths in undiscovered lands. In the same year, completely enchanted and
enthralled by the human mind and poetic imagination, Shelley wrote Mont
Blanc (1816-1817). Shelley himself wrote of this poem:
It was composed under the immediate impression of the deep and
powerful feelings excited by the objects which it attempts to describe: and
as an undisciplined overflowing of the soul, rests its claim to approbation
on an attempt to imitate the untamable wildness and inaccessible
solemnity from which those feelings sprang. (Complete works, 125)
The poem concerns the human mind and its ability to comprehend the
truth. Its main theme examines the relationship between the human mind and
the universe and discusses the influence of perception on the mind, and how
the world can become a reflection of the operation of the mind. Although
Shelley believed that the human mind should be free of restraints, he also
recognized that nothing in the universe is truly free; he believed that there is a
force in the universe to which the human mind is connected and by which it is
influenced. Unlike Coleridge, Shelley believed that poets are the source of
authority in the world, and unlike Wordsworth, believed that there was a
darker side of nature that is an inherent part of a cyclical process of the
universe. In Mont Blanc, the poem's relationship with the mountain becomes a
symbol for the poet's relationship with the world:
The everlasting universe of things
Flows through the mind, and rolls its rapid waves,
Now dark now glittering-no, reflecting gloom
Now lending splendor, where from secret springs
The source of human thought its tribute brings
Of waters-with a sound but half its own,
Such as a feeble brook will oft assume
In the wild woods, among the mountains lone,
Where waterfalls around it leap forever,
Where woods and winds contend, and a vast river
Over its rocks ceaselessly bursts and raves. (1-11)
The poet is privileged because he can understand the truth found in nature,
and the poet is then able to use this truth to guide humanity. He interprets the
mountains voice and relays nature's truth through his poetry. The poet, in
putting faith in the truth that he has received, has earned a place among nature
and been given the right to speak on this truth. Nature's role does not matter
as much as the poet's mediation between nature and man:
The secret Strength of things
Which governs thought, and to the infinite dome
Of Heaven is as a law, Inhabits thee!
And what were thou, and earth, and stars, and sea,
if to the human mind's imaginings
Silence and solitude were vacancy? (140-144)
Apart from the apparent enchantment with the human mind and
imagination, Shelleys philosophy of love is surely of immense importance for his
poetry not only as spiritus agens but also as magister optimus. According to
Shelleys poetic philosophy, it is a prototype of all the beautiful and perfect and
strong enough to change everything in a person for the better. Whether it is
portrayed as an ideal in Epypsichidion (1821) or merely a brief effusion On Love
(1815) in a manner cognate with his reading of Plato or as love towards the
intellect and its manifestations in the majestic Hymn to Intellectual Beauty
(1816) one clearly observes that Shelley believed in love as the only perpetual
force in the universe. Sexual love in Laon and Cythna; or, The Revolution of the
Golden City (1816-1817) although vaguely depicted as an account of a bloodless
revolution led by a brother and sister was scandalous for the 19th century
England due to its unfit subject matter. The entire poem revolves around sexual
consumation of the incestous lovers, Laon and Cyntha, which is actually an
allegory for the political aspirations of a revolutionary Europe where Shelley
expresses the revolutionary urge as a sexual urge in the poem (Barfoot 259270). Shelley identified and aligned himself strongly with the then-shocking
notion of both explicit sexualism and atheism. The poem though, responding to
the religious excesses and embedded hypocrisy of his time, is expressly
spiritual, albeit running counter-religiosity in which he carefully observes
blunders of the French revolution:
When the last hope of trampled France had failed
Like a brief dream of unremaining glory,
From visions of despair I rose, and scaled
The peak of an aerial promontory,
Whose caverned base with the vexed surge was hoary;
And saw the golden dawn break forth, and waken
Each cloud, and every wave:--but transitory
The calm; for sudden, the firm earth was shaken,
As if by the last wreck its frame were overtaken. (Canto 1, 127-135)
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Perhaps the most persuasive declaration of his philosophy of love is seen in

his lyric drama Prometheus Unbound (1818-1820) a cosmic play divided into
four acts composed partly on the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome and is
righteously called his masterpiece because to invent a completely new myth
about the Fire Bringer sealed Shelleys fate as the poet of the future. The play
embodies, in forms of surpassing imagination and beauty, Shelley's deepest and
most daring conceptions about life, death and absolution. Prometheus, the
human mind and will, has invested himself with the powers proper while Jupiter,
the god of heaven, who thereupon chains and torments him and terrorizes
mankind. In other words, the anthropomorphic god of religion is the creation of
the human mind and both the mind of man and man himself are enslaved as long
as this god exercises his delegated but absolute power. Prometheus separated
from Asia or Love, protests against and anathematizes the self-enthroned
usurper. At last the anathema (although Prometheus has revoked it by an act of
self-conquest in Act I) takes effect: Demogorgon (or Necessity), dismisses
Jupiter to unending nothingness. Prometheus is at once unbound and the
human mind is set free; he is reunited with his spouse Love (Asia) and the world
of man passes from downfall and degradation into limitless progression or
perfectibility both moral and material that generally epitomizes Shelleys vision
of the future, the one in which love and imagination had worked together to
renew the world and harmonize the universe (Watson, Frye, Bloom):
To suffer woes which Hope thinks infinite;
To forgive wrongs darker than death or night;
To defy Power, which seems omnipotent;
To love, and bear; to hope till Hope creates
From its own wreck the thing it contemplates;
Neither to change, nor falter, nor repent;
This, like thy glory, Titan, is to be
Good, great and joyous, beautiful and free;
This is alone Life; Joy, Empire, and Victory! (Act IV, 570-578)
Shelleys restless revolutionary spirit made him a bold political agitator and
a true democrat with a clear goal people must be forced to see what is rotten
in social institutions at the same time embracing democracy as the only way to
a better future represented in his idealistic visions (Baki-Miri 2009: 102-103).
But Shelley did not stop here and went even further in attacking the King and
His statesmen stigmatizing them as the embodiments of all evil in revolutionary
and pro-republican pieces such as Devils walk (1812) openly mocking the King
and his administration, The Masque of Anarchy (1819) boldly attacking the
administration for the Peterloo massacre or England 1819, one in a line of
poems that fiercely attacks the corrupt English monarchy while a fairy-tale like
poem, Queen Mab (1817) proclaims his bold political views about democracy,
political and historical future and tries to grasp ideas of Rousseau, Godwin,
Beckon and Spinoza. In Ode to the West Wind (1820) the poet calls the West
wind of change (or America) to sweep through the enslaved Europe and bring
spring of political freedom:
By the incantation of this verse,
Scatter, as from an unextinguishd hearth
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
Be through my lips to unawaken'd earth
The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (65-70)
In To the Cloud (1820) Shelley symbolically worships freedom that will be
reborn just as the cloud being reborn under the principle of eternal regeneration
in nature. After many personal and professional disappointments alike in
somewhat pessimistic Stanzas Written in Dejection near Naples (1818) Shelley
observes the sea and compares it with his own heart empty of love and full of
sadness brought about by plight of all abandoned people in this cruel world
devoid of all emotion and freedom.
Alas! I have nor hope nor wealth,
Nor peace within nor calm around,
Nor that content surpassing wealth
The sage in meditation found,
And walked with inward glory crowned
Nor fame, nor power, nor love, nor leisure.
Others I see whom these surround
Smiling they live, and call life pleasure;
To me that cup has been dealt in another measure,
Yet now despair itself is mild,
Even as the winds and waters are;
I could lie down like a tired child,
And weep away the life of care
Which I have borne and yet must bear,
Till death like sleep might steal on me,
And I might feel in the warm air
My cheek grow cold, and hear the sea
Breathe o'er my dying brain in its last monotony. (19-36)
Nonetheless, Shelley ends each poem with the hope for freedom another
in line of Shelleys archetypes of poetry for it represents a principle of order in
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chaos and creation of the new world based on the principles of Greek
democracy especially in the age of Pericles (Baki-Miri 2009: 105). This vision
of the world free from all restraints is explicit in drama Hellas (1821) where the
poet makes tyranny disappear by change of time cycles that inevitably lead to
change in all aspects. As in Prometheus Unbound, Shelley used Aeschylus The
Persians as the model and literary echo for his Hellas. Drama The Persians
celebrates the Greek victory over the Persians at Salamis, but subtly, with the
focus on the defeated Persians rather than the victorious Greeks, Shelley
explores victory and defeat, especially the aftermath of an armed struggle, no
matter how glorious the cause. The drama focuses on the Sultan Mahmud, who
controls the Turkish attacks on Greece. His sleep is restless and his mind tormented
by a recurring nightmare that of the Turkish capital being devastated. In order to
find his peace he seeks help from the Wandering Jew, Ahasuerus, whom he
believes has magic powers and can interpret his dream. During their conversation,
Mahmud sinks more and more into despair as he, in spite of reports of Turkish
victories, realizes that he has lost the war. Alternating between the three
dialogue parts is a chorus of the Greek enslaved women who furnish the drama
with hope and aspirations for freedom's victory. Their participation is not
directly connected to the insurrection of Greece, but rather expresses a
universalized view of the futility of war. The order of events in the play is seen
from the Turkish point of view, which makes it possible for Shelley to focus
both on Turkish defeat, through Mahmud and Greek victory, through the
chorus who serves as a mediatior between the past, the present and the future.
On the symbolical level Hellas can be interpreted as America or Hellas of new
hope, a paradise regained whose revolutionaries were carried by this new spirit
of idealism and democracy strong enough to overhtrow the British enslavers
(Baki-Miri 2009: 207; 832-835):
Another Athens shall arise,
And to remoter time
Bequeath, like sunset to the skies,
The splendour of its prime;
And leave, if naught so bright may live,
All earth can take or Heaven give. (25-30)
In addition to his long poems and verse dramas, Shelley wrote numerous
short lyrics that have proved to be his most popular works, among them Ode to
the Skylark, To the Cloud, To Mary, Music When Soft Voices Die, When the Lamp
is Shattered etc. which prove a lasting poetic legacy of the poet who was surely
pre-eminent among the Romantics the most rebellious, the most unconventional
everything but plain as Robert Browning once wrote. This is precisely why after
reading a large number of Shelleys poems one recognizes a striking variety of
tone in most of his writings as he wavered between advocating limited

property-based male suffrage and universal suffrage, pacifism and revolutionary
force, skepticism and political trust in the masses. Insofar as he speculated on
the nature and destiny of the world or the soul, it was not from curiosity about
the truth, but rather because correct views on these matters seemed to him
especially in early years, an infallible method of regenerating society. Moreover,
Shelley, for the sake of all humanity rejected the pure rationalism and the order
of the Enlightenment at all cost, maintaining that nature, love and the healing
power of the imagination could enable people to transcend their everyday
plights by using creative powers in order to illuminate and transform the world
into a coherent vision and regenerate mankind spiritually.
Critical Reception of the Ineffectual Angel

The history of Shelley's critical reputation has been characterized by extreme
radical shifts. During his lifetime his work was frequently censured because of his
atheism and unorthodox philosophy, as well as widespread rumors about his
personal life. Those few critics (Leigh Hunt, Haselfoot, Thomas Love Peacock)
who proclaimed their admiration of his talents were ironically responsible for
further inhibiting his success by causing him to be associated with the despised
Cockney School of poets belittled by John Gibson Lockhart and others in
Blackwood's Magazine (Redpath 10-30). Nevertheless, Shelley was known and
admired by many of his contemporaries, including Byron, Keats, Wordsworth,
Coleridge and Southey.
Critics in the late nineteenth century for the most part ignored Shelley's
radical politics, celebrating instead the spiritual and aesthetic qualities of his
poetry excepting a Victorian sage Matthew Arnold and his harsh criticism as well
as his infamously bitter comment that Shelley is a beautiful and ineffectual
angel, beating in the void his luminous wings in vain (Arnold, pars 9-10).
Nevertheless, in the Victorian age he was highly regarded as the poet of ideal
love while the Victorian notion of the poet as a sensitive, misunderstood genius
was modeled largely after Shelley. His works, however, again fell into disfavor
around the turn of the century.
Many critics of the early 20 century objected to his seemingly vague imagery,
nebulous philosophy, careless technique and, most of all, his apparent
intellectual and emotional immaturity (Eliot 89-99). In the late 1930s Shelley's
reputation began to revive as scholars came to recognize the complexity of his
philosophy and poetic thought. Modern commentators have generally focused
on his imagery, use of language and technical achievements, in addition to his
exploration of the political and social phenomena of his time. Therefore, the
selected critical texts in this part of the paper should not be considered definitive
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in any way but rather as the most resourceful. To begin with F. A. Foakes, who, in
an essay Commitment to Metaphor: Modern Criticism and Romantic Poetry says
that some modern critics do not appreciate Shelleys poetry because they do not
understand his complex thought due to his carelessness, lack of intelligence and
failure to express elements of poetic experience which is, in Foakes opinion just
an excuse for their own incompetence to understand Shelleys poetic expressions
(Foakes 31).
D. B. Donlon, however, in an essay Claiming Kindered with Shelleys Moral
Reality comments that despite of the fact that many modern critics consider
the poet a naive and idealistic dreamer because of his fascination with eternity,
we read Shelley today in a completely new way with greater respect and
understanding because of his futuristic visions (9).
Maurice Bowra righteously considers Shelley a philosopher among poets
because he thought the creative imagination was closely connected into an
unseen order that remains behind visible things which is exactly what gave a
special character to his work and determined his main contribution to the
theory and practice of poetry (103-105). Apart from his philosophy of poetry,
Bowra also believes that Shelley is too difficult to understand because he wrote
for the human mind claiming that every mans life will be better if he himself
wants it to be and especially if he is able to love (110).
J. R. Watson, one of the most eminent critics of Shelley and the Romantic
era, perhaps explains best way why is Shelley's poetry difficult not only ordinary
readers but some critics as well:
In the first place, it contains a very considerable amount of Shelley's
volumnous reading philosophical, scientific, mythological, religious
and political. Secondly, it frequently attempts to describe that which is
beyond description a depth beyond depth, a height beyond heigth, a
timelessness beyond time, a boundless space, all the features of the
universe which we can stretch to imagine but cannot satisfastorily find
words to compass. Thirdly, it is a poetry which moves with great speed;
its characteristic effects are not those of logic or fixed clarity, but of
changing sensibility confronting an ever-changing world. (225)
Frederick A. Pottles disagrees with the commonly held view that Shelley
was ignored in his lifetime but rather regarded as a poet of great but unguided
powers. On the contrary, Pottle believes that modern critics mishandle and
misread Shelleys poems because they dislike them and do not approach them
with patience and good will (47).
Earl Wasserman sees Shelley arguing for the essential unity of the
individual poems, aspiring as they do to express the absolute unity recognized
by the poet and drawing into themselves all thoughts, attracting all knowledge
and perceptions into its orbit however produced (142) just as Shelley himself
believed that all human minds are portions of One Great Mind whereas D. J.
Hughes points to the fact that each of Shelleys poems in its development
towards the last line or the climaxes articulates through style and shape the
very theme being expressed by organization and language which seem so
peculiarly typical of Shelley (136).
On the other hand, C. S. Lewis in an essay Shelley, Dryden and Mr. Eliot claims
that Shelleys poetry has undisputable qualities, although it is over-criticized by
modern critics. This is mostly due to Shelleys belief into mans perfectibility that
is considered humorous because it is completely unacceptable in an age of a
growing fear from global terrorism and nuclear war (290-300). Lewis points out
to Shelley's most painful stigma that he was an immature and silly poet that
came into being not only with Matthew Arnolds phrase inaffectual angel but also
Eliot's opinion that Shelley is unreadable in maturity. Lewis alludes to this
premise: Shelley is silly in the modern sense to believe ludicrously well of the
human heart in general and crudely ill of a few tyrants's to be, in a word,
insufficiently disillusioned (332).
In Geoge Ridenours opinion Shelley is unreadable for modern critics
because he was mostly concentrated on human misfortunes and historical
events at the same time bearing in mind that if a poet insisted on more humane
world he should be mocked (3). Ridenor argues that Shelley's importance for
the present is immense because we can hardly imagine any other poet who
answered so many questions theistic and humanistic, theological and political,
collectivist and individualistic, conservative and radical (5-6). Moreover, for
Ridenour, Shelley has had a huge impact on imagination and the way people
perceive the world today because he offers a vision perfectly adjusted to modern
sensibility, albeit people do not grasp the extent to which his view is directed
toward us in the twentieth century (2).
Richard Harter Fogle in The Abstractness of Shelley attributes modern dislike
for Shelleys poetry to abstractness that can be understood only from a
philosophical point of view because the poet was a firm believer in man's
intellectual potential. Fogle states that Shelley is abstract because he, very often,
uses symbols such as lyre, brook, boat, cloud and the like and converts them into
recognizable, sometimes even confusing, metaphors and abstractions in his
poetry:
Shelleys images are not lifeless pawns in a game of philosophic chess.
They are living, flexible, various in the subtle shades of meaning which
attach to them. Reflecting consistent view of life, each image is
nevertheless a response to a particular poetic stimulus and situation
dictated by a thousand considerations of mood, tone and artistic
necessity and aspiration toward heights which he did not, as some would
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have conceived as easy of attainment, but which he felt to be

inexpressibly have, conceive as easy attainment, but which he felt to be
inexpressibly enchanting through the very difficulty of scaling them. (29)
Perhaps Harold Bloom, most clearly explained Shelleys power of thought
and gift for writing poetry better than any other of his critics:
Shelley and his modern critic may sit together from dawn to gloom,
watching yellow bees in the ivy by the light of the lake-reflected sun. At
day's end the critic, if he has the talents of a naturalist, might be able to
turn out a more accurate description of the bees than Shelley could, but
Shelley, never heeding or seeing bees, may have created from them a
form more real that is perceived with greater imaginative intensity
than a living man himself ( 115)
In Bloom's opinion, this is exactly what modern critics take for granted.
Conclusion
Shelley appeared at the time when the sublime madness of the French
revolutionary movement had exhausted the vivacity of men's thought and had
left them intellectually impotent. As a humanist, a true democrat and an
idealist Shelley took the only position possible that of a poet-reformer. Shelley
had the temper of an innovator and a martyr. In an intellect miraculously poetical
he united speculative ardor and humanitarian zeal in a degree like no other poet.
It should be acknowledged that, while this great quality forms the major as well
as the most admirable factor in Shelleys poetry, the defects which go along with
it overshadow his work too often producing at times vagueness, unreality and
a touch of glittering indistinctness, in which abundance of sentiment is sunk
amid superfluity of words. This flaws the long poems much more than the pure
lyrics. In the latter the exhilaration, the music and the emotion are in exquisite
balance and the work has often as much of delicate simplicity as of fragile
perfection. Thus, in order to understand Shelleys poetry properly, one has to
come to terms with Shelleys complex thought that is the key to the right
understanding of his intellect the gem of purest ray as his philosophy of
poetry represents the highest expression of his genius and is of supreme
importance for understanding his mental abstractions that sometimes led him
almost to madness because Shelleys state of mind was so complex and made
him really believe that people would understand his abstract ideas and embrace
them unconditionally so that the overall happiness of the whole humanity could
be achieved mostly through true love and knowledge - first and foremost of the
self and then of the world.
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Abrams. London: Oxford UP, 1972. 324-35.
Matthews, G.M. The Volcano Voice in Shelley. Shelley, A Collection of Critical
Essays. Ed. George Ridenour. London: Prentice Hall , 1965. 131-45.
The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, London: Oxford UP, 1997.
Redpath, Theodore. The Young Romantics and Critical Opinion 1807-1824. New
York: St. Martins, 1973.
Rayan, Tilottama. The Dark Interpreter The Discourse of Romanticism.
London: Cornell UP, 1986.
113
114
Pottle, Frederick A. The Case of Shelley. English Critical Essays. Ed. Edmund D.
Jones, London: Oxford UP, 1971. 31-45.
Quillin, Jessica. An assiduous frequenter of the Italian Opera: Shelleys
Prometheus Unbound and the opera buffa. Web. 25. May 2010.
<www.rc.umd.edu/praxis/opera/quillin/quillin.html >.
Wasserman, Earl. Myth in Shelleys Poetry. English Critical Essays. Ed. Edmund
D. Jones. London: Oxford UP, 1971. 142-58.
Watson, J.R. English Poetry of the Romantic Period. London: Longman, 1987.
Wroe, Ann. Being Shelley. The Poets Search for Himself. New York: Vintage
Books, 2008. 259-65.
PERSI BI ELI PREGLED NJEGOVOG IVOTA, NAJVEIH POETSKIH OSTVARENJA I KRITIKE

RECEPCIJE
Persi eli bio je demokrata, humanista i idealista 19. veka, ovek preokupiran
traganjem za iskustvom i razumevanjem, ponekad ak i proganjan sopstvenim
dvojnikom. Smatra se najveim pesnikom engleskog romantizma koji je odbacio
sve konvencije za koje je smatrao da gue ljudske slobode. elijeva reputacija
buntovnika protiv engleske politike i konzervativnih vrednosti, ispoljila se vrlo rano u njegovoj karijeri i postala stoer tradicije moderne poezije te doprinela revoluciji ideja koje su u velikoj meri promenile dananji svet. Ovaj rad razmatra Persi
elija kao jednog od najveih pesnika engleskog romantizma ija najpoznatija dela meu kojima Osloboeni Prometej, Mon Blan, Helada, Adonais spadaju u prepoznatljive izraze njegove kompleksne poetske misli, dok se njegove ode i krae
lirske pesme smatraju najlepim ikada napisanih na engleskom jeziku.
Kljune rei: poezija, ljubav, sloboda, intelektualna ljepota, revolucija
UDK 821.112.2.09
Aneo Devinskih elegija
Jelena Kneevi
Apstrakt: Aneo Devinskih elegija je viestruko simbolina figura. U njemu je data

slika ostvarenog ideala kome, iz oaja svoje savremenosti, lirski subjekat tei i kao
ovjek i kao pjesnik. Lirsko ja je ovjek koji sa savremenicima dijeli istu sudbinu na
zemlji, ali i pjesnik, svjestan svog pjesnikog bia koje, obuzeto egzistencijalnom
strepnjom, vidi i osjea dublje nego drugi ljudi. Kao pjesnik on je osuen da se bori sa
nedostatkom stvaralake snage i inspiracije. Ova dva plana se, slino kao kod
Helderlina, preklapaju u taki u kojoj se pjesnitvo i postojanje izjednauju. Aneo je
otud najmanje dvostruki simbol. Simbol idealno harmoninog bia u kojem je ostvareno
bezuslovno predavanje sopstvenom osjeanju, to je za ovjeka rascijepljenog i
ravnodunog vremena, dalek i neostvariv ideal, i simbol iste pjesnike inspiracije koja
sama stvara, iz sebe, iz sopstvenog osjeanja svijeta.
Kljune rijei: Rilke, Devinske elegije, aneo, ljepota, stvaranje
Govorei o Rilkeovom stvaralatvu, mnogo i raznoliko tokom itavog dvadesetog vijeka, tumai su u jednom saglasni: da su Devinske elegije i odmah uz
njih Soneti posveeni Orfeju onaj vrhunac kojem tee i u kojem se sustiu sve niti pjesnikog ivota istinski izjednaenog s poezijom i do kraja podreenog njenom stvaranju, kakav je Rilkeov bio. Oba ova ciklusa nastala su u posljednjoj,
tzv. subjektivno-objektivnoj fazi Rilkeovog stvaranja. Ona nastupa poslije zaokreta u koncepciji pjesnikog stvaranja, iju je neminovnost Rilke prepoznao. O
tome svjedoi Preokret (Wendung) iz 1914. godine:
Zavreno je djelo oiju,
Vri sad djelo srca
Na slikama u sebi zarobljenim58
58
Ukoliko nije drugaije naglaeno, Rilkeovi stihovi navedeni su u prijevodu Branimira ivojinovia:
Rilke, R. M. 1968. Lirika. Beograd: Prosveta; Rilke, R. M. 1986. Izabrane pjesme. Beograd: Nolit; Kri-
115
116
Novi zadatak Rilkeove poezije je da zagospodari samosvojnim, nagomilanim

impresijama i da stvori poeziju u kojoj je ljubav snaga to rasvjetljava i ini
stvarnim. Pjesnik postaje svjestan da su se njegova mnogobrojna iskustva stopila u jednom duhu, da od mnogih lica moe napraviti jedno lice, od mnogih ena jednu enu (Baura 1970: 78-79).
Godine poslije 1912. u Rilkeovom ivotu obiljeene su iskustvom rata i
bolesti koja napreduje, stalnim traenjem utoita za krhko lirsko bie, ali i
potpunom zrelou pjesnike misli koja dolazi do vrhunske artikulacije.
Manjkavosti koje se ponekad pripisuju Novim pjesmama (objavljene 19071908) ne mogu se nai ni u elegijama iz Devinskog ciklusa, ni u Sonetima posveenim Orfeju. Do savrenstva izbruena forma u potpunom je skladu sa britkom pjesnikovom milju, a zbog tematske sveobuhvatnosti za oba se ciklusa bez dvoumljenja moe rei da u sebi sadre najvanija pitanja i tenje svih pjesnika svih
vremena.
Elegije Devinskog ciklusa59 zamiljene su i ostvarene tako da ine jedinstvenu cjelinu. Njihovo jedinstvo je pjesniko. Ono se oituje na formalno-kompozicijskom60, stilskom i tematskom nivou, kao i u domenu raspoloenja i atmosfere. Da iz teksta Elegija nije nemogue izvui i povezan sistem uvjerenja, svjedoe brojne interpretacije, naroito iz druge polovine 20. vijeka61.
Poput veine elegija novog vremena i Rilkeove elegije su tubalice. U najirem smislu pjesnik tui zbog nedomaivosti ljudske sree, preciznije: zbog
nesposobnosti ovjeka koji voli da voli na takav nain koji bi uinio moguim
istinsko ispunjenje ljubavi (Gadamer 1974: 155). U skladu sa tim preovladava
sjetno raspoloenje, sumoran ton. Ipak, za veinu Elegija se moe rei da svojom poentom tee pobijanju negacije, odnosno da u svoje zavrne strofe pokuvokapi, M. 2001. Antologija nemake lirike. Od Getea do naih dana. Sremski Karlovci Novi Sad:
Izdavaka knjiarnica Zorana Stojanovia.
59
Devinske elegije (Duineser Elegien) nastaju u rasponu od deset godina. Prva i Druga napisane su
1912. u Devinu kraj Trsta. Odmah zatim, 19131914., slijede Trea i etvrta, a onda godinama nastaju samo fragmenti i nedovrene verzije. Ciklus je zaokruen 1922., za svega tri nedjelje, u bezmalo
udnom nadahnuu. Rilke je kasnije govorio da je zavravajui Elegije osjeao prisustvo sile koja
stvara mimo njega. Na slian nain govorio je i o prvom stihu Prve elegije, kao o glasu izdvojenom iz
huke oluje onda u Devinu. Tako shvaene Devinske elegije se esto navode kao primjer vrhunske
inspiracije. Tim prije to su njihov zavretak pretekli Soneti posveeni Orfeju, nastali takoe u jednom dahu, za svega nekoliko dana. Oni su, tvrdi Rilke u pismu Hulevicu, istog roenja kao i Elegije.
Nezavisno od pjesnikovih naknadnih objanjenja, ova dva ciklusa su komplementarna i neophodno
je prilikom tumaenja jednog imati drugi u vidu.
60
H. Kuni smatra da svaka od elegija ima svoje tano odreeno, nepromjenljivo mjesto i da je
zbirka ciklinog karaktera. Vie kod: Kunisch, H. 1975. Dasein und Dichtung. Berlin. 217 i. d.
61
Najpoznatije su: Hamburger, K. 1966. Philosophie der Dichter. Stuttgart; Guardini, R. 1977. Reiner
Maria Rilkes Deutung des Daseins. Mnchen; Bollnow, O. F. 1951. Rilke. Stuttgart; Heidegger, M.
2003. Wozu Dichter. Holzwege. Frankfurt a. M., 248-320; Meyer, H. 1963. Die Verwandlung des
Sichtbaren. Die Bedeutung der modernen bildenden Kunst fr Rilkes spte Dichtung. Zarte Empirie.
Studien zur Literaturgeschichte. Stuttgart, 287-336.
avaju integrisati motive koji se prema veem dijelu prethodno izloenog

sadraja odnose antitetski (Kravar 1983: 90). Zavretak je tako u afirmativnom
ili bar utjenom tonu. To vai i za ciklus u cjelini i u tome se Rilke naslanja na velike uzore elegije novog vremena: Getea, Helderlina, Greja. Elegijska spoznaja
vodi pjesnika ka iznalaenju mogunosti za prevladavanje tuge.
Sve Devinske elegije, osim etvrte i Osme, pisane su slobodnim stihom sa
reminiscencijama na antiki heksametar i pentametar, odnosno slobodno oblikovanim klasinim elegijskim distihom. Za etvrtu i Osmu Rilke bira njemaki
ekvivalent blank versa koji je i ranije u njemakom pjesnitvu korien kao stih
elegijske poezije, pogotovo u pjesmama sa temom smrti, umiranja i zagrobnog
ivota.62 Oba ova stiha, viestruko obiljeena tradicijom, unaprijed unose jasne
semantike impulse u Elegije, ega je Rilke bio svjestan. Istovremeno, oni
savreno odgovaraju uzbuenoj, diskurzivnoj misli pjesnika dozvoljavaju joj da
se slobodno razvija i povodi za sopstvenim asocijacijama, ali je i zadravaju da
se ne prelije preko njegovih ivica i ne zaluta u podruje nerazaznajnosti. U tom
smislu se treba saglasiti sa Baurom koji tvrdi da je stih Elegija najpodesniji da
izrazi tanane i krivudave pokrete due koja opti sama sa sobom (1970: 81).
Stilsko jedinstvo Devinskog ciklusa ogleda se u ravnomernom rasporeivanju
dva usaglaena stilska kompleksa. Svaka elegija nosi obiljeja karakteristinog
autorskog stila. Prepoznajemo tipine rilkeovske obrte i duga, razvijena poreenja, specifinu upotrebu opkoraenja i stalno korienje simbola. Sa druge strane,
Rilke u Elegijama po prvi put posee i za sredstvima klasinog visokog stila. Koristi
velike i snane metafore i perifraze, neretko nagomilane, onomatopejske efekte i
izrazito sloenu sintaksu (Kravar 1983: 81). U tome je Rilke u pokuaju obnove
antikih lirskih vrsta i na tragu najveih njemakih liriara.
Ovih deset izrazito refleksivnih pjesama spada u korpus neprozirne i teko
razumljive poezije iji je smisao nemogue do kraja obuhvatiti i odrediti. One
iznose sadraje dublje ili bar drugaije od sadraja pjesnikih djela koja izvjetavaju o linom ili istorijskom svijetu otprilike onako kako san iznosi odnose
koje budni ivot ne poznaje ili ne eli poznavati (Guardini 1977: 13). Teme
otvorene u prve dvije elegije razvijaju se i obogauju novim motivima i specifinim promjenama take gledita i raspoloenja lirskog subjekta kroz koja se
prelamaju. U stalnoj nadogradnji konstituiu se brojni odgovori, nikad konani,
ali se i pitanja neprekidno produbljuju. Centralna lirska instanca koja misli pita
se o svijetu (Welt) i o unutranjem prostoru svijeta (Weltinnenraum), o ovjeku
kao biu uzglobljenom u prostorne, vremenske i meuljudske odnose, koje
osjea, razmilja i moe da voli, ali i o biima i stvarima koje ovjeka okruuju i
odreuju; konano o mogunosti ivota uopte, te o smrti kao njegovom neodvojivom dijelu. Lirski subjekat pritom nikad ne gubi iz vida sopstvenu poziciju
62
Rilke u Novim pjesmama koristi razvezani jedanaesterac za pjesme Alkestida i Orfej. Euridika.
Hermes.
117
118
pjesnika u rasparanom i ranjenom svijetu63, koji se odrekao ljepote i prepustio

jeftinim zabavama, poziciju pjesnika u oskudnom vremenu.
Suverenim kretanjem kroz polje sopstvenog iskustva taj svjesni pjesnik,
nadreena lirska instanca, obezbjeuje tematsko-idejno jedinstvo Elegija. Stvari, vidljive i nevidljive, viene, doivljene i nasluene, preobraene snagom njegovog ljudskog iskustva i pjesnike misli, postaju put ka vrhunskoj elegijskoj
spoznaji i simboli te spoznaje. Najkontroverznija od njih, istovremeno najprotivurjenija fikcija cjelokupne Rilkeove poezije, je aneo Devinskog ciklusa.
Aneo iz Elegija, pie Rilke Hulevicu, nema nieg zajednikog sa anelom
hrianskog neba. On je onaj stvor u kome je preobraaj vidljivog u nevidljivo
koji inimo, ve zavren.64 Aneo je izrazito simbolina figura. U njemu je data
slika ostvarenog ideala kome, iz oaja svoje savremenosti, lirski subjekat tei i
kao ovjek i kao pjesnik. Lirski subjekat je jedan od ljudi koji dijele istu sudbinu
na zemlji prvo lice jednine ne samo da nosi znaenje mnoine (ja kao svaki
ovjek), nego esto i gramatiki prelazi u prvo lice mnoine. Istovremeno, lirski
subjekat je svjestan svog pjesnikog bia koje, obuzeto egzistencijalnom strepnjom, vidi i osjea dublje nego drugi ljudi. Kao pjesnik on je osuen da se bori sa
nedostatkom stvaralake snage i inspiracije. Ova dva plana se preklapaju u taki
u kojoj Rilke, slino Helderlinu, individualnu pjesniku problematiku vidi kao
egzistencijalnu problematiku modernog ovjeka (Vern 1985: 234), u taki u
kojoj se pjesnitvo i postojanje izjednauju. Aneo je otud najmanje dvostruki
simbol. Simbol idealno harmoninog bia u kojem je ostvareno bezuslovno predavanje sopstvenom osjeanju, to je za ovjeka rascijepljenog i ravnodunog
vremena, dalek i neostvariv ideal, i simbol iste pjesnike inspiracije koja sama
stvara, iz sebe, iz sopstvenog osjeanja svijeta. Ishodite ove dvostruke simbolike je jedna ista sposobnost anela na osnovu koje ga Gadamer odreuje kao
uvstvovanje koje ne rastae sebe, nego ostaje u sebi, jer takvo uvstvovanje
obuzima ovjeka (Gadamer 2002: 156).
Od poetka Devinskog ciklusa aneo se pojavljuje kao superioran nad ovjekom i ljudskim. Retoriko pitanje kojim se Prva elegija otvara viestruko sugerie
distancu i nadmo anela nad ovjekom, kao i dubok oaj lirskog subjekta:
Ko bi da kriknem, ko bi me uo iz eta
aneoskih?
Utisak snanog uzbuenja ostvaren je time to se pitanje proiruje na drugi
stih, pa znak pitanja u sredini ostavlja glas da lebdi u vazduhu. Aneli su vii,
izvanljudski poredak, toliko iznad ovjeka da ni krik do njih ne dopire. Odnos
lirskog subjekta prema anelu je ambivalentan. Stremljenju uvis iz prvih stihova
63
64
U svojim pismima Rilke je I Svjetski rat nazivao ranom Evrope koja nikad nee zacijeliti.
Prevod A. Stamaa u: Rilke, R. M. 1979. Arhajski torzo. Zagreb, 386.
suprotstavljen je strah. Aneosko bie (Dasein) snanije je od ovjekovog i u dodiru s njim ovjek bi iilio, ak kad bi dodir mogao biti blagonaklono privijanje
na srce. Razornost ovog nadljudskog bia dovedena je u direktnu vezu sa ljepotom. Gnomski iskaz65 o ljepoti ne samo da poinje u istom stihu u kome je
zatvorena slika rastakanja ovjeka u dodiru s anelom, nego je sa njom povezana uzronim odnosom. Preko pojma stranog kojim se ljepota odreuje, a
potom, etiri stiha nie, i aneo, postignuto je najdirektnije pribliavanje:
Jer ta je lepota,
ako ne sam poetak stranog,
[]
Svaki je aneo straan.
Ljepota je atribut anela i izvor njegove razorne snage. Kroz naglaenu vezu
anela i ljepote reprodukovana je slika ideala pred kojim se ovjek opominje
svojih ogranienja i slabosti, nesposobnosti da bezuslovno voli i ne rastae se
nego narasta u tom osjeanju. U drugom dijelu iste strofe lirski subjekat progovara o ljudskom. Ljepota je toliko iznad ovjeka da prezrivo odbija ak i da ga razori.
Anele ne moemo zvati u pomo. Ideal kakav oni otjelovljuju za ovjeka je,
izgleda, nedomaiv. Direktno obraanje u Drugoj elegiji, meutim, sugerie promjenu pogleda na stvari: lirski subjekat sada podrazumijeva da aneli makar uju
njegov glas.
Eksplicirano je da se lirski subjekat obraa iz pozicije pjesnika:
ja vas opjevam, gotovo smrtonosne
ptice due
Ako duu ovdje shvatimo kao vjeni, nepropadljivi dio ovjekovog bia,
aneli bi mogli odgovarati predstavi lakokrilih posrednika to due pravednika
predaju Bogu. Jednostrano tumaenje u hrianskom kljuu kod Rilkea je, meutim, nemogue66, iako ovakav semantiki potencijal metafore ukazuje na
Rilkeovu svijest o tradicionalnoj predstavi anela koju on modifikuje i postavlja
na druge osnove67. Ali ako duu ovdje shvatimo kao metonimiju ljudskog bia,
onda su aneli smrtonosni dui, to podrava predstavu anela iz Prve elegije.
Ta veza je ve sugerisana ponavljanjem gnomskog polustiha iz Prve na poetku
Druge elegije.
65
Jo jedno od sredstava visokog stila za kojima Rilke rado posee.

O tome vie kod Fraja, 147
67
Rilkeov odnos prema antikom i hrianskom mitu je u mnogome romantiarski. On aktualizuje
mit dovodei ga u vezu sa modernim egzistencijalnim i poetskim problemima. Postupak je karakteristian za neke od Novih pjesama, a naroito za Sonete posveene Orfeju.
66
119
120
Ali time semantiki potencijal metafore jo nije iscrpljen. Shvatanje due

kao sinonima duevnosti otvara novi uvid. Aneli su bia iz sfere apsolutne
osjeajnosti. Oni lako i krilato uvstvuju iz sebe i u sebi. To je eksplicirano ve u
narednoj strofi, a posebno zaotreno u Devetoj elegiji, gdje je osjeajnost anela ponovo odreena naspram ovjekove: on u svemiru osjea osjeajnije.
Autentina emocija za ovjeka je nedostian ideal, dodir sa anelom koji tako
osjea nezamisliv, smrtonosan ak.
Posredstvom motiva iz apokrifne Knjige o Tobiji uvedena je slika ideala realizovanog u mitskoj, neistorijskoj prolosti u kojoj je ovjek sa anelom bio na ti
mogao da osjea sa njim i kao on. Predstavi ljupkog anela iza Tobijinih lea,
preuzetoj iz italijanske umjetnosti, otro kontrastira predstava opasnog arhanela sadanjosti koji je i prostorno smjeten iza zvijezda, pa je njegov korak
ka ovjeku, korak nanie.
Naglaena ubojitost anela konkretizovana je slikom srca koje pred pojavom
arhanela samo sebe ubija. Umire se od straha, umire se od ljubavi. Poviena
emocionalna napregnutost i na nivou forme postignuta je upotrebom aliteracije:
hochaufschlagend erschlug uns das eigene Herz
uzbujalim bi nas zamahom
ubilo srce sopstveno.
Nedoumice o prirodi i znaenju anela ima i sam lirski subjekat. Tvrdnji u
treem stihu Svjestan sam ta ste vi? kontrastira pitanje ve na kraju posljednjeg Ko ste vi?. To pitanje je intonacijski rez i prelaz ka drugoj strofi koja se u
odnosu na njega formira kao odgovor. U literaturi o Rilkeu ova se druga strofa
naziva aneoskom68. Budui u cjelosti u apostrofi, ona oivljava odnos lirskog
subjekta prema anelima kojima se obraa, ini ga neposrednijim i toplijim.
Aneli su dovedeni u vezu sa stvaranjem, zainjanjem, oploujuom snagom. Oni su miljenad stvaranja, poleni cvjetnog boanstva. Budui da je
cvijet kod Rilkea gotovo uvijek simbol pjesnike rijei, aneo ovdje postaje i
pjesnikov ideal.
etvrti stih aneoske strofe jedan je od najljepih stihova Elegija. U njemu
su aneli apostrofirani kao
zglobovi svjetla, hodnici, stubita, prestolja,
68
Aneoskim se nazivaju i Prva, Druga, Sedma i Deveta elegija jer je i u njima motiv anela
centralni.
Sve su to simbolini oblici koji, po Fraju, uzimaju povlaene epifanijske

ravni iz mitova i narodnih pria. Aneli su izjednaeni sa mitskim znamenjem
ljepote koja preobraava. U najuoj vezi sa stvaranjem, svjetlou i uspinjanjem
kretanjem po vertikali na gore motiv anela zadobija u ovoj strofi vitalno
znaenje, za razliku od poetnih stihova prve dvije Elegije gdje je u vezi sa strahom i umiranjem, figurirao uglavnom kao letalni motiv. U anelu su objedinjeni
ivotodajno i smrtonosno, stvaranje i ukidanje postaju cjelina u njemu.
Aneli se, dalje, prvi put eksplicitno izjednaavaju sa osjeanjem:
vreva olujno ushienog osjeanja
Doivljavamo ih kao bia u stalnom kretanju, vrenju, uskovitlanosti, emu
na nivou strofe, formalno, doprinosi oblik asindetona u kojem su nanizane pojedinane metaforine slike, ukljuujui i ovu. Nizanjem je postignut efekat beskrajnog irenja asocijativnog spektra, pri emu je asocijativnost lirski rasplinuta,
ak intuitivna, pa doputa razliite vrste itanja. Zakljunu sliku u nizu ipak doivljavamo kao poentu jer je ritam naglo usporen, tako to je slika anela kao
ogledala obrazloena itavom zavisnom reenicom tako da obuhvata poslednja
dva stiha strofe, a kljuna rije ogledalo istaknuta je kurzivom. Aneli su ogledala vrhunske ljepote koja je duboko unutranja, duhovna i istovremeno, samoobnavljajua
ogledala:
koja svoju lepotu, iz njih istrujalu,
crpu da ponovo ue u lice sopstveno.
Aneli su zatvorena i u sebi zaokruena, samodovoljna bia koja stvaraju lako, u sebi, iz vihora sopstvenog uvstva. Osjeajui oni ne gube sebe, ne razdaju
se ljubei.
Predstava anela upotpunjena je u narednoj strofi, u kojoj je fokus, po suprotnosti, pomjeren na ljudsko. Ljepota je konkretizovana u onima koji su lepi.
Probljesak na njihovom licu podsjea nas neodreeno na ono o emu nae bie
tei, ali je njihov odlazak nemogue sprijeiti69. Na efemernost svega to je
ljudsko ukazano je viestruko, ak i probljesak sa lijepih lica odlazi. Poreenje ko
rosa s trave jutarnje dvostruko je funkcionalno:
Neprestano iz njinog lica izbija problesak
pa nekud ode. Ko rosa s trave jutarnje
die se nae sa nas, ko jara
s vreloga jela.
69
Ovdje treba imati u vidu vezu ljepote i smrti u uvenoj ilerovoj elegiji Nenija. Ljepota proslavljena, opjevana, iako smrtna, u umjetnosti ostaje vjeno da ivi.
121
122
Iz najdublje spoznaje ovjekove nemogunosti, sa bljutavosti njegove due,70

pogled se, ipak, die u visinu. Prvi put, ovdje, probija mogunost afirmisanja ljudskog na ta nedvosmisleno upuuje kurzivno mi odmah iza vapaja
avaj meni: ta mi smo to.
Moda ipak u aneoskom ima malice i naeg bia? Niz retorikih pitanja
ukazuje na snano uzbuenje lirskog ja i izaziva slino uzbuenje kod itaoca.
Da li smo propleteni u crte njihovih lica
makar toliko koliko nejasna slutnja
u lica trudnih ena? Oni to ne primeuju
sred vihora svog povratka sebi a i kako bi?
ovjek je jo neroeno dijete u odnosu na anela. Posljednja dva stiha
podvlae jo jednom superiornu samodovoljnost anela u njegovom ivom
uvstvu, a pitanje na kraju predstavlja intonacijski rez, prelazak na mirniji ton i
promiljanje o ljudskom.
Motiv anela potpuno izostaje u Treoj elegiji, da bi se u etvrtoj, koja
donosi vienje ljudskog ivota kao lutkarske pozornice pojavio, kao razrjeujui.
Ljudi su poluispunjene (ili poluispranjene?) maske. Ravnoduni, ak i prema
mrtvima i onima koji ih vole, izmislili su konvencije, pravila po kojima igraju
svoje uloge i koja na pozornici upravljaju njima. Slika ivota bez osjeanja
priziva, po kontrastu, u neodreenoj budunosti, sliku ostvarenog ideala, u
kojoj glavnu ulogu igra aneo.
tu [se] mora aneo
pojaviti i dii lutke u vis.
Lutka i aneo: tek ovo bie
konano pozorite.
Aneo die lutke u vis. On je vrhovni spiritus movens koji mijenja jadno
stanje sadanje, simbol apsolutnog osjeanja koje oivljava. U slici ostvarenog
ideala aneo postaje prisan ovjeku. Iako je i dalje nad nama prestaje da bude
straan i smrtonosan.
Onda e se
sastati ono to mi neprestano
odeljujemo postojei. Tek e
70
Poreenje iz posljednjeg stiha priziva poznatu sliku Eme Bovari za trpezarijskim stolom i njen
cjelokupni semantiki potencijal.
onda od naih doba godinjih

nastati venac celog bitisanja.
Igrae onda aneo nad nama.
Stav lirskog subjekta izmijenjen je u pravcu afirmisanja zemaljskog. On se
odluuje za gledanje i ekanje pred pozornicom do vremena ispunjenja, za upijanje svega ovdanjeg u sebe. To je prelaz ka osjeanju, korak ka ljubljenju postojeeg. Ovdje probueno vjerovanje u mogunost realizovanja ideala utvrivae se u pjesniku do kraja Elegija sve vre. Aneo e se nadalje pojavljivati u
onim pjesnikim situacijama, gdje tu mogunost treba da posvjedoi.
Slika ivota u Petoj elegiji jo je sumornija od prethodne, fokus je pomjeren
na tragian poloaj djece u svijetu. Djeca, kao i ivotinje, za Rilkea su simbol
prostog i skladnog postojanja koje se ne pita ni o prolosti, ni o budunosti. Djeca ive potpunim, samodovoljnim ivotom koji ne odjeljuje (Baura 1970: 85) i
po tome su bliski anelu. Motiv distorzije njihovog skladnog, istog bivstvovanje
me svijetom i me igrakom, uveden na kraju etvrte elegije, razvija se u Petoj
kroz evokaciju Pikasovih Les Saltimbaques. Predstava ivota kao lutkarske pozornice preobrazila u istorodnu sliku cirkuske predstave, na arenom ilimu
izgubljenom u svemiru. Ljudi su akrobate u vlasti nikad zadovoljne volje. Djeak
kojega pred licima posmatraa neprekidno bacaju u vazduh, na kraju se ipak
osmjehuje. Osmjeh povezuje dijete i anela koji je pozvan da osmjeh sauva.
Lirski subjekat mu se obraa u apostrofi to sumorni ton prethodne slike mijenja u ton pouzdanja:
Anele! O, uzmi, uzberi tu sitnocvetu
lekovitu biljku.
Osmjeh djeteta, ini se, moe da izlijei rasparano ovjeanstvo. On je izraz
istinske radosti kakve nama, odijeljenima, jo nisu otvorene. Kurzivom istaknuto
jo sugerie sigurnost pjesnika da bolja ljudska mogunost jo moe da doe. A
aneo, dozvan na ovom mjestu, svjedok je te izvjesnosti, tu mogunost treba
da uva i velia.
Zanimljivo je da osmjeh skakaa treba kao posmrtni ostatak sauvati u urni.
Indirektno je smrt smjetena u sjedite za nas jo neotkrivenih radosti. Od
etvrte elegije kao jedna od centralnih razvija se ideja o neophodnosti promjene ovjekovog stava prema smrti. Smrt je samo prividno nepravda. Shvaena
kao jedinstveni i neodvojivi dio ivota otkriva ovjeku nove radosti.
Pitanje o vremenu prerasta na kraju Pete elegije u pitanje o mjestu ispunjenja.
Anele! Da postoji neko mjesto, koje
ne znamo.
123
124
Slika idealnog mjesta realizovana je preko motiva ljubavnika, u direktnom

kontrastu s prethodno razvijenom metaforom ivota kao pariskog trga.71 U
prvom planu je opet neophodnost autentinog osjeanja i potpunog predavanja
ljubavi koja je kao ist uzlet srca obiljeena atributima uspinjanja ka visini
kula, ljestvice.
Da Rilkeovo idealno mjesto nije neki drugi, prostorno izmjeten svijet
implicirano je time to se ova slika, kao i prethodne, razvija na identinom fonu
pozornice ovdje je to ulina predstava, i time to su ljubavnici na ilimu, koji
od poetka Pete elegije figurira kao simbol zemaljskog svijeta. ovjek ne treba
da trai izvan poznatih prostornih i vremenskih sfera. Vrijeme i mjesto osmiljenog ivota nisu izvanzemaljske kategorije. Oni su objedinjeni u ljudskom srcu72
kada se ono raskrili i osposobi za istinsku ljubav i radost, za potpuno predavanje
osjeanju. Ljubavnici iz poslednje strofe koji se istinito osmjehuju i pred koje se
bacaju veno vaei novii sree Rilkeova su slika raja na zemlji.
U estoj elegiji motiv anela izostaje, ali se u njenoj prvoj strofi ukrtaju
motivi stvaranja i ljepote, s anelom u direktnoj vezi. Predmet divljenja je smokvino drvo, jedinstveno po tome to bezmalo sasvim preskae cvijet. Njegova
ljepota nije pojavna, hvalisava, nego je ostvarena u plodu, direktnim pretakanjem sokova zemlje. Ljepota nije samo slika, ukras, ve pun plod kroz koji probija tajna vjenog nastajanja, a stvaranje ljepote nije puko gledanje, ve duboko
unutranje poniranje i istiskivanje plodnog, ivotodajnog iz sebe, kao u aluziji na
mitoloku priu o porijeklu lijepe Jelene, kroz koju se ljepota i direktno
apostrofira:
Gle: kao bog u labuda.
Ovakav stav vodi ka Sedmoj elegiji koja donosi potpuni zaokret u odnosu
prema zemaljskom. Afirmativni ton trijumfuje u poznatom uskliku:
Divno je biti na zemlji.
Nov stav omoguen je uvoenjem kljunog motiva preobraaja i potpunim
pomjeranjem u unutranji prostor svijeta, u svijest.
Nigde, dragano, nee postojati svet sem u nama
71
Jedna od najupeatljivijih slika Devinskih elegija: ljudske sudbine su kao eiri na pariskom trgu,
razliiti tek koliko su razliite trake koje modiskinja Madam Lamort na njima splie; razlikuju nas
samo nai zemaljski putevi do smrti.
72
Gdje, o gdje je to mjesto ja ga nosim u srcu. Lirski subjekat govori kao ovjek i kao pjesnik,
stvaralac.
Lirski subjekat govori iz pozicije sopstvenog vremena koje naziva tmulim.

On je od razbatinjenih kojima je nemogue da poslije godina krvi, straha i umiranja, vjeruju u ideale kakvi su prolosti bili dovoljni. Svaka budunost izgleda
nemogua. Ali lirski subjekat je pjesnik, pa je njegov odgovor na tminu vremena, istovremeno vrla mogunost osmiljenog boravka na zemlji i svojevrsni
umjetniki credo. U taki preobraaja za lirsko ja poklapaju se ivot i umjetnost.
To je taka u kojoj se preklapaju dva nivoa itanja Devinskih elegija. Preobraaj
je pounutrenje, preobraanje vidljive stvarnosti u unutranje i nevidljivo73 u cilju
preosmiljavanja i ouvanja. Promjenljive ivotne pojave u duhu se ljubavlju
preobraavaju, oblikuju, boje linim bojama i tako ponovo oivljavaju vrednije i
trajnije. One se u nas utiskuju trpko i strastveno74, kao sokovi zemlje u smokvino
drvo, kao bog u labuda, i postaju puna ploda ljepota koja ivot ini ne samo
moguim nego i vrijednim ivljenja. Na isti nain impresije, preoblikovane u
duhu umjetnika, postaju vrhunska umjetnika ljepota. ovjek treba da bude
preobraavalac zemaljskog na nain na koji je to umjetnik, da bi ponovo pronaao i ouvao ivotne vrijednosti koje su nekad stajale meu ljudima. Aneo je
bie u kojem je preobraaj ve izvren, jer u njegovom pogledu to vrijednost
ivota izgubljena za ovjeka pjesnikove savremenosti moe da stoji spaseno
najzad konano uspravljeno. Poznati simbol oiju, pogleda kao ogledala due
a aneli su i ogledala! upuuje da se preobraaj odvija u sferi duha.
Uzbuenim tonom, punim pouzdanja, lirski subjekat zaziva anela da velia
zemaljsko. Dovoenjem anela u vezu sa stvarima za koje je ovjek kadar na
zemlji i to preko svetog pjesnikog poziva velianja! te su stvari proglaene
vrijednostima po sebi koje treba sauvati. Vrhunska djela umjetnosti, artr,
muzika, ljubav usamljene djevojke, dokazuju da je ovjek sposoban da prolazno
preobrazi u trajno. Svi ovi simboli bolje ljudske mogunosti obiljeeni su atributima tenje ka visini i boanskom: crkveni toranj, neka kula (moda Vavilonska),
muzika koja dopire jo vie i no kada je dodir sa tajnim i nesaznatljivim bar
naizgled mogu. ovjek je konano odreen kao bie djelatno, u stalnom
stremljenju. Ton ushienja prekinut je snanim udarom u sredini stiha:
Nemoj verovati da te zovem,
Anele, ak i kad bih te zvao. Ti nee doi.
Bliskost ljudskog i aneoskog odjednom je ukinuta. U prvi plan ponovo
izbija kontroverza njihovog odnosa:
Jer poziv moj je uvek prepun odbijanja
73
Rilkeovo nevidljivo Gadamer odreuje kao ono to se ne moe vidjeti ni uhvatiti, a ipak je
stvarno. U ljudskom ljubljenju to je stvarnost njegovog uvstvovanja, koje iziskuje tako neospornu
izvijesnost da ju je nemogue dokazati. (2002: 155-156)
74
Iz pisma Hulevicu.
125
126
Lirsko ja sada govori prije svega kao pjesnik, stvaralac, na ta upuuje motiv
ruke u posljednjim stihovima strofe. Ruka se u Rilkeovoj poeziji pojavljuje u
razliitim znaenjima, u Devinskim elegijama esto kao metonimija ovjeka, nekad upuujui na njegovu djelatnu prirodu, ali ee na rasparanost moderne
egzistencije. Sa druge strane, ruka je svakako i simbol pjesnikog stvaranja,
nerijetko u slici nemoi pjesnika da se izbori sa inspiracijom.
Poreenje se ovdje proiruje na itavu sliku ruke ispruene pred anelom,
sa akom nagore, otvorenom da hvata. Aneo je sredite vrhunske inspiracije
koju pjesnik prieljkuje. Pjesnik je odreen da neprestano hvata trenutke nadahnua i da strepi od svoje nemoi. On je jedan od onih koji streme nagore.
Ruka pjesnika pred anelom stoji i kao odbrana od njegove smrtonosne prirode; i kao zalog, jemstvo da ovjek jeste kadar da se preobraavajui priblii
idealu aneoskog.
Afirmativni odnos prema ljudskom nastavlja se u Devetoj i Desetoj elegiji u
kojima se, u susteku centralnih motiva, formira sr elegijske spoznaje lirskoga
ja. U Osmoj afirmativni ton potpuno izostaje, a indikativno je da u njoj izostaje i
motiv anela. Obiljeena duboko eleginim tonom u najdoslovnijem smislu, ona
otro kontrastira Elegijama meu koje je smjetena, pa na nivou itave zbirke
moe biti shvaena kao najdublji pad u beznae iz kojeg se, do kraja ciklusa,
izdie sve sigurnija nada.
Ve u Devetoj elegiji ton tubalice je prevladan. Dominantni motivi su, preobraaj, aneo i pjesnik. Lirski subjekat se potpuno odluuje za ono zemaljsko,
neopozivo, jedanput.
U dva uzastopna retorika pitanja sugerie ovjekov zemaljski poziv:
Jesmo l mi moda ovde da kaemo: kua,
most, kladenac, vratnice, krag, voka, prozor,
najvie: stub, kula ali da kaemo, razumej,
oh, da kaemo tako kao to stvari same
nikad u sebi nisu mislile da su. Nije li
tajno lukavstvo ove utljive zemlje, kad ini
da se u osjeanju onih koji se vole
stvari sve do jedne u zanos preobraze?
Ono to je aneo u svijetu neizrecivog, ovjek je na zemlji. Ili bi bar mogao
biti.
Ovde je vreme izrecivog, ovde zaviaj njegov.
Reci i ispovedi.
Aneo je i dalje superioran u sferi istog uvstvovanja, u svemiru gdje on

osjea osjeajnije ovjek je novajlija. Ali ljudska mogunost da na zemlji osjea,
voli i preobraava je nesumnjiva i osvjedoena onim to
oblikovano od pokoljenja mnogih
ko naa sopstvenost ivi kraj ruke i u pogledu
Pred tim e ak i aneo ostati zauen. Metafore kraj ruke i u pogledu su
vieznane, ali nedvosmisleno ponovo upuuju na to da se preobraaj odvija u
duhu i da je sutinski mehanizam umjetnikog stvaranja.
Laudativni ton strofe koja poinje imperativom Veliaj, anelu, svijet, u
potpunosti izraava pjesnikovo75 pozvanje: da pred anelom velia ovjekovu
stvaralaku potenciju. Da mu pokae da ovjek jeste kadar da ak i alobni jad
kroz violinu pretoi u vrhunsku ljepotu, u tubalicu. U irem smislu velianje se
odnosi na slavljenje zemaljskog to i nije nita drugo nego pjesnitvo76 koje
prolaznim stvarima na zemlji obezbjeuje vrijednost i trajnost.
I ove stvari, to ive
od umiranja, shvataju da ih ti slavi; prolazne,
one se uzdaju u nas da ih spasemo, u nas
najprolaznije. Hoe da ih potpuno mi
u nevidljivom srcu preobrazimo u oh,
beskonano u sebe! ma ko mi konano bili.
Na minimalnom prostoru sustiu se svi centralni motivi Devinskog ciklusa
kljuni za shvatanje njegove sloene, razuene simbolike anela. Sutinsku
ulogu u preobraavanju igra ljubav. Preobraaj se odvija u nevidljivom srcu tj. u
ljubavi koja je stvarna iako se ne moe vidjeti. Da bismo veliali stvari, moramo
ih voljeti. Ljubav uzdie nau misao do nivoa pune svijesti o vrijednosti onoga
to nam je dato. Otud je aneo, u kojem je preobraaj ve izvren, neminovno i
simbol neograniene i usredsreene ljubavi koja slobodno dejstvuje ne rasipajui se kao kod nevjetih zemaljskih ljubavnika.
Preobraaj nije samo princip umjetnosti, privilegija umjetnika, nego je mogu, ak nuan za svakog ovjeka. Lirski subjekat potpuno se odluuje za zemaljsko i odustaje od pitanja o ovjekovom poloaju van zemaljskih prostora i njegovoj svrsi u vaseljenskom poretku.
Zemljo, voljena, hou. Oh, veruj, ne treba vie
75
Gramatiko drugo lice jednine kojem se ovdje obraa lirsko ja, treba shvatiti kao pjesnika (na isti
nain kao u Prvoj elegiji)
76
U Elegiji posveenoj Marini Cvetajevoj: Hvalimo, mila, tedro, razaspimo se hvalom.
127
128
prolea tvojih da me za tebe pridobiju

[]
Ti si uvek bila u pravu, a prisna je smrt
tvoja pomisao sveta.
ovjek je bie zemlje i odreen je u odnosu na nju. On je preobraavalac zemaljskog. Potencija da voli i ljubavlju preobraava stvari u njihov trajni oblik
osmiljava njegov ivot na zemlji. Ljudska egzistencija jeste jednokratna, ali utoliko jeste vrednija i to jeste je neopozivo.
Motiv velianja povezuje posljednje strofe Devete sa poetkom Desete elegije. Sada pjesnik eli da anelu usklikne hvalu. On ovdje nije vie svjedok hvale
zemaljskog nego slavljenik. Lirsko ja progovara kao pjesnik, pa se njegov usklik
moe protumaiti kao elja da konano ovlada vrhunskom inspiracijom. Aneli
su saglasni kao savrena pjesma nastala u vrhunskom nadahnuu i kao savrena bia u kojima je ostvarena potpuna harmonija. Kao i na poetku ciklusa
aneo je dvostruki ideal. Takvog ga pjesnik slavi.
Himnini ton u Devetoj i Desetoj elegiji potvruju pjesnikovo shvatanje elegije kao vrhunskog umjetnikog oblika. U njoj putem preobraaja neugledni pla
moe da procvjeta. Pjesnikovi savremenici odreeni su kao rasipai bolova.
Nesposobni da zavole svoje bolove,77 kupuju gotove utjehe da ih ugue. Metaforom pijaca utehe koju omeava crkva izraena je bijeda ljudskog, komercijalizovanog svijeta u kome se bolovi lijee za novac ili obeanjima prekogrobnog ivota78. Aneo se ovdje pojavljuje posljednji put u Devinskom ciklusu.
O, kako bi bez traga aneo izgazio
Njihovu pijacu utehe, koju omeava crkva
Aneo je ponovo straan, unititelj. Njegova ruiteljska energija pogaa najnitavnije ljudsko ispoljavanje, ogrezlo u materijalno i pojavno koje se nikada ne
moe uzdii do mjesta gdje ljubav moe dejstvovati slobodnije, a misao sa punom svijeu o tome ta je vrijedno imati (Baura 1970: 93).
Meutim, za a one koji se u domenu zemaljskog u kome su odreeni, nisu
unaprijed odrekli vrhunske mogunosti da vole, ak i ako je ivot prolazan i ljubav nije zauvijek aneo nije razara. Za njih je on svijetlo pouzdanje, vrhunski
ideal koji vie ne izgleda sasvim nedosean. To su junaci, djeca, ljubavnici i u
prvom redu pjesnik. Kontroverzno uvoenje motiva anela preko straha i divljenja u Prvoj elegiji u Desetoj je dobilo svoj odgovor u njegove dvije razliite
pojave. Aneo je razara, ali i stvaralac, ivi duh pjesme koji pripada objema
77
O tome Rilke pie na nekoliko mjesta u pismima.

Do kraja slike postaje sasvim jasno da najvei ovjekov bol u stvari jeste strah koji ishodi iz svijesti
o smrtnosti.
78
sferama ivota79, vrhunska inspiracija. On je mitska ljepota, utoliko uzvienija

to nastaje iz sopstvene snage i plodnosti i ostaje puna, u sebi zaokruena. Konano, aneo je isto uvstvovanje, neophodno za stvaranje i smislenog ivota i
lijepe umjetnosti.
Literatura:
Baura, S. M. Rajner Marija Rilke. Naslee simbolizma. Beograd: Nolit, 1970.
Blano, M. Rilke i zahtevanje smrti.Eseji. Beograd: Nolit, 1960.
Fraj, N. Anatomija kritike. Novi Sad: Orpheus, Nolit, 2007.
Gadamer, H. G. Mitopoetski preokret u Rilkeovim Devinskim
elegijama.Filozofija i poezija. Beograd: Slubeni list SRJ, 2002. 153-65.
Guardini, R. "Reiner Maria Rilkes Deutung des Daseins." Mnchen: Ksel, 1977.
Kravar, Z. "Zapaanja o Osmoj elegiji R. M. Rilkea." Knjievna smotra 51-52 (1983):
88-116.
Kunisch, H. Dasein und Dichtung. Berlin: Duncker&Humbolt, 1975.
Pule, . Metamorfoza kruga. Novi Sad, 1993.
Vern, D. "Problem mita u evropskom simbolizmu." Srpski simbolizam. Tipoloka
prouavanja. Beograd: SANU, 1985.
THE ANGEL OF THE DUINO ELEGIES

The angel of Rilkes Duino Elegies is a multiple symbol. As a human and a
poet, Rilke strives to move from the despair of his time toward the ideal. He is a
human who shares the same fate on the earth with his contemporaries, but he is
also an aware poet, who, possessed by existential fear, sees and feels more
deeply than others. As a poet, he is sentenced to struggle with a lack of creative
power and inspiration. As with Holderlin, two levels of meaning overlap at the
point where the poetry and the existence meet. The angel is therefore at least a
double symbol: it represents an ideal harmonious being that gives itself over
unconditionally to its own feelings (a distant and unrealizable ideal to the people
of poets indifferent age). In addition, the angel is a symbol of pure poetic
inspiration, which creates on its own, from itself, from its own feeling about the
world.
Key words: Rilke, Duino Elegies, angel, beauty, creation
79
Aneli (pria se) hode i meu ivima i meu mrtvima
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UDK 821.111(73).09
Amerika gotska knjievnost

C. B. Brown i ponovno roenje anra
Marko Luki
Univerzitet u Zadru
Apstrakt: Tranzicijski period koji je prethodio stvaranju autohtonog amerikog

knjievnog izriaja nije bio iskljuivo obiljeen utjecajima europske mainstream
knjievnosti. Uz dominantnu naraciju pojavljuje se i gotska knjievna tradicija koja sa
sobom donosi narativne strukture gotovo iskljuivo posveene kritikom promiljanju
drutva i razliitih drutvenih fenomena, te izricanju razliitih nacionalnih anksioznosti.
Prilikom analize tranzicije iz europskog knjievnog okruenja prema nastajuoj amerikoj knjievnoj sceni mogue je izdvojiti jednog autora i njegov kljuni doprinos
uspjenoj prilagodbi gotskog anra koji je do tog trenutka bio gotovo iskljuivo pod
europskim drutvenim i kulturalnim utjecajem. Izmjenom i prilagodbom odreenih
europskih osobina anra Charles Brockden Brown ukljuuje elemente amerikog
imaginarija u svoju naraciju, kreirajui istovremeno kritiki osvrt na ameriko drutvo
ali i pruajui na taj nain novu energiju anru koji e viestruko utjecati na daljnji
razvoj amerike knjievnosti.
Kljune rijei: knjievnost, amerika gotika, C. B. Brown, tranzicija, adaptacija,
anksioznost, ponovno nastajanje
Prilikom razmatranja bilo kojeg tipa anrovske knjievnosti, neovisno o njenoj

uspjenosti ili zastupljenosti i prihvaenosti unutar mainstream kulture, kritiki
osvrti opetovano ukazuju na njenu manjkavost, najee zanemarujui odlike
koje ju ine toliko popularnom. Ovo je posebno istinito u sluaju prosuivanja i
analiziranja gotskog knjievnog anra ija sklonost nadnaravnom i neuobiajenom
nadilazi bilo koji drugi oblik anrovske produkcije. Gotski se anr tako pozicionira,
barem u oima kritike, na rubovima knjievnog stvaralatva, odakle, koritenjem
donekle subverzivnih narativnih pristupa i openito tema, ukazuje na odreene
anksioznosti drutva koje ga okruuje. Prednost takvog oprenog postavljanja
naspram ustaljenih i opeprihvaenih knjievnih kanona ukazuje na dvije relevantne injenice. S jedne strane, sama injenica da je anr pozicioniran izvan
konteksta mainstream knjievnosti ini ga marginaliziranim i getoiziranim kao
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manje vrijednim. Kao razlozi tome navode se nesklonost anra spram kompleksnih jezinih izriaja, tendencija ka predodreenim narativnim strukturama i
zapletima, te openito odabir tema koje, makar u prvi tren, ne problematiziraju
izravno poziciju ovjeka unutar samog drutva. S druge strane upravo ovakvo
marginaliziranje i neshvaanje gotskog anra kao umjetniki relevantnog segmenta knjievnoga stvaralatva prua tom istom anru nesluenu slobodu. Lien
odgovornosti propitkivanja egzistencijalnih, drutvenih ili pak politikih problematika, gotski anr uiva potpunu slobodu izriaja kao i neoptereenost utjecajima dominantnih drutvenih ili kulturolokih diskurza. No namjera ove analize nije
pojanjavanje vanosti gotske knjievnosti unutar ireg drutvenog konteksta, niti
elaboriranje vrijednosti samog anra i proizale knjievne produkcije. Ono to bi
moglo biti postavljeno kao svojevrsni analitiki cilj jest ukazivanje i analiza specifinog trenutka, unutar dijakronijskog razvoja anra, u sklopu kojeg dolazi do
kljunih izmjena postavki anra te do poetka njegove modernizacije. Izmijene
koje su se odvijale i koje e se nastaviti odvijati na amerikom tlu, umjesto na
europskom gdje se anr prvotno i razvio, obiljeit e ne samo formativni razvoj
amerike knjievnosti, ve i cijelo dvadeseto i dvadeset i prvo stoljee.
Sam poetak analize i poetak dijakronijskog pregleda nuno je pritom zapoeti ne u novonastaloj naciji ve u samim korijenima anra i europskoj, odnosno
engleskoj, knjievnosti nastaloj u tranzicijskom periodu izmeu neoklasicizma i
romantizma. Sukladno potrebama i razvoju novog umjetnikog i knjievnog senzibiliteta, pojavljuje se neto do tada u potpunosti novo, postavljajui se u
odreenoj mjeri izvan knjievnih okvira koji e s vremenom biti definirani kao
knjievnost romantizma. Grupa autora pod zajednikim imenom The Graveyard
Poets zapoinje sa stvaranjem alternativne knjievne scene putem koje,
naputajui donekle sterilne postavke neoklasicistike knjievnosti, naglaavaju
individualnost autora i potrebu za pronalaenjem inspiracije u otuenju, samoi,
tami ili pak strahu. Niz autora poput Thomasa Graya (Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard), Roberta Blaira (The Grave) ili Jamesa Thomsona (The Seasons) piu
poeziju u kojoj razum biva zamijenjen osjeajima, i u kojoj um podlijee neem
veim od njega samog. Ovdje se javlja ideja uzvienog (the Sublime) iji prvotni
znaaj indikatora uzvienog diskurzivnog stila biva s vremenom prepravljen i
razraen od strane razliitih autora koji ga koriste pri oznaavanju svojevrsne
aglomeracije emocija koje, zbog svoje neuobiajenosti za to razdoblje, odudaraju od onoga to je do tada bilo klasino poimanje istih. Termin je prvi puta preveo Nicholas Boileau prilikom prevoenja grkog teksta iz prvog stoljea O uzvienome (Peri Hupsous) 1674. godine. Unato tome prijevod se kasnije konstantno pripisuje Longinusu koji pak termin povezuje sa prirodom i prirodnim
pojavama poput munja i grmljavine ili pak velikih rijeka poput Nila, koje kod ovjeka uzrokuju zaprepatenost, ushit, ali i strah. Alison Milbank u svojoj definiciji uzvienoga spominje i Johna Dennisa te njegov esej The Grounds of Criticism
in Poetry iz 1704. u kojem se popis stranih stvari u prirodi proiruje na nadna-
ravna bia te vjetice i arolije (Mulvey-Roberts ed., The Handbook to Gothic

Literature 227). Vezu izmeu koncepta uzvienog i gotikog anra moda najbolje (iako indirektno) objanjava Edmund Burke u svojem tekstu A Philosophical
Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful (1757):
to god da je postavljeno na bilo koji nain, a da pritom evocira ideju
boli ili opasnosti, odnosno to god da je na bilo koji nain uasno ili
govori o uasnim stvarima, ili pak djeluje na nain analogan uasu, izvor
je uzvienog, to jest, uzrokom je najjaih emocija koje je um sposoban
osjeati. Kaem najjae emocije zbog toga to sam siguran da su ideje
boli mnogo jae od ideja koje proizlaze iz zadovoljstva.80 (36)
Uzvieno tako postaje utjelovljenje onog elementa koji svojom osebujnou
karakterizira prvotno poimanje gotike u sklopu knjievnosti. Fred Botting za
Burkea kae sljedee:
Za Burkea su lijepi predmeti bili karakterizirani svojom malenou,
glatkoom, njenou i postupnom varijacijom. Oni su prizivali ljubav i
njenost naspram uzvienog koje je uzrokovalo strah i uas. Objekti koji
su uzrokovali uzviene emocije bili su beskrajni, velianstveni i mrani.
Glasnoa i iznenadni kontrasti, poput igre svijetla i tame u zgradama,
doprinosili su osjeaju produljenja i neizmjernosti koji se pripisuje uzvienosti. Za razliku od ljepote to je mogla biti sadrana u pogledu ili
shvaanju pojedinca, uzvienost je predstavljala neumjerenost koja nije
mogla biti razmatrana bolje od strane racionalnog uma. (39)
Burke tako uspijeva definirati emocionalnu strukturu koja je prisutna u
tekstu te uoljiva u velikom broju ranih gotikih kreacija, no njegova prava zasluga lei u svojevrsnom lociranju elementa zastraujueg unutar odreenog
relevantnog vremensko knjievnog konteksta.
Nastavak odnosno konkretna knjievna i anrovska primjena ovakvog poimanja emocija i openito svjetonazora, pojavljuje se s autorom Horace Walpoleom i
njegovim romanom The Castle of Otranto A Gothic Story objavljenim 1764.
godine. Zasnivajui svoj tekst na umjetnikom senzibilitetu vremena u kojem je
ivio, te nizu drugih autora poevi od Homera i njegove Ilijade pa sve do
Shakespearea od kojeg, u odreenoj mjeri, preuzima lik brbljavog sluge esto
koritenog radi kominog predaha (olakanja) unutar tragedija, Walpole stvara
gotski roman koji e posluiti kao predloak gotovo svim daljnjim knjievnim i
anrovskim uradcima toga razdoblja. Interesantno je pritom primijetiti naglaenu sklonost, kako njegovih suvremenika tako i njega samoga, spram arhitekture
80
Svi prijevodi citata u tekstu su moji.
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i samog pitanja prostora iji znaaj postepeno nadilazi ograniavajue poimanje

i funkciju ivotnog prostora ili pak pasivne, dvodimenzionalne scenografije
koja ispunjava pozadinski prostor odreene naracije. Novo shvaanje prostora ukljuuje isti u samu naraciju pridajui mu daleko kompleksniju simboliku strukturu i postavljajui ga kao jedan od kljunih imbenika, a ponekad ak
i aktera, unutar naracije gotskog anra. Kao glavni izvor inspiracije za ovo nastojanje dodatnog fokusiranja na prostor, Walpole koristi rad venecijanskog arhitekta Giovannija Battiste Piranesija (1720.-1778.). Piranesi crta seriju imaginarnih zatvora pod nazivom Carceri dInvenzione (Izmiljeni zatvori) ija je glavna
karakteristika odisanje specifinom, uzvienim ugoajem (Uzviene vizije i
dramatini kontrasti svjetla i sjene kako to opisuje Brendan Hennessy unutar
svojega eseja o gotskoj noveli)81 (10). Znaaj adaptacije jednog dijela Piranesijevog prostornog imaginarija na ideju gotskog prostora, tonije prilagodbe na
prostor srednjevjekovnog dvorca, proizlazi iz nastale mogunosti drugaijeg
itanja Walpoleove suvremenosti ali i prolosti. Dvorac kao centralni locus odvijanja radnje nosi u sebi niz likova, koji se, unato tome to razmiljanjem i govorom pripadaju tadanjoj suvremenosti, bezuvjetno preputaju praznovjerju srednjega vijeka. Odnos koji Walpole stvara prema prolosti u biti je dvojake prirode.
S jedne strane njegovo zanimanje prolou ogranieno je pokojim detaljem iz
svakodnevice srednjega vijeka s iskljuivom svrhom stvaranja privida prolosti.
Drugi dio dihotomije odnosi se na realni historijski aspekt romana koji Punter
objanjava na sljedei nain:
Unato svojim manjkavostima i neprikladnostima, on prua dokaz o nainu kojim osamnaesto stoljee gleda na feudalizam i aristokraciju iz ega
slijedi neto to je s vremenom postalo jedna od dominantnih tema gotike pripovijesti: grijesi otaca koje nasljeuju sinovi. Kada se ovo postavi
u suvremeno okruje, rije je o jednostavnoj temi, no u cijelosti postaje
puno sloenija kada se lokacija zloina i nereda potisne u prolost. (The
Literature of Terror, Vol.1, 46)
Dodatni simboliki znaaj dvorca mogue je iitati i putem Foucaultove
interpretacije znaenja ljudske krvi. Istiui krv kao realnost sa simbolikom
funkcijom putem koje se ukazuju [] mehanizmi moi, njihove manifestacije i
rituali (147), te nain pomou kojeg se utvruje politika vlast i drutvena
hijerarhija, Foucault naglaava njen povijesni znaaj. Poveznica izmeu krvi i
dvorca proizlazi iz poistovjeivanja ovog prostora sa specifinim aristokratskim
81
Piranesijev utjecaj je bio toliki da 1749. Walpole odluuje preurediti obiteljsku kuu na Strawberry
Hillu (Twickenheim), u blizini Londona u mali dvorac izgraen u gotikom stilu. Uslijed svoje ekscentrinosti dvorac ubrzo postaje metom velikog broja posjetitelja prisiljavajui na taj nain Walpolea
da odredi pravila posjeivanja i napie Opis Strawberry Hilla (A Description of Strawberry Hill) koja
slui poput vodia za posjetitelje.
ustrojima u sklopu kojih istoa krvi predstavlja apsolutnu vrijednost. Dvorac

tako, putem historijsko-anrovskog preispitivanja povijesti, postaje zatoenika
struktura za njegove heroje i heroine ali istovremeno i konstrukt posveen
ouvanju istoe i nastavku krvne linije nastojanje oko kojeg i sam Walpole razvija svoju naraciju. Svi ovi elementi, od pojma uzvienog pa do prvih pokuaja
objedinjavanja raznovrsnih elemenata koji karakteriziraju gotsku knjievnost,
predstavljaju osnovu koja ne samo da sainjava gotski anr unutar britanske
knjievnosti ve pronalazi svoj put i kod amerikih autora ija e nastojanja prilagodbe anra vlastitom okruenju rezultirati stvaranjem iznimno zanimljivim
knjievnim uradcima.
Prelaskom na novi kontinent i novonastalu naciju knjievno stvaralatvo je
u poneto nejasnoj situaciji. Kao jedan od kljunih problema formativnog perioda amerikog devetnaestog stoljea pojavljuje se pitanje inspiracije, tonije
autorsko ne-prepoznavanje moguih izvora inspiracije. Velik broj autora tako
posee za europskim knjievnim nasljeem pokuavajui prilagoditi naracije
Starog kontinenta na Novi. Posebni interes pritom vlada za adaptaciju gotskog
anra koji biva raznovrsno adaptiran, no ne i bez potekoa.
Uz postojee probleme adaptacije likova, poglavito onih usko vezanih za
europsku povijest poput aristokracije, namee se i problem oblikovanja mjesta
radnje karakteristine za anr. Priroda, kao jedan od moguih i esto koritenih
ranih gotskih prostora, moe biti imitirana do te granice da odraava neko
tipino anrovsko okruenje, no to je s dvorcima, katakombama, ili pak samostanima? Dvorac, kako u Walpoleovom Otrantu, tako i u veini gotikih tekstova,
predstavlja kljuni topografski element u stvaranju gotikog ugoaja, no istodobno i neostvariv odnosno neuvjerljiv koncept u amerikom okruju. Neke
prvotne pokuaje smjetanja takvih i slinih graevina na podruju npr. Long
Islanda u djelima The Asylum ili pak Alonzo and Mellisa (1811) Isaaca Mitchella,
Leslie A. Fielder u svojoj analizi amerike knjievne tradicije Love and Death in
the American Novel komentira na sljedei nain:
no takve graevine na takvim mjestima ostaju ne samo nevjerodostojne
ve i besmislene. Ukleti dvorac europske gotike prikladan je simbol odreenog stava spram povijesti to predstavlja glavnu preokupaciju anra.
Dvojnik takvog dvorca pedeset milja od New York Citya gubi svaki smisao.
(144-145)
Neodgovarajue okruje popraeno historijskim vakuumom neizbjeno je
utjecalo na interpretaciju i adaptaciju mijenjajui gotovo u potpunosti inspirativni izvor samoga anra. Za razliku od britanske gotike koja je u svojim interprettacijama i rekonstrukcijama povijesti posezala za fizikim i drutvenim uasom
kao oprugom pomou koje je gradila vlastitu drutvenu kritiku, amerika gotika
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poprima jedan dublji, mnogo intimniji oblik. Amerika se gotika tako okree
pojedincu i njegovoj osobnoj povijesti omoguujui si na taj nain izravni kontakt
s mentalnim uasima odnosno moralnim tkivom pojedinca. Usporedno s ovom,
psiholoki utemeljenom interpretacijom anra razvija se i paralelna struja koja
spekulira o amerikoj povijesti kao o dovoljno bogatoj podlozi za razvoj i istraivanje gotike unutar drutvenih dimenzija. Britanski dvorci, urueni samostani i
perfidni aristokrati bivaju promptno zamijenjeni drutvenim problematikama
poput politikih procesa, pitanja pograninog prostora, sukoba s indijanskom
populacijom, i sl. Nadalje, za razliku od britanskog koji posee za drutvenim nesigurnostima vezanim uz prolost te koristi interes koji postoji kod srednjih
klasa za ivot aristokracije rabei povijest tek kao nain legitimiranja pripovjednih zbivanja, amerika gotika, koja proizlazi i koristi drutvo kao cjelinu, a ne
tek jedan njegov segment, posee za povijeu gotovo kao prema izvoru kolektivne drutvene krivice. Ovakav pristup ima kljunu ulogu u procesu definiranja
gotskoga anra nastalog na amerikom tlu iz jednostavnog razloga to izravno
podriva ameriki san. Dravni ustroj i potpuno javno poimanje Sjedinjenih
Amerikih Drava kao zemlje u ijem gotovo utopijskom politikom projektu svi
imaju pravo na slobodu govora, miljenja i povrh svega egzistenciju, biva opisana putem fantastinog eskapizma kao struktura nastala na genocidu i otetim ivotima. Fiedler to dodatno opisuje sljedeim rijeima:
Naa knjievnost nije samo u bijegu od fizikih podataka stvarnoga svijeta, u potrazi za (bespolnim i mutnim) Idealom; od Charlesa Brockdena
Browna do Williama Faulknera ili Eudore Welty, Paula Bowlesa ili Johna
Hawkesa, ona je, zauujue i posramljujue, gotika knjievnost, nerealna i negativna, sadistika i melodramatina knjievnost tame i grotesknog u zemlji svjetla i afirmacije. (29)
Upravo kao to i Fiedler navodi, nastavak razvoja gotskog anra i na odreeni
nain autohtone amerike knjievnosti zapoinje s autorom Charlesom Brockdenom Brownom koji preuzima jedan segment britanske gotske tradicije adaptirajui ju na ameriko podneblje. Brownova prilagodba gotske naracije ne znai pritom definiranje potpuno novog anra ili pak pod-anra. Brownov doprinos, ili pak
reinterpretacija odreenih anrovskih postavki funkcionira kao spona izmeu
starog i novog svijeta, proces tranzicije koji e oznaiti ameriku knjievnost devetnaestog stoljea. Brown je u svojim nastojanjima svjestan mogunosti koje
mu anr prua u sklopu svoje prvotne britanske interpretacije, no istodobno ne
podcjenjuje, ve prihvaa mogunosti to mu ih nudi novi svijet u interpretaciji
istoga anra. Brownov kratak predgovor romanu Edgar Huntly pojanjava detaljnije njegov stav podruja istraivanja, koja nam prua vlastita zemlja,
trebala bi se bitno razlikovati od onih to ve postoje u Europi (2), te nastavlja
neozbiljna praznovjerja i preuveliano ponaanje, gotiki dvorci i privienja, elementi su primijenjeni s tom svrhom. Zgode indijanskih otpora i
opasnosti divljine zapada, mnogo su pogodnije, stoga, bilo bi neoprostivo
za roenog Amerikanca da previdi iste. (2)
Unato tome, kao predloak za roman Wieland; or the Transformation
(1798), tekst koji e oznaiti i na mnoge naine definirati prelazak gotskog anra
na ameriko tlo, Brown ne koristi motiv pograninih sukoba ili opasnosti divljine
zapada. Umjesto toga posee za dokumentiranim sluajem ubojstva iz 1781. u
kojem ekstremno religiozni farmer s podruja New Yorka ritualno ubija svoju
enu i etvero djece objanjavajui in naredbama dobivenim od nadnaravnih
religioznih glasova. Ova praksa koritenja realnih dogaanja, odnosno koritenje tiska kao izvora inspiracije obiljeit e ranu ameriku knjievnu produkciju
utjecajem na niz autora poput Irvinga, Hawthornea, Poea i drugih. Brownov
knjievni opus, kao i opus ostalih autora, nastaje u razdoblju nagla porasta zanimanja za senzacionalistiku literaturu. Takav interes, koji nije stran niti jednoj
dravi te je u odreenoj mjeri povezan i sa samim gotskim anrom, to je vidljivo na primjeru razvoja britanskoga gotskog anra, poprima vrlo velike i ozbiljne
dimenzije uslijed naglog razvoja tehnologije tiska (uvoenje cilindrine tiskare
1847. godine) i unaprijeenja sustava distribucije tiskanog materijala to varira
od knjiga do pamfleta82 razliitih, esto puta i ekstremnih sadraja. Na slian
nain situaciji pogoduje i sloboda tiska kojom se uklanjaju i posljednje prepreke
objavljivanju materijala koji bi u nekim drugim dravama bili promptno cenzurirani. Za razliku od drugih zemalja, Amerika je svoju nezasitnu glad za senzacionalnim, zahvaljujui napretku i drutvenom ustroju, nezaustavljivo hranila.
David S. Reynolds u svojoj iscrpnoj analizi povezanosti amerikog senzacionalistikog tiska, kulture i knjievnosti Beneath the American Rennaissance: The
Subversive Imagination in the Age of Emerson and Melville uokviruje tadanju
situaciju sljedeim rijeima:
Najmanje to se moe rei jest da je prijeratna javnost bila hranjena
dijetom koja je sve vie i vie bila zainjena uasom, krvlju te perverznou koja se tiskala kako u petparakim novinama tako i u anrovski vrlo
slinim pamfletima sa suenja te kriminalnim biografijama. (171)
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Termin koji koristi David S. Reynolds jest pamphlet novels, no zbog izostanka odgovarajueg prijevoda u hrvatskom jeziku, u radnji se sluim terminima poput: pamfleti, pamfletni romani ili pamfletna knjievnost. Radi se, naime, o publikaciji na koju se moe gledati kao na ekstenziju pretparakih
novina ije su glavne teme gotovo uvijek bile ili senzacionalistika dogaanja u drutvu koja su se
pomno pratila (kroz novinarska izvjetavanja, sudske procese ili egzekucije) ili pak izmiljene situacije avanturistikih odlika.
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138
Analizi Brownova teksta moe se pristupiti na dva naina. S jedne strane tu

je klasini pristup prii koja oscilira izmeu ponekad dramatino predimenzioniranih prizora i nezadovoljavajuih objanjenja istih. Pria se razvija oko obitelji
Wieland iji se otac, nakon religioznog prosvjetljenja, odluuje doseliti u Ameriku gdje bi mogao uspjeno (za razliku od Europe) propovijedati svoja religiozna
naela lokalnoj indijanskoj populaciji. Njegova karijera propovjednika doivljava
neuspjeh, no unato tome Wieland zadrava religioznu rigidnost te gradi pokraj
svoje kue, jedno manje zdanje koje na prvi pogled nalikuje vrtnoj kuici, no zapravo predstavlja hram simbol njegove religije. Zanimljivo je promotriti nain
na koji Brown opisuje zdanje:
Na udaljenosti od tristo jardi, na vrhu stijene ije su strme i neravne strane bile zatrpane patuljastim cedrovima i stjenovitim otrinama, izgradio
je neto to bi prosjenom oku izgledalo kao vrtna kuica. Istoni rub ove
klisure nalazio se ezdeset stopa iznad rijeke koja je tekla u njezinom
podnoju.
Nastavlja detaljnijim opisom:
Bilo je to tek kruno podruje, dvanaest stopa dijametralno, poploano
kamenjem, oieno od mahovine i grmlja, precizno izravnano, obrubljeno sa dvanaest toskanskih stupova, i prekriveno valovitom kupolom
[...] Nije bilo ni stolica, ni stola, ni bilo kakvog ukrasa. (5)
Vanost naglaavanja zdanja unutar teksta, iako ono nema kljunu ulogu,
povezano je s britanskim nainom stvaranja gotskog ugoaja. Sustav simbola
koji u britanskoj gotici objedinjuje dvorac, u Americi biva zamijenjen strukturom
kue. Unato tome to se u svojoj prvoj izvedbi radi tek o vrtnoj kuici, njezina
vanost nije nimalo manja s obzirom na svoju britansku inaicu. Prije svega, tu
je poloaj zdanja koje se poput dvorca nalazi na vrlo prominentnoj lokaciji,
nadgledajui ostale graevine. Osobitosti lokacije pridonosi i okolna priroda
koja svojom dramatinou naglaava jo jasnije posebnost zdanja. Zanimljivo
je pritom uoiti kako autor rabi europsku (talijansku) arhitekturu pri pokuaju
doaravanja gotskog ugoaja neovisno o tome to se radnja odvija na amerikom tlu. Upotreba opisa takve arhitekture, naravno, dodatno upuuje na tada jo uvijek prisutan manjak izvornog amerikog gotskog ugoaja koji e tek u
kasnijem razvoju anra doivjeti autohtono utjelovljenje. No, svi ovi elementi
zajedno ne predstavljaju klju prilagodbe dvorca amerikom okruju. Ono to
nedostaje jest funkcija prostora koja mu prua odreeno znaenje, to jest odreenu simboliku strukturu. Koncept dvorca koji predstavlja prostor zatvoren za
obine ljude sa specifinom funkcijom objedinjavanja aristokratske strukture,
dakle zabranjeni prostor, Brown zamjenjuje idejom svetog prostora koji je pak
po svojoj prirodi opet prohibitivan za obine smrtnike Bio je to hram njegovom Boanstvu. Dvaput u dvadeset i etiri sata odlazio bi ondje, nepopraen ni
jednim ljudskim biem. Nita osim fizike nemogunosti da se kree moglo ga je
sprijeiti ili odgoditi njegov posjet (5).
Veza izmeu ove dvije razliite, no istodobno iste simbolike strukture nastavlja se na tragu mistinosti to okruuje kako dvorac, tako i kuu. Mistinost
koja je de facto svojstvena dvorcu to zbog specifine arhitekture, to zbog
povijesti koju simbolizira, unutar koncepta kue ukazuje se na mnogo intimnijoj
razini. U sluaju Brownovog romana mistinost se evocira kombiniranjem ugoaja svetog prostora hrama, koji Wieland opsesivno posjeuje, i njegove neprirodne smrti. Autor, dakle, produbljuje i izgrauje simboliku zdanja pridodajui
mu stanovite nesvagdanje karakteristike, pokuavajui na taj nain stvoriti
knjievni pandan gotikom dvorcu. Nedvojbeno je Brownovo rjeenje jedno od
najvanijih u procesu prilagodbe gotskoga anra amerikoj knjievnoj sceni.
Stvaranjem amerikog dvorca odnosno kue postavlja se prizor unutar kojeg ili neposredno pokraj kojeg dolazi do odigravanja niza dogaaja, prije svega
intimne prirode. Za razliku od dvorca, ija priroda implicira odreeni nain ponaanja i ophoenja, posebice prilikom opisa ivota i situacija vezanih uz aristokraciju, kua nudi niz u potpunosti razliitih mogunosti interakcija i interpretacija koje se mogu odvijati izmeu pojedinca i zdanja ili pak zdanja i drutva. U
analizi razlike izmeu dvorca i kue ono to se prvo istie jest osjeaj bliskosti
koju itatelj ima sa kuom. Neovisno o tome radi li se o kui kao takvoj ili tek
vrtnoj kuici, kao to je to sluaj u ovom gotovo prototipu gotikoga romana,
osjeaj bliskosti odnosno mogunost poistovjeenja itatelja s okruenjem pridonosi osjeaju nelagode. Dvorac, zajedno sa svojim sustavom simbola utemeljenih na povijesti, dobiva i ostvaruje svoje znaenje jedino unutar konteksta te
iste povijesti. Takav koncept ne doputa individualno poistovjeenje, ve se
iskljuivo temelji na nekom nacionalnom ili slinom obliku poistovjeenja. Kua
s druge strane, opisana kao sredite zbivanja prirodnih ili neprirodnih dogaanja, biva iskoritena, zajedno sa svojom ulogom domainstva, za ostvarivanje
puno neugodnijeg i intimnijeg osjeaja straha. Intima doma, odnosno prepoznatljivo okruje, isto tako prua veu vjerodostojnost dogaajima na slian nain na koji su rani britanski gotski pisci stvarali alibi za svoja pisanja poseui
za povijesnom dimenzijom u stvaranju lane autentinosti.
Osim elementa kue kao prostora koji svjedoi ili pak utjee na dogaanja, Brown preuzima jo jedan element klasine britanske gotske tradicije. Naime, prostor kao takav, unutar gotskoga anra, rijetko kada uspijeva ostvariti
vlastitu funkciju ukoliko nije nadopunjen dodatnim znaenjem odnosno dodatnim skupinama simbola i motiva. U sluaju Brownovog Wielanda radi se o prokletstvu koje unato tome to ne biva posebno naglaeno, neumitno obznanjuje
vlastitu prisutnost na poetku novele.
139
140
Moj otac, pri izlasku iz kue, osim iroke potkoulje i kunih papua imao
je na sebi jo koulju i hlae. Sada je bio gol, a veina njegove koe bila je
prekrivena opeklinama i masnicama. Njegova desna ruka izgledala je kao
da je bila udarena tekim predmetom. Njegova odjea je bila odstranjena, da bi se tek kasnije uoilo da je bila pretvorena u pepeo. Njegove papue i kosa ostali su netaknuti. (8)
Wieland ne umire odmah, ve u svojem konfuznom samrtnom stanju daje
kratak opis onoga to mu se dogodilo opisujui tajanstveni napad i bljesak iskre
koja je pretvorila njegovu odjeu u pepeo. Opisu napada Brown pridodaje i opis
zdanja u trenutku napada:
Njezine oi su bile uprte na stijenu; odjednom postade obasjana. Svjetlo
koje je proizlazilo iz zdanja inilo je vidljivim cijeli prizor. Prigueni sjaj
irio se neposrednim prostorom, da bi ga trenutak kasnije prasak poput
eksplozije mine popratio... Bili su to prodorni besprekidni urlici. Sjaj koji
se nairoko proirio naglo se povukao, no unutranjost zgrade je i dalje
bila ispunjena zrakama. (7)
Smrt oca, na prvi pogled nadnaravnog podrijetla i obojana religioznim motivom, zajedno s prostorom u kojem se prizor odvija i koji i sam poprima stanovite nadnaravne konotacije, neumitno upuuje na stanoviti gotiki ugoaj podsjeajui pritom na britanske gotike dvorce i njihove nadnaravne situacije. Vano
je pritom naglasiti da ni vrtna kuica kao pandan gotikog dvorca, ni prokletstvo
koje nakon neprirodne smrti starijeg Wielanda kao da proganja ostatak obitelji
nisu iznimno naglaeni elementi, ve predstavljaju tek natuknice gotskog ugoaja. Brown ih spominje iskljuivo na poetku, da bi ih kasnije, tijekom daljnjeg
razvoja teksta u potpunosti ignorirao. Neovisno o tome radi li se o spisateljskom
propustu ili pak o namjernoj konstrukciji teksta, ova dva elementa bivaju implementirana unutar naracije pridonosei na taj nain nelagodnom, anksioznom
ugoaju prisutnom u tekstu.
Britansko nasljedstvo uoljivo je nadalje u pristupu i opisu pojedinih likova.
Prije svega tu je Francis Carwin trbuhozborac, iji se dar, a istodobno i uzrok
svih kasnijih nedaa obitelji Wieland, otkriva prekasno. Specifinost Carwina lei
u prirodi njegovog lika koji po Fiedlerovim rijeima predstavlja kombinaciju
kvaliteta Goetheovog Don Juana i Fausta (149). Obiljeja Don Juana pokazuje
prilikom nepopustljivog zavoenja Clare Wieland, mlade heroine i naratorice itavog dogaaja, no svojim izgledom Carwin je vrlo daleko od mogueg prototipa zavodnika
Njegovi obrazi bili su blijedi i mravi, njegove oi utonule, elo zasjenjeno
grubom ratrkanom kosom, njegovi zubi iroki i nepravilni [...] Njegova je
koa bila grubo zrnasta ukaste nijanse [...] No ipak, njegovo elo [...]
njegove blistave crne oi koje su sadravale usred te divlje vanjtine
neopisivo vedar i moan sjaj [...] ukazivalo je na um najviega reda (24).
Brown, dakle, opisuje ve poznato lice i pojavu gotskoga hero-villain-a, tip
lika koji je u svojim raznim varijantama83 okarakterizirao britanske gotske
tekstove. Carwinova faustovska elja za znanjem, znatielja kako je Brown definira, pokree niz dogaaja koji nakon neobjanjene smrti starijeg Wielanda
neumitno odvode ostatak obitelji u propast. Carwinov utjecaj je mnogostruk;
sluei se trbuhozborstvom, dovodi mlaeg Wielanda do ludila potencirajui
njegova naslijeena vjerska uvjerenja da bi istodobno zavaravanjem udaljio Clarinu istinsku ljubav te je tako usamljenu podvrgnuo vlastitim eljama. Ta, gotovo nevinost ono je to lik ini zanimljivim, znatielja, zapravo, koju Carwin navodi u svojoj obrani pri kraju romana Ne mogu opravdati svoje postupke, no
unato tome moj jedini grijeh bio je znatielja (97).
Wieland, potaknut glasovima za koje smatra da su boanskog podrijetla,
ubija vlastitu enu i djecu da bi na kraju ubio i sebe, a Carwin, kao to to Fiedler
kae, naputa stranice romana nekanjen, bez ikakve nagrade, ali ipak nekanjen nastavljajui svoju ulogu Lutajueg idova (Wandering Jew)84 (150).
Vano je pritom uoiti da jedna tajna ipak ostaje nerijeena. Unato priznanju krivice Carwin odbija priznati i nije u mogunosti objasniti glasove koji su
naveli Wielanda na umorstvo svoje obitelji.
Ovdje dolazi ponovno do naglaavanja duha oca te prokletstva (religiozne
ili druge prirode) koje je prelo s oca na sina. Otac, fanatik koji ne priznaje nikakve autoritete osim sebe samoga i svojeg unutarnjeg glasa, gradi hram vlastitom boanstvu gdje ga na sebi osebujan nain tuje. Nakon oeve smrti sin potiskuje neugodni dogaaj preureujui hram u vrtnu kuicu gdje se redovito
odravaju itanja poezije i ugodni razgovori. Upravo ovo potiskivanje daje tekstu pravo anrovsko obiljeje gotike. Djeca zaboravljaju oeve religiozne ekscese i kao pravi mladi predstavnici optimistine i utopistike novonastale drave
83
Herojski zloinac okvirno se javlja u trima razliitim varijantama: sotonski junak-junak-zlotvor ija
ga nedjela ine daleko zanimljivijim itatelju od prosjenog lika junaka. Kao dobar primjer moe posluiti romantiarska interpretacija Miltonova Izgubljenog raja gdje nalazimo lik Vraga koga su pisci
poput Blakea i Shellya smatrali daleko zanimljivijim i provokativnijim od lika Boga. Nadalje kao tipini
gotiki primjeri mogu posluiti likovi poput Montonija Ann Radcliffe ili pak Polidorijeva Ruthvena te
gotovo svi likovi vampira. Osim varijante sotonskog junaka pojavljuje se i prometejski junak, lik koji
ini dobro, no to postie tek nekim ekstremnim pobunjenikim inom npr. Mary Shelly i Frankenstein,
te bajronski heroj iji aristokratski, usamljen, cinian, seksualno privlaan te tajanstven lik nalazi inkarnaciju u velikom broju gotikih tekstova 19. i 20. stoljea (prototipom se smatra Byronov Manfred).
84
Legenda o idovu koji je ismijavao Isusa na njegovu putu ka raspelu. Isus ga je zbog toga osudio na
lutanje svijetom sve do Sudnjega dana. Legenda ima vie verzija i interpretacija, idov se jo naziva
Ahasuerus, Cartaphilus, Malchus ili pak John Buttadeus, no sve se temelje na nemogunosti lika da
nae spokoj i ljubav, odnosno ukazuju na prokletstvo besmrtnosti.
141
142
okreu se intelektualnim ljepotama i izgradnji vlastite egzistencijalne utopije.

No, grijesi otaca prenose se na sinove i kako u klasinim gotskim tekstovima, tako i ovdje, duh oca, odnosno njegovo religijom inducirano ludilo, posjeuje sina.
Nina Baym u svojem lanku A Minority Reading of Wieland pri opisu obitelji
Wieland navodi sljedee: zasjenjena zlokobnom prolou u kojoj je prijetnja
njihovoj srei istodobno sadrana i predskazana [...] Prijetnja obitelji lei u njezinim vlastitim dubinama, u korijenima ludila i melankolije (Baym, 90, podatak
preuzet iz Hogle ed., The Camebridge Companion to Gothic Literature 173).
Eric Savoy nastavlja razmiljanje o obitelji Wieland te gubitku oca sluei se
Freudovim predlokom:
Freudova teorija iznosi da se melankolija pojavljuje kada je subjekt
doivio ambivalentan i nerijeen odnos s izgubljenim objektom: alobnik
okree zaostalu tugu nastalu zbog gubitka objekta recimo jednog od roditelja prema unutra, na ego, u narcisoidnoj identifikaciji s izgubljenim
objektom. Ova identifikacija inkorporira izgubljeni objekt sa svrhom da ga
povrati i sauva. Figurativno, ego modificiran takvim identifikacijama postaje neto poput nemirnog groba koji skriva ive mrtvace. Na neki nain
ego pokuava nadvladati vlastitu fragmentaciju vraanjem mrtvih u ivot.
(The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Literature 173)
Dakle, pravi zlotvor na kraju ipak nije Carwin sa svojom eljom za znanjem,
znatieljom i svojim atipinim stavovima, ve religiozni fanatik Wieland koji
upravo zahvaljujui svojoj vjerskoj i ideolokoj opredijeljenosti gubi razum, ubija
enu i djecu, prijeti ubojstvom sestri, da bi na kraju krvavo okonao vlastiti ivot.
No, vanost Brownova teksta ne lei iskljuivo u prilagodbi odreenih obiljeja gotskoga anra amerikom okruju. Analizom povijesnog konteksta unutar kojeg nastaje tekst moemo uoiti niz podstruktura koje po svojoj drutvenoj relevantnosti nadilaze kritino-drutvenu ulogu britanske inaice anra.
Unato tome to zapoinje pisati nedugo nakon nastajanja prvih gotskih prototipova romana, autora kao to su Walpole, Ann Radcliffe ili pak Matthew Lewis,
Brownu nedostaje dovoljno bogata prolost vlastite mu zemlje kako bi ostvario
tekstove poput svojih britanskih kolega. Problem rjeava tako to zanemaruje
mogue povijesne retrospektive ili pak dislocirana okruja koja ne pruaju referentne toke itateljima novonastale drave te se okree vlastitoj sadanjosti i
kulturno-politikom kontekstu aktualnu u tom razdoblju.
Obitelj Wieland na taj nain prestaje biti jednostavna drutvena struktura
izloena poneto nesvakidanjim dogaajima te prerasta u sloenu kritiku
tadanjeg drutva i politike situacije. Ona postaje paradigma usporediva s tadanjom dravom u sklopu koje se moe promatrati utopistiki ivot obitelji
Wieland i njezin rasap uslijed neodrivosti naela potonje strukture. Savoy navodi Brownovo sudjelovanje u naglaavanju sumnje u sposobnost samoupra-
vljanja pojedinca unutar potpune demokracije. Time je Brown podravao stavove federalista Alexandera Hamiltona koji se oituju u politikom skepticizmu
vezanom uz mogunost realizacije koncepta individualizma Thomasa Jeffersona
odnosno mogunosti samostalnog donoenja politikih odluka i samoupravljanja (175). Kao primjer moemo uzeti komentiranje Jeffersonove ideje ukljuivanja nezavisnog naroda u rasprave vezane uz ustav Jamesa Madisona. Madison
se, naravno, protivi ukljuivanju graana u ustavne rasprave te se u svojem protivljenju poziva na nesposobnost naroda da odri stabilnost samog ustava:
Opasnost uznemiravanja javnog spokoja pobuivanjem dodatnog interesa strastvene javnosti ide dodatno u prilog protivljenju estom preputanju ustavnih
pitanja odlukama naroda (Rakove ed., 131), te nastavlja: No, najvei prigovor se
odnosi na odluke koje bi iz takvih obraanja proizale, s obzirom da one ne bi
odgovarale cilju odravanja konstitucijske ravnotee vlade. (132)
Tako Wieland ne samo da predstavlja gotski roman smjeten na ameriko
tlo ve, uzimajui u obzir politike konotacije koje su, iako implicitno, prisutne u
tekstu, posluuje kao jedan od prvih tekstova pripadajuih gotskome anru koji
upuuje na neke od tadanjih aktualnih drutvenih problematika. Jane Tompkins
u svojem djelu Sensation Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction 17901860 opisuje politike implikacije vezane uz tekst sljedeim rijeima:
Brownova slika raspadanja Wielandovog minijaturnog drutva predstavlja vie ili manje izravan odraz federalnog skepticizma vezana uz efikasnost religije i edukacije u pripremi graana za samoupravljanje [...] zaplet romana nudi izravno pobijanje republikanske nade u sposobnost samoupravljanja bez potpore i ograniavanja od strane utvrenog drutvenog poretka. (48, 49)
Postavljajui, dakle, obitelj u sredite zbivanja i pridajui joj dodatne vrijednosti i simbolika znaenja, amerika interpretacija gotskog anra ne samo
da se razlikuje pod pitanjem opisanog okruja od britanske inaice istog ve samim obraivanjem pojedinih, do tada atipinih tema otvara niz interpretacijskih
mogunosti i niz neistraenih tema kojima opisuje tamnu stranu amerikog
sna. Gotski anr tako prestaje biti populistiki instrument opisivanja atrofirane
aristokracije iji elementi romance pridonose naivnosti teksta obogaena
pojavom dominantnog feudalca ili monika koji u svojoj antidrutvenoj ulozi
slui kao antipod svim ostalim likovima. Umjesto toga postaje oblik alternativnog pogleda na suvremenost, ali i instrument suvremenih politikih i drutvenih kritiara. Brown svojim tekstom prekida dotadanji zatvoreni krug stvoren
izmeu lika negativca, heroine i mladog junaka85 te predstavlja niz likova koji
unato tome to vuku korijene u gotskim arhetipovima, donose anru svjeinu
85
Donekle uobiajena podjela likova unutar britanske gotske knjievnosti.
143
144
koja se ostvaruje ne samo nizom novih obraenih tema ve i kao kljuni element koji karakterizira pojavu gotskoga anra u amerikom okruju. Vraajui
se na Freuda i psihoanalitiko iitavanje knjievnosti, Fiedler zakljuuje:
Europska gotika je poistovjeivala tamu sa superegom pokazavi se time
revolucionarnom u svojim zakljucima; amerika gotika je (barem slijedei Brownov primjer) poistovjeivala zlo sa idom i stoga bivala konzervativna na svojim najdubljim zakljunim razinama, neovisno o namjerama
autora. (161-162)
Brown svojim tekstovima predstavlja svojevrsni predloak novoga, skeptinoga pristupa knjievnosti koji e kasnije biti podrobnije razvijen od strane drugih
autora. Njegov spisateljski utjecaj moe se promatrati iz dviju razliitih perspektiva; s jedne strane ukazuje na mogui nain uoavanja i predstavljanja
drutvenih odnosno politikih problematika putem knjievnosti, dok s druge
strane, kontrolirajui omjer kritike i umjetnike kreativnosti, stvara prototipe
gotskoga anra u sklopu rastue amerike knjievnosti. No, unato svojem inovativnom pristupu te za to razdoblje uobiajenu ispitivanju i komentiranju politikog i drutvenog mnijenja, Brown svojim spisateljskim umijeem jo uvijek
priziva duh gotike, karakteristian za njegove britanske kolege. Gravitirajui
izmeu utjecaja pisaca poput Burkea, Wollstonecraft ili pak Godwina i vlastitih
politikih razmiljanja vezanih za mladu naciju, Brown ne uspijeva ostvariti intelektualno intimniji odnos s okrujem u koje pokuava implementirati gotski element, odnosno ne postie veliki stupanj knjievne autohtonosti. No unato tome postavlja niz anrovskih i openito knjievnih temelja koji e upravo svojom
nesvakidanjom prirodom omoguiti amerikim autorima daleko iscrpnije
preispitivanje idealiziranog no unato tome distopijskog amerikog sna.
Bibliografija:
Botting, Fred. Gothic. New York: Routledge, 1996.
Brown, Charles B. Edgar Huntly: Or, Memoirs of a Sleep-walker. Stilwell:
Digireads, 2007.
Brown, Charles B. Weiland; Or the Transformation. New York: Random House,
2002.
Burke, Edmund. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the
Sublime and Beautiful. Ed. Adam Phillips. New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
Fiedler, Leslie A. Love and Death in the American Novel. Illinois State University:
Dalkey Archive, 1998.
Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality. Vol. 1. An Introduction. Trans. Robert
Hurley. New York: Vintage, 1990.
Hennessy, Brendan. The Gothic Novel. London: Longman, 1978.

Hogle, Jerrold E. The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction. Cambridge: CUP,
2002.
Punter, David. The Literature of Terror: The Gothic Tradition. 2..ed. Vol. 1. Harlow:
Longman, 1999.
Rakove, Jack N. The Federalist by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John
Jay-The Essential Essays. New York-Boston: Stanford University, 2003.
Reynolds, David S. Beneath the American Rennaissance: The Subversive
Imagination in the Age of Emerson and Melville. Cambridge: Harvard UP,
1997.
Tompkins, Jane. Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction 17901860. New York: Oxford UP, 1985
AMERICAN GOTHIC C. B. BROWN AND THE RE-BIRTH OF A GENRE
The transitional period which preceded the formation of a completely
authentic American literary voice was influenced not only by the European
mainstream literary production but also by the Gothic literary tradition which
introduced specific narrative structures almost exclusively dedicated to a critical
questioning of society and various social phenomena and the expression of
numerous national anxieties. Charles Brockton Brown stands out as a key
contributor to the successful adaptation of the Gothic genre, which until then
was strongly defined by European social and cultural influences. By combining
certain European features of the genre with some of the features that dominated
the imagination of the emerging nation, Brown succeeded in creating a
contemporary critique of the American society while at the same time giving new
impetus to a genre that would in many ways define the future development of
American literature.
Key words: literature, American Gothic, C. B. Brown, transition, adaptation,
anxiety, re-birth.
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146
UDK 821.111(73).09
Black Dogs: Metaphysics, History and Utopia
Milena Kosti
University of Ni
Abstract: Metaphysics, history and utopianism merge in Ian McEwans novel Black
Dogs. McEwan presents contrasting metaphysical systems: the feeling of mystic oneness
with the rest of creation vs. scientific reasoning and utilitarian ethics (the female vs. the
male principle). McEwan traces these metaphysical outlooks in the historical
background of World War II, and he comments on the perversity of various cultural
practices (racism, violence, aggressiveness, etc.), which are seen as the products of the
modern demythologized tradition. According to the author, resistance to these perverted
cultural practices can be found in the mysticism of Junes utopian vision.
Key words: metaphysics, history, utopia, mystic oneness, scientific reasoning, utilitarian
ethics
Introduction
Erich Fromm, best known for his application of the psychoanalytic theory to
social and cultural problems, explored the causes of destructiveness. For him,
destructiveness appears in two forms: spontaneous and bound in the character
structure. The former refers to the outburst of dormant (not necessarily
repressed) destructive impulses that are activated by extraordinary circumstances; the latter refers to the permanent, although not always expressed,
presence of destructive traits in the character. In The Anatomy of Human
Destructiveness, he says:
But those destructive explosions are not spontaneous in the sense that
they break out without any reason. In the first place, there are always
external conditions that stimulate them, such as wars, religious or
political conflicts, poverty, extreme boredom and insignificance of the
individual. Secondly, there are subjective reasons: extreme group
narcissism in national or religious terms, a certain proneness to a state
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of trance. It is not human nature that makes a sudden appearance, but

the destructive potential that is fostered by certain permanent
conditions and mobilized by sudden traumatic events. Without these
provoking factors, the destructive energies in these populations seem
to be dormant, and not, as with the destructive character, a constantly
flowing source of energy. (Fromm 362)
In Black Dogs the characters experience, or, better to say, are the victims of
these hidden evil forces that work against life. McEwan depicts the themes of
racism, genocide and the Nazi Holocaust in an indirect way, addressing these
contemporary historical concerns through the characters visions, mystic
phenomena, allusions and premonitions rather than realistic descriptions or
testimonies. The novel deals with the recurrence of dormant evil and
destructive energies in man and its effects, the most horrible of which is the
extermination of nearly six million Jews during World War II.
Junes and Bernards contrasted metaphysical outlooks: the female vs. the
male principle
The heroine of McEwans novel Black Dogs, June Tremain, experiences the
epiphany on her honeymoon which changes the philosophy of life she has had up
to that point. Her husband Bernard, however, does not change in this sense; he
sticks to the philosophy of life that first binds them together and then separates
them. Both of them were communists; they decided to join the Communist Party
because they believed that social ills and evils might be eradicated by an
adequate social theory. They were moved to the adoption of communism by the
sight of the tremendous evil done by Hitler during World War II. The year 1946
Europe in ruins, tens millions of dead, the extermination camps still a new story
(not yet the universal reference point of human depravity) is the background
against which they discuss their optimistic plans about the better, communist
future. However, it is also the background against which June decides to step out
of communism and develop quite a different philosophy of life. She begins to feel
what she calls blasphemous uncertainties induced by the vision she has one
afternoon in France where they go for their honeymoon. While sitting and
looking at the ancient hills, the gorge and the prehistoric burial site, she
experiences the silence of the landscape as alive, present, quite indifferent to the
social changes the mankind undergoes. It provokes in her a kind of uncertainty
about the effectiveness of any social theory for the explanation of evil and its
eradication. She becomes disappointed with their, especially Bernards, inability
to understand that simple, intimate, present life and human interaction are as
important as political ideas. At that moment, her inner revolution begins, which
will come into conflict with Bernards social revolution:
there was something wrong, there was a shadow [] set against the age
and beauty and power of those rocks, politics was a piddling thing.
Mankind was a recent event. The universe was indifferent to the fate of
the proletariat! I had these unsettling thoughts, but I was happy at the
dolmen. I wanted nothing more than to sit in the silence and watch the
mountains, and know that Bernard was doing the same, feeling the
same. So here was another problem. No stillness, no silence [] Our lives
had gathered to this supreme moment a sacred site more than five
thousand years old, our love for each other, the light, the great space in
front of us and yet we were unable to grasp it, we couldnt draw it into
ourselves. We couldnt free ourselves into the present. Instead we
wanted to think about setting other people free. We wanted to think
about their unhappiness. We used their wretchedness to mask our own.
And our wretchedness was our inability to take the simple good things
life was offering us and be glad to have them. Politics, idealistic politics, is
all about the future. (Mc Ewan 41-42)
Bernard hates silence his speech is endless, he uses facts, numbers,
sonorous platitudes, the militarized vacuities, the front, the attack, the
enemies of Marxist Leninist thought (McEwan 43). June, who has recently
discovered her pregnancy, is tempted by ageless silence (62), because she
feels connected with a more essential spiritual power, the landscape and the
natural cycles. She is thinking about the future in a very different way,
prompted by a creation of a new life within her body. Bernards scientific talk
estranges them from the experience of oneness with the environment and their
innermost depths. It is inefficient to make any change for the better, because
he is learning nothing essential. The vision June has is reminiscent of Jungian
participation mystique86 when an individual feels oneness with the rest of the
86
Participation mystique - a term derived from anthropology and the study of primitive psychology,
denoting a mystical connection, or identity, between subject and object. It consists in the fact that
the subject cannot clearly distinguish himself from the object but is bound to it by a direct
relationship which amounts to partial identity [...] Among civilized peoples it usually occurs between
persons, seldom between a person and a thing. In the first case it is a transference relationship [...]
In the second case there is a similar influence on the part of the thing, or else an identification with
a thing or the idea of a thing. [Definitions, CW 6, par. 781.] [Identity] is a characteristic of the
primitive mentality and the real foundation of participation mystique, which is nothing but a relic of
the original non-differentiation of subject and object, and hence of the primordial unconscious
state. It is also a characteristic of the mental state of early infancy, and, finally, of the unconscious of
the civilized adult. [Ibid., par. 741.]
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creation. This is the beginning of her doubts which are soon confirmed by her
vision of good and evil.
The following day, another crucial event happens that fortifies her new
belief. She meets two black dogs on a village path and gets scared to death. She
experiences them as the embodiment of evil, inexplicable by any social theory.
At the same time it was a conflict, a change of heart, a new understanding
(McEwan 172). Faced with the evil, she senses within herself something quite
the opposite a new light, a belief, a sign of God:
That morning I came face to face with evil. I didnt quite know it at the
time, but I sensed it in my fear these animals were the creations of
debased imagination, of perverted spirits no amount of social theory
could account for. The evil Im talking about lives in us all. It takes hold in
an individual, in private lives within a family, and then its children who
suffer most. And then, when the conditions are right, in different
countries, at different times, a terrible cruelty, viciousness against life
erupts and everyone is surprised by the depth of hatred within himself.
Then it sinks back and waits. Its something in our hearts. (172)
Describing the two black dogs, she alludes to the archaic energies that once
were supported by the creative imagination of the archaic people who generated
myths in order to explain the purpose of their existence, but turned destructive
when suppressed in the modern, demythologized world. They are contaminated,
manipulated as a result of some intervention of culture into nature. The Gestapo
dogs, trained to track down people and rape women as a sort of torture against
the Resistance members, show that they had to serve the perverted cultural
purposes. Junes new philosophy develops not only out of the vision of evil, but
also the centre of goodness of two black dogs and oval light. She sees the social
progress Bernard talks about as stagnation, every political party as a model which
assumes that man exists only within the boundaries of society. Social changes
cannot save man from evil unless they are the changes of the individual. She
demands not progress, but the transformation that would enable us to see the
human society as a part of a much vaster natural context which is not rationally
graspable:
Human nature, the human heart, the spirit, the soul, consciousness itself
call it what you like in the end its all weve got to work with. It has to
develop and expand, or the sum of our misery will never diminish. My
own small discovery has been that this change is possible, it is within our
power. Without a revolution of the inner life, however slow, all our big
designs are worthless. The work we have to do is with ourselves if were
ever going to be at peace with each other. Im not saying itll happen.
Theres a good chance it wont. Im saying its our only chance. If it does,
and it could take generations, the good that flows from it will shape our
societies in an unprogrammed, unforeseen way, under the control of no
single group of people or set of ideas. (145)
Junes experience with black dogs turns into a pre-sleep dream that haunts
her for forty years: two dogs are running, the bigger one leaves a bloody trail.
Even though she is aware that they are going away, she is afraid, because she
knows they will return. Her awareness of the presence and the recurrence of evil
initiates her into discovering God and faith. She goes through a change, stands up
against empiric and pragmatic rationality, revitalizes herself and acquires a new
kind of knowledge metaphysical. She becomes a mystic, yogi, abstainer and
intuitionist (52), whereas Bernard remains a rationalist, commissar, joiner and
scientist (53). In spite of being two opposite poles, two extremities and strangers
till the end of their lives, they love each other June, because she believes that
the healing power of love which exists at the core of every man has to be
discovered, nourished and directed towards other people; Bernard, because he
loves her for what she was as a communist, never accepting her new self. For
June, what matters is to make ones own discovery about the world around us
and not be misled by any ideologies or other peoples beliefs, to make the
connection with ones own centre, with the inner being, to extend and deepen it,
to transform it in the warm milk of universal love and goodness (60):
I met evil and discovered God. I call it my discovery, but, of course, its
nothing new, and its not mine. Everyone has to make it for himself.
People use different language to describe it. I suppose all the great world
religions began with individuals making inspired contact with a spiritual
reality and then trying to keep that knowledge alive. Most of it gets lost
in rules and practices and addiction to power. Thats how religions are. In
the end, though it hardly matters how you describe it once the essential
truth has been grasped that we have within us an infinite resource, a
potential for a higher state of being, a goodness. (60)
Unfortunately, some people (as Jeremy, her son-in-law, admits) are unable
to love truly, to improve themselves, to yield up the defensive core of
selfhood (60), they neither see nor believe, and feel uncomfortable in the
presence of people who speak like June. Bernard does not change he only
makes a shift from the Party towards the thirty years obsession with different
kinds of political and social reforms, he only substitutes one ideology for
another, he stagnates. When he kills a dragonfly, in spite of his wifes pleading
not to do so, he demonstrates a form of evil known as the lack of empathy.
Unable to identify himself with a living thing, to feel for it, he demonstrates a
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hidden potential of man the potential for destructiveness, as Fromm would

put it. He is unable to understand that killing, dissecting and scientific analyzing
do not represent the only way to comprehend and understand the world around
us. There is something beyond Bernards routine, paranormal phenomena
happen, the empirical knowledge cannot rule over the mystic one, the
mythological tradition is still present, although suppressed or replaced by the
scientific mode. June, being pregnant, senses a new life growing in her. Her
maternal instinct of procreation is against killing, against the destruction of any
life; she feels responsible not only for the life growing inside her, but for all life.
She objects to Bernards lack of moral and emotional intelligence that, in a way,
turns him into a beast. She realizes how terrible is the need to control it, choke
the life out of it, label it, arrange it in rows (77), which is the authors direct
allusion to the Nazis treatment of victims in the concentration camps. Moreover,
Bernard wants a society as neat as barracks, justified by scientific theories; he
does not care about the working class, he rather thinks about them as numbers,
statistics, not individuals, so his contribution to the improvement of the society
by treating social ills turns out to be rather selective. He treats both insects and
people in the same way. In other words, all his social work seems to be void of
any humane reasons, it is a bare abstraction and nothing else. Letting him kill
that beautiful dragonfly for his insect collection, June feels that nature will take
its revenge and something is going to happen to the baby. This kind of mystical
thinking is completely alien to Bernard, even when their daughter Jenny is born
with six fingers on one hand, the number of the dragonflys legs. He refuses
Junes mystical explanations, her intuitive knowledge, her unbounded
credulousness, her certainties: unicorns, wood spirits, angels, mediums, selfhealing, the collective unconscious, the Christ within us (46).
The historical background: the atrocities of Nazism

In 1981, Jeremy, the narrator and Junes biographer, and his future wife
Jenny Tremaine visit Majdanek, the German concentration and extermination
camp on the southern-eastern outskirts of the city of Lublin, in Poland. Once
again, the concept of black dogs is evoked. The camp is the testimony of the
defeat of Fascism, but also the fear of its recurrence. Above the main entrance
there is a sign announcing that so many hundreds of thousands of Poles,
Lithuanians, Russians, French, British and Americans died there. However, there
is no mention of the Jews as such. The camp consumed all Lublins Jews, threequarters of its population. The historical facts are that in October 1941 it
received its first prisoners, mainly the Soviet prisoners of war, virtually all of
whom died of hunger and exposure. Within a year, however, it was converted
into a death camp for Jews, transported from the Czech Republic, Poland, the
Netherlands and Greece. Like Auschwitz, Majdanek was not a death camp
alone, but also a prison and work camp. It contained gas chambers, wooden
gallows and large crematorium ovens. During almost four years of existence,
some 500.000 people from many countries and of even more nationalities
passed through it; about 360.000 died there. Some died of starvation, torture
or various diseases, some were murdered by the firing squad or in the gas
chambers. When the Soviet Army entered it in July 1944, only a few hundred
prisoners remained alive. Only a year later did the liberation of the camps
receive worldwide attention; up to that point, and even later, many claimed
ignorance of their existence.87
Genocide, as the most brutal form of death, is an explicitly sadistic act. The
crime of destroying a group of people only because of their ethnic, national,
racial or religious identity is repeated many times throughout history. Fromm
comments on the history of the mankind as a record of extraordinary
destructiveness and cruelty. For him, human aggression far surpasses that of
mans animal ancestors, and makes man, in contrast to most animals, a real killer:
The most ample and horrifying documentation for this seemingly
spontaneous forms of destructiveness are on the record of civilized
history. The history of war is a report of ruthless and indiscriminate killing
and torture, whose victims were men, women and children. Many of
these occurrences give the impression of orgies of destruction, in which
neither conventional nor genuinely moral factors had any inhibitory
effects. Killing was still the mildest manifestation of destructiveness. But
the orgies did not stop here: men were castrated, women were
disemboweled, prisoners were crucified or thrown before the lions.
87
According to Richard Rubenstein, no century in human history can match the twentieth in sheer
number of people slaughtered as a direct consequence of the political activity of the great states.
One estimate of the humanly inflicted deaths of the twentieth century places the total at about one
hundred million. It all began with the First World War in which about 6,000 people were killed every
day for over 1,500 days. The total was around ten million. He sees the Holocaust as a thoroughly
modern exercise in total domination that could only have been carried out by an advanced political
community with a highly trained, disciplined police and civil service bureaucracy. The Holocaust is
placed here within the context of the phenomenon of twentieth century mass death. Never before
have human beings been so expendable. Perhaps the best illustration of the spirit of the twentieth
century is the example of Hungarian Jews treatment by the British. In 1944 the Nazis were sending
over 750.000 Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. Chaim Weizmann, who was to become Israels first
president, sent two messages to Anthony Eden, the British foreign secretary, requesting that the
gassing installations and railroad lines at Auschwitz be subjected to aerial bombardment. Two
months passed before Weizmann received a reply (and several hundred thousand Jews were killed
in the meantime) in which it was stated that due to certain technical difficulties involved, the British
had no option but to refrain from pursuing the proposal. At the time of the British refusal, the Allies
had air supremacy over Europe. (Rubenstein 28)
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There is hardly a destructive act human imagination could think of that

has not been acted out again and again. ( Fromm 361)
The wish to destroy for the sake of destruction can be considered the worst
trait in man. The development of technical civilization has only raised the
number of forms of cruelty imposed on human beings. The orgies conducted in
the camps included the recycling of dead human bodies into usable products.
Some documentary films made there show cut-off human heads, human body
turned into bars of soap, human skin processed into lampshades, book covers
or other decorative items. All of these were made by the civilized and
technologically superior Germans, in the middle of the twentieth century. No
part of the prisoner was wasted in the effort to build the Great Reich and the
progress and wellbeing of the great nation.
During World War II, the Jews suffered enormous legalized injustice.
Accused of anti-German activities, they were made criminals and all the things
done to them were made legal: the eviction, the deportation, the confiscation,
the experimentation, the Final Solution. On seeing it, for Jeremy, Majdanek
transforms from a monument, an honourable civic defiance of oblivion
(McEwan 110) into a disease of the imagination and a living peril, a barely
conscious connivance with evil (110). Huts, barracks, watchtowers, barbed
wire, incinerator, the camps obsessive neatness, stand as products of mans
perverted nature. There are wire cages full of shoes, tens of thousands of them.
The facts about victims are turned into numbers, heaps, absorbed into
statistics, and that is the way to make people insensitive to the victims
suffering and hardships, because one cannot feel for numbers. The civilization
has a problem to feel compassion for individual human tragedies, to feel for
all living things; instead, the victims are turned into depersonalized and
insignificant facts and numbers:
Life turned to tat. The extravagant numerical scale, the easy-to-say
numbers tens and hundreds of thousands, millions denied the
imagination its proper sympathies, its rightful grasp of the suffering, and
one was drawn insidiously to the persecutors premise, the life was
cheap, junk to be inspected in heaps. As we walked on, my emotions
died. There was nothing we could do to help. There was no one to feed
or free. We were strolling like tourists. Either you came here and
despaired, or you put your hands deeper into your pockets and gripped
your warm loose change and found you had taken one step closer to the
dreamers of the nightmare. This was our inevitable shame, our share in
the misery. We were on the other side, we walked here freely like the
commander once did, or his political master, poking into this or that,
knowing the way out, in the full certainty of our next meal. (110-111)
The evil done to those people cannot be called a mistake. If Jews are not
mentioned as victims, it cannot be called an omission, but rather the
continuation of hatred towards them, and generally towards the other. The
extermination was a long-planned action. It was the product of twisted minds
and ideas of the few, supported by those who were not able, or did not want to
question the righteousness of such an act:
to dream of this enterprise, to plan these camps, to build them and take
such pains, to furnish, run and maintain them, and to marshal from
towns and villages their human fuel. Such energy, such dedication. How
could one begin to call it a mistake? (111)
June knows that the black dogs cannot disappear, that they just wait till the
next occasion. For Bernard, they are the result of Junes depression, two dogs
as a kind of collective, cultural depression. He does not understand their
symbolical meaning even in Berlin, in 1989, during the fall of the Berlin Wall.
The moment of the reunification of the West and East Germany is also the
moment of the awakening of the black dogs, the moment of the reappearance
of those who see racial differences among people as a threat. Bernard and
Jeremy witness a skinhead group of six young boys, attacking a Turk, a romantic
revolutionary with the red flag, only because he is different from them, because
he wants to emphasize his own difference, uniqueness and freedom in the
united Germany. Jeremy notices the details of their appearance:
They were aged between sixteen and twenty. Collectively they exuded
runtish viciousness, an extravagant air of under privilege, with their
acned pallor, shaved heads and loose wet moths [] The kids [] were
bunched up in a pack, breathing heavily, heads and tongues lolling in
bemusement [] I saw two of them had silver swastikas pinned to their
lapels. Another had a swastika tattoo on his knuckle. (96-96)
They yell auslaender raus and literally want all other, non-Aryan races,
out of their country. However, they are not the only ones. As a pro-Nazi group,
they express the intolerance openly, violently, in an organized way, but there
are also others who may easily become their supporters, who do not wear
swastikas, but are equal to them in the amount of hidden hatred towards the
other nations, nationalities, skin-colours, or anything else. McEwan here
portrays an old lady with a short-term memory; she has obviously forgotten the
atrocities of the Nazi regime, and in this act of violence towards the Turkish boy
cannot detect the recognizable racial pattern of hatred. Apart from her,
McEwan also portrays a gentleman, a representative of the aristocracy who
unquestionably supported Nazism once, who cannot even perceive this act as an
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act of violence. Sadly, there are also two men in suits, obviously businessmen or
solicitors, educated for the business, but totally illiterate to the moral problem of
racism. Bernard, who interferes, is beaten instead of the Turk who manages to
escape. The hatred and violence, once aroused in the boys, had to be exercised
on someone. Bernard looked different enough to be punished.
Junes utopia: resistance to dormant evil

Fromm rightly asserts that the malignant form of human aggression is not
innate, and hence not ineradicable, but is a human potential, an acquired
pattern of behaviour, that can disappear when new patterns are introduced.
The sad fact is that many people are not interested in considering any other
options but the ones they already live by. June chooses a different pattern of
life. She realizes that the only way to improve this deviant civilization is to start
from ourselves, to get to know ourselves first in order to understand the rest of
the world. June makes a conscious effort for her spiritual improvement. Being
able to understand evil, she is able to come to her personal God, to her soul, to
the universe filled with meaning. There is an old Jewish saying: if you do not
become better, you will become worse. No matter what term that better state
of our being takes, whether it is God, or the spirit of love, or the Atman or the
Christ or the laws of nature (McEwan 46), what is important is to make the
connection with this centre, this inner being, to extend and deepen it. Instead
of hatred towards everything that is other and unknown to us, we should nourish
love and understanding. This idea becomes her personal utopia. Unfortunately, it
seems that the black dogs are not likely to disappear; however, it does not give
us the right to give up trying to make this world a better place to live. The tragic
course of history may be altered for the better one day, which would be our
chance for the new beginning.
Junes idea of the resistance to dormant evil as a good ground for the
new beginning can be related to Rimbauds life philosophy. In the letter to his
authentic self, Rimbaud expresses his crucial belief: I is another. (Fowley 124)
He senses that there is in him some unsuspected potential with which he can
get in touch only if he changes his way of seeing. According to him, to find out
what he really is, a man must become a visionary. In order to attain a proper
vision, Rimbaud proceeds to derange all his senses by any unconvential means
available to him madness, alcohol, drugs, sexual perversion. He retreats from
habitual thinking and wants to discover the energy that is suppressed by
descending into it. After he had descended into Hell and came back, he was
illuminated, found the truth about himself:
The poet makes himself a visionary through a long, immense and

reasoned derangement of all the senses [] he arrives at the Unknown
because he has cultivated his soul, already rich, more than anyone else! I
ended by finding sacred the disorder of my intelligence [] Priests,
professors, masters, you are wrong to give me up to justice. I have never
belonged to these people; I have never been a Christian; I am of the race
who sang in torture; I havent moral sense, I am a nigger, a beast. But I
may be saved. You yourselves are false niggers, savage and grasping
madmen. Do I know nature? Do I know myself? No more words. Hunger,
thirst, shouts, drums, dance, dance, dance! (Fowley 125)
He recreates the values degraded in the society, the aspects of the primitive
pagan mind, by recognizing the parts of his being that are denied and
suppressed, he becomes a nigger, a beast. The language used in the society is
based on the words that are abstract and fixed they keep him apart from the
inner genuine self and therefore he runs away from the culture to experience his
own vision, his epiphany.
June experiences the similar thing. She has a premonition that Bernards
scientific talk estranges them from the experience of oneness with the
environment, with their innermost depths. The vision June has is induced by her
sensing some deep connection between herself and the landscape, the idea
which is reminiscent of the Jungian concept of participation mystique when an
individual feels oneness with the rest of creation, as already discussed. This is the
beginning of her doubts which are soon confirmed by her vision of good and evil.
The next day another crucial event happens when she meets two black dogs in
the path alone. She experiences them as the embodiment of evil which is
inexplicable by any social theory. At the same time, she begins to sense in herself
a mystical presence of some oval light that grows in intensity. Later, she identifies
it as a manifestation of the centre of goodness inherent in men. She speaks about
these two as principles. There is a principle of evil which takes possession of
people and a principle of good as a counterbalancing principle.
These moments of vision occurred due to her sensitivity to the mythological
tradition that is still present and not suppressed or replaced by the scientific
mode. Her attitude demands not progress, but the inner transformation. Junes
epiphany makes her separate from Bernard for good. She withdraws to a
bergerie in France where she spends her life writing books and meditating,
becoming an artist in a way. The philosophy that develops out of this vision
makes her become an emigrant from both her family and public life. She
abandons the city life and the language of social theory, preferring a very close
contact with the ageless silence of the burial sites dating from immemorial times
and the natural surrounding with which she establishes some sort of closeness. It
gives her energy to step beyond history and politics, to come to terms with the
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pagan tradition, the way Rimbaud detached himself from history and embraced
the pagan tradition himself.
Bernard, on the other hand, has never undergone an inner transformation
in his life he is skidding around on the surface (McEwan 43). He describes
June as the woman with the lack of social responsibility (McEwan 78). Jeremy
makes a clear distinction between the two of them at the very beginning of the
novel describing June as an intuitionist, mystic as opposed to Bernard, who is a
scientist, rationalist. Her vision is in opposition to Bernards rationalist theory of
causality which makes no provision for any precognition or mysticism. The
language he speaks does not establish a contact between himself and the world
around him, or, which is more important, between him and June.
Besides the fact that June is an emigrant from the city life, she is also an
emigrant from life into death, which does not separate her from the realm of
the living. Her death is not her final end; she survives her death in a way. She
moves into another dimension which exists simultaneously with the reality.
Reaching from the other realm, she can intervene and make her benevolent
presence felt by the characters that are keeping memory of her. She can
communicate with them and help them survive.
According to Jungs mystical theory, her presence is a metaphor for a sort
of interpenetration between the realm of the dead and the realm of the living.
Shes the soul, anima, allusive of Jungian vision of intuitive faculty.
There are instances in the novel suggesting her survival after death. There
is one significant episode in Berlin at the moment of the fall of the Berlin Wall
when Bernard is attacked by a group of hooligans. A young girl appears who
earlier seemed to Bernard to resemble June very much. So, as the embodiment
of June, she interferes and her spirit saves Bernard from the hostile crowd. He
told to Jeremy earlier:
Ever since she died, Ive found myself looking at young girls. Im looking
for a trace of her. Its become a habit. Im always searching for a
gesture, an expression, something about the eyes or the hair, anything
that will keep her alive for me. Its not June you knew Im looking for,
its the girl I married [] if the world by some impossible chance really
was as she made it out to be, then she was bound to try and get in
touch to tell that I was wrong and she was right. And that she would do
it somehow through a girl who looked like her. And one day, one of
these girls would come to me with a message. (McEwan 83)
Although he previously told Jeremy that he actually expected a message
from June in the form of her incarnation, he soon comes to his senses and
denies the whole event considering it a mere coincidence.
While spending his time in the bergerie, Jeremy felt her invisible presence:
Junes spirit, her many ghosts, might stealthily reassert possession []

Whatever sensible thing I told myself, I could not banish the thought
that in a house where a woman had given herself for so many years to
the contemplation of eternity, some delicate emanation, a gossamer
web of consciousness inhered and was aware of me [] Everywhere
was a sweet smell I associated with June. (McEwan 173)
Soon after that an event happened which can be interpreted as her
benevolent intervention from the realm of the dead. Jeremy believes that she
has alerted him to a presence of a scorpion on a cupboard in the dark and he
escapes a fatal injury.
Conclusion
Although metaphysics, history and utopia are generally regarded as three
mutually exclusive phenomena, Ian McEwan manages to merge them in his
novel Black Dogs. In his treatment of the phenomenon of metaphysics, he
presents us with two contrasted, but most prominent versions of this concept
nowadays mans feeling of mystic oneness with the rest of creation vs. scientific
reasoning and utilitarian ethics (the female vs. the male principle). McEwan
traces these metaphysical outlooks in the historical background of World War II
and comments on the perversity of various cultural practices (racism, violence,
aggressiveness, etc.), which are seen as the products of the modern demythologized tradition. According to the author, the resistance to these perverted
cultural practices can be found in the mysticism of Junes utopian vision.
Significantly, Jeremy, the narrator, ends the story with the expression of
gratefulness for what June bequeathed to her children. It is the bergerie, the
cottage haunted by her spirit, surrounded by the prehistoric monuments and
ancient hills. It is the place where they can resist living the city life from which
she herself once stepped out. Her epiphany causes a timely break-through, she
decides to leave the culture which separated her from her deepest self.
That is why Rimbauld suggests no more words but dance. Jungian cure
would be the attainment of the vision which points to a hidden reality, the
process of individuation through participation mystique, when one establishes
a vital link with the rest of the creation. In the modern scientific world, the
search for anima to feel oneness and the compensatory effect of collective
unconscious may redeem this narrow image and partial vision of reality.
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Bibliography:
Fromm, Erich. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. Harmondsworth:
Penguin, 1977.
Fowley, Wallace. Rimbaud: Complete Works, Selected Letters. Chicago: U Chicago
P, 1966.
McEwan, Ian. Black Dogs. London: Vintage, 1998.
Rubenstein, Richard. The Cunning of History: The Holocaust and the American
Future. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.
Lexicon of Jungian terms, 2008. Web. 16. Nov. 2009. http://www.nyaap.org/index.php/id/7/subid/56
CRNI PSI: METAFIZIKA, ISTORIJA I UTOPIJA

Iako se koncepti metafizike, istorije i utopije danas obino posmatraju kao
meusobno iskljuivi fenomeni, Ijan Mekjuan ih uspeno povezuje u svom romanu Crni psi. Kada je re o metafizici, Mekjuan opisuje dve suprostavljene, ali istovremeno i najupeatljivije verzije ovog fenomena danas mistiko jedinstvo sa
kosmosom nasuprot naunom rezonovanju i utilitarnoj etici (enski i muki princip). Mekjuan ove suprostavljene vizije stavlja u istorijski okvir Drugog svetskog
rata, s ciljem da pojave rasizma, nasilja i agresije, koje su kulminirale u ovom periodu, predstavi kao proizvode demitologizovane tradicije, koja karakterie savremeno drutvo danas. Autor je miljenja da je otpor prema ovakvim izopaenim
oblicima kulture mogu i da se nalazi u misticizmu utopijske vizije za koju se u romanu zalae Dun.
Kljune rei: metafizika, istorija, utopija, mistiko jedinstvo, nauno rezonovanje, utilitarna etika
UDK 821.57.09
The Desperation of Gods in The White Tiger

and The Inheritance of Loss
Janko Andrijaevi
University of Montenegro
Abstract: Anglo-Indian literature is becoming an increasingly prominent section of

literatures in English. Apart from the well-known authors like Tagore, Rushdie, V.S.
Naipaul, a younger generation of writers is on the rise to global literary renown. Two of
them won the Man Booker Prize in the 21st century Kiran Desai in 2006 with her novel
The Inheritance of Loss, and Aravind Adiga in 2008 with The White Tiger. Drawing
profusely from the Indian lifestyle, tradition and values, which are largely religious, they
could not but intersperse their pages with numerous references to religion, including
various gods and goddesses. However, unlike the traditional representations of these
divine images inspiring awe and might, gods in the two novels appear powerless,
neglected, trivially ornamental. The question this paper tries to address is why this shift
has been so sudden and dramatic, and why the contemporary generation of Indian writers
relate to religion in a way that is more lugubrious than radically atheist.
Key words: Aravind Adiga, Kiran Desai, India, The Man Booker Prize, Hinduism
Indian gods are numerous and powerful. They are never desperate. All of
their activities represent paradigms of the fulfillment of dharma the holy law.
Many of them have remained eternally youthful and playful ever since the preAryan period, like the dark-skinned shepherd Krishna, the eighth avatar, or the
half-man half-tiger Narasimha, the fourth avatar. For millennia they have been
walking hand in hand with various peoples of India, and have been offering
solace for the questions that have no definite answers. They are good when
they are good, and they are good even when they are evil. They make India one
of the strongest spiritual havens on the planet. However, in many books written
by Indians lately, books that have received the most prestigious literary awards,
the gods of India have fallen into despair. They are unable to intervene in harsh
destinies of numerous underprivileged Indians. Instead, they just swing as
ornaments suspended from rear mirrors of beat-up cars or unfalteringly stare
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from calendars hanging on dirty walls. Why are they desperate today, after such
a long history of glory? Have they lost their intrinsic might? Is something they are
not guilty of being attributed to them? Are they going to survive at all? Judging
by the novels The White Tiger and The Inheritance of Loss, the only thing that is
clear is that they have been dethroned, but we cannot know whether it is a
temporary or a permanent state.
In the first decade of the twenty first century the Man Booker Prize was
awarded twice to Anglo-Indian novelists Kiran Desai in 2006 and Aravind
Adiga in 2008. Both were 35 when they won the Prize, both have had intense
experiences of life in India but also of life in Western countries. Although the
novels The Inheritance of Loss by Desai and The White Tiger by Adiga differ in
many aspects primarily in the sentiment, focus, range, language there are
several striking parallels in them. One of them is a similar perception of Hindu,
but also Buddhist, Muslim, and Christian deities, which represent unavoidable
motives of Indian daily life.
Both Desai and Adiga mention the same three deities: Krishna, Kali, and
Buddha. Desai also adds Durga, Ganesh, and Jesus, while Adiga mentions
Lakshmi, Shiva, and Hanuman. Each of these gods is placed in a trivial, or, at best,
an ornamental context. It seems to be a rule that Indians cannot do without gods,
but it also seems that most of them neither understand nor properly respect
them. Is this the reason why the contemporary Indian society has become a
helter-skelter democracy castigated by many Indian free-thinking intellectuals?
Has the misunderstanding of the essential values of its own tradition turned India
into a synonym for a fair of opposites extreme spirituality and extreme
materialism, unimaginable wellbeing and unimaginable squalor, timeless beauty
and painful unsightliness? Is it because of the generally limited understanding of
the Vedanta messages that the characters from these two novels, Bijou and
Balaram, live in cages from which there is no escape? Or are the gods to blame?
The gods are silent when they are attacked and charged, and hence it is easy to
accuse them. They are silent, but not idle. They probably memorize and take note
at least in case it is true that their roots are drenched in the authenticity of
universal and primeval spirituality, and in case religion as a phenomenon has any
value at all. However, it is very difficult to give answer to any of these questions
at the present moment, and the novels which implicitly pose them only add to
the complexity.
Many people in India get their names after the names of various deities.
These names are considered spiritually auspicious, because their sound
vibrations cleanse the mind, and anyone who is exposed to them advances on
the ladder of spiritual evolution. It is irrelevant whether one is addressing a god
or ones own child the holy names are transcendental and enormously powerful. There is the famous story of the fallen Brahmin called Ajamila, upon whose
demise Yamadutas, the frightening servants of Yama, the god of death, came to
fetch Ajamilas soul. Terrified, Ajamila instinctively uttered the name of his
youngest son Narayan, who was dearest to his heart. Since Narayan is one of
the holy names, wherever and whenever it is called out Vishnudutas appear
who are the servants of the supreme god Vishnu. Yamadutas and Vishnudutas
started negotiating over Ajamilas soul, but since Vishnus servants are mightier,
Yamadutas shamefacedly returned to their Lord Yamaraja empty-handed.
Vishnudutas allotted Ajamila another year of earthly life, as a chance to make up
for the sins from his past. Eventually, his soul goes to join Vishnu in heaven.
The hero of The White Tiger is called Balaram. Balaram is a character from
The Mahabharata, Krishnas elder brother. Adigas Balaram, however, did not
get his name upon birth, nor was he given it by his family. Until he started going
to school he was called Munna, which simply means boy. His family, whose
most respected member was the water buffalo, had had enough of choosing
names for the children. Too many children, too many mouths to feed. It was
the drunk teacher who gave Balaram the name, without much picking for it is
one of the standard male names in India.
Bijou is one of the characters in The Inheritance of Loss (there is no central
character in this novel), and he could perhaps be taken as a counterpart to
Balaram. His name also implies a spiritual origin, although it is not a name of a
deity, but of one of the most elevated servants of gods the great and
powerful kshatriya Arjuna (or Vijay, the same as Bijou), the confused warrior at
the battlefield of Kurukshetra, to whom his charioteer, the embodied Krishna,
reveals the essentials of spiritual wisdom. Arjunas questions and Krishnas
replies comprise the Bhadavad Gita. In Hinduism the servant of God is
considered even more elevated than the divine being because god forgives if
someone makes an offence against him, but not if someone offends his servant.
This is why the name of Bijou also carries spiritual symbolism. The word
originates from Sanskrit and means victory.
However, are these two characters victorious, and have their spiritually
auspicious names added to their well-being? Where does their greater glory lie?
In the domain of material wealth, or psychological maturity, or religious insights?
Political influence? Education? The answer to all these is no. They are destitute in
most of these aspects, despite their auspicious names. Despite the fact that
Balaram eventually becomes enormously rich, while Bijou loses even the little he
managed to bring to India after years of toiling illegally in New York, both are
marked by congenital destitution. Balaram lost his freedom, his hands are dirty,
his mind is restless. Bijou lost hopes, stamina, chances. Are these novels saying
that to be born destitute in India means to die destitute in one way or another?
And what kind of role do the millions of Indian gods play in all this?
The picture of modern Indian society in The White Tiger is the picture of a
face of someone who has swallowed a bitter and a sour pill, but does not want
it to show. A lot is happening under the surface, but the mask of benevolence is
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too eagerly maintained. It covers up all the nominally accepted social values:
tradition, economic progress, religion, tolerance, democracy. Beneath the
sweet-sounding phrases of All India Radio and other state-run media, the
picture of hidden India is foul. One fact about India is that you can take almost
anything you have heard about the country from the prime minister and turn it
upside down and then you will have the truth about that thing (Adiga 15).
Although Adigas vision of Indian society has been criticized as curiously
inauthentic [] from [an] outsider presenting cynical anthropologies to an
audience that is not Indian (Kumar 1), his poignant perception of those who
suffer seems to be stemming rather from humane compassion than from a
perverse desire to present his native land in a despicable light. Although Adiga
might have heightened the readers emotional perception, it is still overly difficult
not to be touched by the pictures of children [] with oversized heads from
which vivid eyes shine like the guilty conscience of the government of India,
(Adiga 20) or not to be outraged at (or compassionate with?) the schoolteachers
who steal the childrens lunch money (33). It is difficult not to feel the pangs of
desolation for those who, in their wish to work honestly, end up as human
spiders that go crawling in between and under the tables (51) in tea shops, and,
on the other hand, not to feel disgust for those who show off their wealth even
by the amount of garbage thrown outside of the walls of the house (217).
Adiga sees India as a rooster coop. He even describes one such specific place
in Delhi, with all its squalor and doom, and says that things will never change,
that there will never be a revolution in India, due to the servitude of lower castes
(although he recognizes only two the rich and the poor). Just like mice in
psychological experiments that invariably get electric shocks wherever they move
or whatever they do, Indians have learned to be helpless, to take their fates as
they come and willingly let their masters beat, bully, starve, or slaughter them.
True, in compensation they sometimes urinate in their plants or kick their pet
dogs (185), but these are just petty vents for their out-of-proportion humiliation.
Have any of these behaviours got anything to do with the religious principles of
surrender, humility, serving? And have these principles by any chance been
abused somewhere along the line, and turned into shackles instead of means for
spiritual liberation? If religion tolerates poverty, ordeals, struggle, for the sake of
enlightenment, does it tolerate all of these for the sake of the comfort of the
rich? In the secularized religious tradition, which has long parted from the
primeval meaning of spirituality, it seems that it does. But this is not religion,
just like the electoral democracy in India is not real democracy, since Balaram
never even gets to see the inside of a polling booth, while officially being a
most avid voter (102).
Is Kiran Desais India more democratic and more spiritual than Adigas?
Judging by her novel The Inheritance of Loss, one could hardly say so. She
describes it as a land which has a messy map (Desai 9), in which the police are
being paid off by the robbers (10), whose poor string along railroads
defecating onto the tracks, rinsing their bottoms with water from the can (30).
The rich, on the other hand, imperatively build huge houses, even if sometimes
they have to leave them unfurnished for a while (149). Visa applicants come to
Western embassies with every single paper fake: birth certificates, vaccination
records from doctors, offers of monetary support (183). Schoolmaster fail the
children unless paid off by the parents (270).
Religion in Desais India is frequently applied ritualistically; people make
pujas or sacrifices if bitten by snakes (13). More often than not religion invariably
divides people a girl eloped with a guy from a Parsi orphanage and her family
disowned her (28). The same divine images are hanging in poverty stricken huts
as well as in Indian restaurants in America in which the owners inhumanly exploit
their compatriot, usually illegal workers. Priests charge many thousands of
rupees (72) per puja, or, in other words, they just the rob you of your money
(179). Graffiti say that Jesus is coming to become a Hindu (194). And, just like
in The White Tiger, here we also have hordes of Westerners worshipping
Hindu-mantra-Tantra-Mother-Earth-native-peoples-single-energy-organic-Shakti-ganja-crystal-shaman-intu-ition stuff. (296)
Is this again an undeserved attack on the authors homeland, or a cleareyed perception of its shortcomings? How does Bijou, one of the characters,
feel about his country, after his return from America?
Bijou left India out of despair. His father was a cook who was professionally
degraded from serving a white master to serving an Indian judge (it was
objectively and subjectively felt as degradation), and Bijou could not have
expected to achieve anything above his fathers position. He managed to get a
visa and leave for the States. As an illegal worker, he could only get underpaid
jobs in restaurants, including those owned by fellow Indians, who on one side
exploited workers out of proportion, and on the other boasted with their Indian
identity and truthfulness to tradition. After several years, Bijou decides to go
back home. His possessions upon leaving America are slight, but their value
suddenly goes up as he alights on the Indian ground. Due to an armed strife in
the area where his father lives Bijou cannot reach his house except by paying
the local militia to take him there in a military vehicle. He pays them dearly for
the lift, which he eventually does not even get: he is dumped along the road,
dispossessed of his money, luggage, and even the clothes he was wearing, so
he continues his return barefoot and naked through the woods of a warring
region. His deprivation in America now looks like paradise in comparison to the
degree to which he is deprived upon his return.
Is the above fictional example a gloomy warning that for many there is no
future in India? And how come that its spiritual galore does not compensate for
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the material and democratic shortcomings? Why cannot Shiva and Krishna and
Buddha and Mohammad and Jesus jump out of the calendars and keyrings and
car stickers and household altars, and sort things out? How can they tolerate the
goodhearted Bijou, who even refused to work in restaurants in which beef was
served, be so inhumanly stripped of everything short of his life? How do we
understand religion in the contemporary world, in India or anywhere else for that
matter? What are the core values religious institutions are trying to promote?
These are the questions that can rightfully be posed upon closer inspection of
numberless instances of illogical contemporary conundrums dubbed religious
practices.
Both of these novels give off a similar feeling about life in India, and both of
them regard religion as no more than an ethnographic trifle. Adiga and Desai
can, in their sentiment, also be joined by another Indian author who won the
Man Booker Prize, albeit in the 20th century. That is Arundati Roy, whose novel
The God of Small Things was awarded in 1997. She has even made a pause in
writing fiction because of her urge to contradict the public image of India as a
thriving democracy (Roy). Due to her criticism of the over-powerful Supreme
Court, she was even sentenced to one night in prison for contempt of court.
Most of her actions cause a huge amount of opposition, because she tackles
highly controversial themes. She says that India might be a democracy for a
certain group of people, but for the majority it is not, and she even goes so far
as to call it Kafkaesque and one of the biggest public relations scams (Roy).
Although she currently focuses on non-fiction, she thinks that, though different,
both fiction and non-fiction are political.
However, this papers focus was intended to be on religion, not politics. So,
why has the focus constantly been shifting from the one to the other? And what
makes modern, non-nostalgic Anglo-Indian literature different from other
literatures when religion is concerned? First of all, the presence and the
references to religious elements are proportionally greater in Anglo-Indian than
in other Anglophone literatures, probably because of the deeply rooted religious
traditions in India. But the themes in these Indian novels are not dealing with
religious issues any more than the novels in other modern Anglophone literary
traditions. They deal with political, humanistic, worldly aspects. The main
question is why Indian authors, though still saturated with religious images, do
not consider religion any longer a significant factor in contemporary life? Why
have the gods, crouching in the corners of these novels, become desperate,
powerless, trivial? Have they just lost their powers, or had they never even
possessed them? And, if they had once had them, can they get them back again?
These questions cannot be answered other than by giving highly subjective
opinions. Besides, the issues posed in these questions do not correspond only to
the situation in India, but can be taken as an example of the status religion has
gradually been assuming throughout the world.
The humble and perhaps daring opinion of the author of this paper would
be that religious traditions in most of the modern world have gone through a
process of simultaneous thinning out of genuine spiritual foundations on one,
and a strengthening of their traditionalistic aspects on the other side. Social
restrictions have become predominant over spiritual values, and the attempts
of getting religion closer to its original nature have usually been condemned as
heretical by the institutionalized faiths. This is no big news, since this has not
been going on just in the contemporary world. It has been a constant throughout
the history of humankind. Furthermore, the previous ages have perhaps never
even been as spiritually open as the present moment is. Despite the fact that the
modern times are largely secular, the huge systems built around religious ideas
had been more spiritually stifling in the past. Heartfelt religion has anyway always
been a privilege of the tiniest minority. In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna even says:
Abandon all varieties of religion and just surrender unto Me (Bhagavad-gt
835) Me meaning the Godhead, who is the epitome of absolute genuineness
and truth, that does not necessarily have anything to do with formal religious
institutionalism.
Adiga, Desai, Roy and many other modern novelists in India are just exposing
the laughable symbols of a belief system, which exacts paying obeisance to the
tinsel altars at homes and in temples, but not to human life, which often
helplessly writhes under the unfeeling grip of the minoritys material power.
Thereby, the lack of glorification of religion in these literary pieces is not irreligious,
the display of lugubrious and desperate gods is not heretical or deprecating.
What the authors implicitly emphasize is the concern for life and open human
destinies, which is the most spiritual act there is: for by letting others not be
restricted by our own unquenchable appetites, we leave them the world and
time to individually cherish their own spiritual flames. This is why, though
perhaps obliquely, the novels in question can be called humanely spiritual,
despite the impression of religious doom they may create upon surface reading.
Bibliography:
Adiga, Aravind. The White Tiger. New Delhi: Harper Collins, 2008.
Bhagavad-gt As It Is.Translated and purported by Swami Prabhupda. New
York: Collier, 1972.
Desai, Kiran. The Inheritance of Loss. London: Penguin, 2007.
Kumar, Amitava. Translating India? Aravind Adiga with the Booker. The Hindu.
http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/lr/2008/11/02/stories/2008110250010100.htm. 2 November 2008.
Roy, Arundati. Arts and Ideas. An Interview with Arundati Roy. BBCs Radio 3.
13 July 2009. Radio.
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OAJNI BOGOVI U ROMANIMA BIJELI TIGAR I NASLIJEENI GUBITAK

Anglofona knjievnost Indije postaje sve znaajniji segment svjetske knjievnosti. Osim neprikosnovenih knjievnih autoriteta kao to su Tagore, Rushdie,
V.S. Naipaul, mlaa generacija pisaca takoe postepeno dobija globalni knjievni
ugled. Dvoje meu njima su ve u 21. vijeku osvojili Bukerovu nagradu za knjievnost Kiran Desai godine 2006. za roman Naslijeeni gubitak, a Aravind Adiga
2008. za Bijelog tigra. Indijski nain ivota, tradicija i vrijednosti ove zemlje, predstavljaju dominantnu podlogu za oba romana, a poto je indijska kultura naglaeno religiozna i poto u njoj postoji mnotvo boanstava, i ovi autori se neminovno i esto osvru na njih. Meutim, za razliku od tradicionalnih predstava u kojima ova boanska bia odiu snagom i ulivaju strahopotovanje, bogovi u dva navedena romana djeluju nemono i zanemareno, i esto postaju tek trivijalni ornamenti. Pitanje koje se postavlja u radu jeste zato je ovaj preokret u indijskoj knjievnosti bio tako iznenadan i dramatian, i zbog ega savremena generacija pisaca iz Indije doivljava religiju vie na alostan nego na radikalno ateistiki nain.
Kljune rijei: Aravind Adiga, Kiran Desai, Indija, Bukerova knjievna nagrada,
hinduizam
UDK 821.163.4.09-31
Migrationserfahrungen in Saa Staniis

Roman Wie der Soldat das Grammof on repariert
Maren Kaiser
Friedrich-Schiller-Universitt, Jena
Abstract: Der vorliegende Aufsatz veranschaulicht, dass Saa Staniis Roman Wie der
Soldat das Grammofon repariert Migration nicht nur zum Gegenstand hat, sondern dass
sich die Migrationserfahrungen des Protagonisten auch in der Form und in der
Erzhltechnik des Romans widerspiegeln. Durch die Analyse verschiedener Aspekte des
Romans wird aufgezeigt, wie profund das Leben des Protagonisten mit seiner
tiefgreifenden Migrationserfahrung im Text verarbeitet wurde.
Eine Besonderheit des Romans ist die Multiperspektivitt, sowie die Vielfalt der
Textgattungen, die miteinander verwoben sind. Vor dem Hintergrund des Bosnienkrieges und einer Zeit des politischen Umbruchs wird somit ein komplexes Bild des
Lebens in einer bosnischen Stadt.Staniis Roman verdeutlicht, dass Autoren mit
Migrationshintergrund lngst davon abgekommen sind nur ber ihre persnlichen
Migrationserfahrungen zu schreiben. Der Roman Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert zeigt, dass die Biographie eines Autors/einer Autorin mit Migrationshintergrund
nicht als Grundlage fr die Beurteilung seines/ihres literarischen Werks dienen sollte.
Schlsselwrter: Migranten-/Migrationsliteratur, Migrationserfahrungen, Saa Stanii,
kindliche Erzhlperspektive, Multiperspektivitt, Balkan
Hinter dem rtselhaften Titel Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert
verbirgt sich ein Roman, der um das soziale und individuelle Phnomen der
Migration kreist. Bereits die Tatsache, dass der bosnischstmmige Autor Saa
Stanii den Roman nicht in seiner Muttersprache geschrieben hat, sondern auf
Deutsch, trgt zur besonderen literarischen Verarbeitung des Themas bei und
macht ihn gewissermaen zum Vertreter der Migrationsliteratur (Scheifinger,
9), obgleich der Autor selbst eine solche Kategorisierung von Literatur ablehnt,
da sie seinem literarischen Werk nicht gerecht werde (Stanii 2008b: 104
105). Dennoch verarbeitet Saa Stanii in seinem Roman zweifelsohne
persnliche Erfahrungen, was allein dadurch zum Ausdruck kommt, dass die
Biografien von Autor und Protagonist deutliche Parallelen aufweisen. Der Roman
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handelt von Aleksandar, der in der bosnischen Stadt Viegrad aufwchst, 1992
vor dem Bosnienkrieg mit seiner Familie nach Essen flieht und schlielich als
Erwachsener nach Bosnien zurckkehrt, um seine Erinnerungen an die verlorene
Heimat zu berprfen. Die Romanfigur Aleksandar erfllt dabei eine Doppelfunktion als Erzhler und Protagonist, wobei die kindliche Erzhlperspektive und
die Instanz eines Ich-Erzhlers zustzlich den autobiografischen Charakter des
Romans verstrken. Der Roman erzhlt nicht nur von Migration, sondern so die
These des vorliegenden Beitrags reflektiert auch in seinem Aufbau die
Migrationserfahrung des Protagonisten Aleksandar.
Der Roman ist in vier groe Abschnitte gegliedert: Im ersten, sehr
umfangreichen Teil finden sich Geschichten von Aleksandars Kindheit in Bosnien.
Der zweite, recht kurze Teil handelt von Aleksandars Leben in Deutschland. Der
dritte Abschnitt ist eine Art Buch im Buch, in dem Aleksandar wieder Geschichten
von seiner Kindheit in Bosnien erzhlt. Im letzten Abschnitt reist der erwachsene
Aleksandar schlielich zum ersten Mal nach Ende des Krieges in seine Heimat und
besucht Orte und Menschen, die ihm in Erinnerung geblieben sind. Diese thematische Gliederung markiert verschiedene Lebensabschnitte des Protagonisten,
innerhalb der einzelnen Abschnitte erfolgen allerdings hufige Wechsel von
Erzhlperspektiven und -formen.
Zur ungewhnlichen literarischen Form uerte sich Stanii in einem
Interview der Sddeutschen Zeitung. Dort bezeichnet er seinen Roman als
Mosaik und spielt damit auf die Multiperspektivitt des Romans an, die dadurch
entsteht, dass im Verlauf des Romans verschiedene Romanfiguren die Rolle des
Erzhlers bernehmen. Obwohl der zentrale Handlungsstrang von Aleksandars
Leben erzhlt, entstehen durch die hufigen Perspektivwechsel verschiedene
Nebenstrnge, die die Erzhlungen Alexandars aus der Sicht anderer Romanfiguren bereichern.
[D]as Mosaikartige hat [...] den inhaltlichen Vorteil, dass ich das Gesamtbild von einer Stadt, von Viegrad, erstellen wollte, und das ging eben
auch nur, indem ich nicht nur eine Geschichte erzhle, sondern viele
Geschichten verknpfe, sie zu einem Bild zusammenfge. (Bendixen 3)
Im Folgenden soll anhand der genannten vier Abschnitte nachvollzogen
werden, inwiefern der Aufbau des Romans, Erzhlperspektiven, Erzhlweisen
und Textformen das Thema Migration widerspiegeln.
Im ersten Teil des Buches erzhlt Aleksandar aus der Ich-Perspektive eines
Kindes Geschichten aus seiner wohlbehteten Kindheit in Bosnien. Er lsst
Erinnerungen an sein Vorbild Opa Slavko lebendig werden, der zu Beginn des
Romans stirbt und eine groe Lcke in Aleksandars Leben hinterlsst. Die
Geschichten handeln zunchst vorwiegend von seiner Familie und von groen
Familienfesten bei seinen Groeltern. Nach und nach werden dann aus der
Erzhlperspektive eines Bekannten die Anfnge des Krieges beschrieben, der

schlielich auch Viegrad erreicht. Whrend der Tage der Belagerung der Stadt
sucht die Familie gemeinsam mit anderen Bewohnern Schutz in einem Keller
und flieht schlielich vor dem Krieg nach Deutschland. Seine Kindheit lsst
Aleksandar in Bosnien zurck.
In formaler Hinsicht fllt gleich zu Beginn des Romans die besondere Form
der Kapitelberschriften auf. Den einzelnen Kapiteln sind teils ausfhrliche
Zusammenfassungen vorangestellt, etwa die folgende:
Wie lange ein Herzstillstand fr hundert Meter braucht, wie schwer ein
Spinnenleben wiegt, warum mein Trauriger an den grausamen Fluss
schreibt und was der Chefgenosse des Unfertigen als Zauberer draufhat. [Hervorhebungen M.K.] (WdS 11)
In diesen Kapitelberschriften werden indirekte Fragestze aneinandergereiht, die smtlich auf zentrale Inhalte der nachfolgenden Erzhlung verweisen.
Prgende Momente im Leben des Protagonisten, seine Empfindungen und
Wahrnehmungen werden hierbei in knapper Form zusammengefasst. Stanzel
bezeichnet diese Form von Kapitelberschriften als synoptisch, beziehungsweise
als besprechend, da sie auf die dargestellte Wirklichkeit in ihrer Faktizitt, als
Stoff oder Material aus dem die Erzhlung gestaltet wird verweisen (Stanzel 59).
Durch die besondere Form der indirekten Fragestze und durch die fantasievolle
Wortwahl stellen die Kapitelberschriften zunchst Rtsel fr den Leser dar, weil
dieser sich die Bedeutung der berschriften nicht erschlieen kann. Erst im
nachfolgenden Text erfolgen Kontextualisierungen, wobei die Formulierungen
der berschrift wieder aufgegriffen werden. Die Reihung der indirekten
Fragestze deutet zudem darauf hin, dass es sich beim folgenden Text um eine
Erzhlung handelt, die die aufgeworfenen Fragen sukzessiv beantwortet. Um
noch einmal beispielhaft Bezug auf die obige Inhaltszusammenfassung zu
nehmen: In dem nachfolgenden Text wird davon erzhlt, wie Opa Slavko an
einem Herzinfarkt stirbt, whrend im Fernsehen zu sehen war, wie Carl Lewis den
Weltrekord im Hundertmeterlauf aufstellt. Den Tod seines Opas wiegt Alexandar
gegen einen Spinnentod ab, als er ein zerstrtes Spinnennetz entdeckt.
Anschlieend erzhlt er von seinem Opa Rafik, den seine Mutter den Traurigen
nennt, und davon, dass ihm sein Opa Zauberkrfte verliehen hat und wofr er
diese einsetzen will.
Mir scheint, dass die Erzhlsituation und die Sprache des Romans geprgt
sind von der Migrationserfahrung des Protagonisten. Im ersten Teil liegt eine
klassische Ich-Erzhlsituation88 vor, Ereignisse werden durchgngig im Prsens,
88
Es handelt sich laut Vogt nur dann um eine Ich-Erzhlung, wenn die Erste Person der Grammatik
den Erzhler und eine mit ihm identische Handlungsfigur [...] bezeichnet (Vogt, 68).
171
172
ohne epische Distanz aus der Perspektive des Kindes Alexandar erzhlt. Fr den
Leser ergibt sich aus dieser Erzhlsituation jedoch ein irritierender Widerspruch,
da die Ich-Figur Geschichten aus seiner Kindheit in Bosnien erzhlt, dies jedoch
nicht in seiner Muttersprache, sondern auf Deutsch, also in der Sprache, die der
Ich-Erzhler erst im Zuge der Emigration nach Deutschland, also in einer spteren
Lebensphase erlernt hat. Allein durch den Gebrauch der Sprache entsteht demnach eine epische Distanz, die der Text jedoch durch Tempuswahl und Erzhlperspektive aufzuheben versucht. Der Text antizipiert damit die sptere
Migrationserfahrung des Ich-Erzhlers, wodurch Migration implizit zum durchgngigen Thema des Romans wird.89 Obwohl die Geschichten von der Kindheit
des Protagonisten erzhlen und obwohl sie dies aus einer kindlichen Perspektive
heraus tun, die den Eindruck vermitteln, die Ich-Figur erlebe das Erzhlte im
gleichen Moment, ist die Erzhlperspektive dennoch keine rein kindliche, denn
hinter dem Blick des Kindes offenbart sich der Blick der Person, die die Ich-Figur
im Verlaufe des Romans sein wird (Bay 40). Das erzhlende Ich ist somit irritierenderweise zugleich das erlebende kindliche Ich und das sptere Ich, welches mit
dem Blick des erwachsenen Aleksandar mit zeitlichem und rumlichem Abstand
auf die Kindheit zurckblickt. Bay bezeichnet diese migrationsspezifische Erzhlsituation als ver-rckte[n], in sich verschobene[n] Blick (40). Durch die kindliche
Perspektive und die Zeitform des Prsens ist das Erzhlte nah am Geschehen, es
wird der Eindruck von Unmittelbarkeit vermittelt. Dass der Autor im ersten Abschnitt des Romans einen kindlichen Erzhler gewhlt hat, liegt vermutlich zum
einen an den bereinstimmenden autobiografischen Eckpunkten, da Stanii zum
Zeitpunkt seiner Flucht nach Deutschland selbst noch ein Kind war. Zum anderen
gelingt es dem Autor durch die kindliche Erzhlperspektive, den Krieg in seiner
Unbeschreiblichkeit und Unverstndlichkeit zu thematisieren (Scheifinger 3). Nur
einem unschuldigen Kind ist es mglich, den Krieg in seine sorglose Kindheitswelt zu integrieren und mit naivem Blick zu beschreiben, da es die Bedeutung
des Krieges noch nicht verstehen kann, dieser sogar eine Faszination ausbt:
Die ersten Panzer ziepten die Strae hinauf. Ihre Ketten hinterlieen
weie Ritzen im Asphalt und machten, wo sie ber Brgersteige fuhren,
Beton zu Kies. Es gab kein Halten mehr: wer lt die denn, was quietschen
die so?, rief ich, und schon rannten wir auf die Panzer zu rennen, das
konnten am schnellsten wir! Die Mtter griffen sich in die langen Rcke
und klagten uns nach, so schnell eilten wir zu den Panzern. Ja, wer fhrt
die denn, wie sieht das Lenkrad aus und knnen wir mit? (WdS 108)
89
hnliches erkennt Bay in autobiographischen Romanen der trkisch-deutschen Schriftstellerin

Emine Sevgi zdamar (Bay, 41).
Die kindliche Erzhlperspektive spiegelt sich auch in der Sprache. Besonders

die ersten beiden Erzhlungen bedienen sich einer kindlichen Sprache. Von
seinem Opa hat Aleksandar die Fhigkeit geerbt, Geschichten zu erzhlen
nach der grovterlichen Weisheit: Die wertvollste Gabe ist die Erfindung, der
grte Reichtum die Fantasie. Merk dir das [...] und denk dir die Welt schner
aus (WdS 11). Dementsprechend sind Aleksandars Geschichten geprgt von
einer Sprache, in der sich Fantasie und Realitt vermischen. Sein Opa schenkt
ihm einen Zauberhut und einen Zauberstab und verleiht seinem Enkel somit die
Fhigkeit zu zaubern, die er im Verlauf des Romans des fteren einsetzen will,
um die Vergangenheit zurckzuholen und um Dinge ungeschehen zu machen:
Nachdem ich Opa Slavko die Fhigkeit gegeben haben werde, wieder zu leben,
wird mein nchster Streich sein, uns allen die Fhigkeit zu geben, Gerusche festzuhalten (17). Besonders die ausschweifende Schilderung von Familienfesten
reflektiert in kindlicher Sprache eine Zeit, als das Erzhlen von Geschichten noch
mglich war, eine Zeit, die in den Erzhlungen wieder lebendig wird, eine Zeit, in
der man ohne sorgenvolle Gedanken an die Zukunft ganz in der Gegenwart
leben konnte. Eine lange Aufzhlung der Gerichte, die es bei dem Fest zur
Pflaumenernte gab, lsst ein atmosphrisches, idyllisches Bild vom Balkan
entstehen (Scheifinger 8):
[D)ann gibt es auf einmal Brek, es gibt Pita mit Kartoffeln, Pita mit
Brennnesseln, Pita mit Krbis, es gibt Walnusskuchen und einen Schluck
Rotwein fr mich; es gibt keine Reihenfolge, es gibt kein Hintereinander,
es gibt stndig jemanden, der sagt, er knne nicht mehr, er bekomme
unmglich noch einen Bissen herunter, es gibt abwehrend fuchtelnde
Hnde und niemanden, der das Gefuchtel ernst nimmt, es gibt kein
Zurck, es gibt beleidigte Gesichter, wenn jemand ernsthaft droht, beim
nchsten halben Huhn sterben zu mssen. (WdS 43f)
Die Sprache des Romans deutet auf die sptere Migrationserfahrung der IchFigur hin, denn die Sprache reflektiert die Disparitt zwischen Heimat und
Fremde, zwischen bosnischer und deutscher Sprache und Kultur. Es scheint, als
htte die deutsche Sprache im Roman einen bosnischen Klang90, da serbokroatische Redewendungen stumm wie Schneefall (WdS 12) und Begriffe wrtlich ins Deutsche bersetzt werden: Du hattest keinen Opa, Aleksandar, du
hattest einen Traurigen (19). In einem Interview der Frankfurter Rundschau
uerte sich Stanii zur besonderen Sprache seines Romans:
90
Auf einer Lesung in Jena am 26.07.2010 im Rahmen des Internationalen Sommerkurses

Germanistik sprach Stanii von einer Ebene der Schiefheit, da in der Sprache des Kindes die
serbokroatische Sprache durchscheint. Eigene Gesprchsnotiz.
173
174
Auf Deutsch zu schreiben war ein Automatismus fr mich, da es schon

lange meine bessere Sprache ist. Allerdings hat das Denken und
Formulieren in zwei Sprachen groen Einfluss auf das Buch genommen.
Viele sinnfllige Formulierungen habe ich aus dem Serbokroatischen
bernommen. An einer Stelle heit es zum Beispiel taub wie eine
Kanone, eine feste Redewendung im Serbokroatischen. Solche Manver
haben mir geholfen, zu einem bestimmten Sprachstil zu finden.
(Hillgruber 2)
Im Text finden sich weitere Hinweise, die darauf schlieen lassen, dass nur
vordergrndig aus einer kindlichen Perspektive erzhlt wird. Dem erzhlenden
Ich werden Begriffe in den Mund gelegt, die ein Kind kaum gebrauchen wrde:
Um zu zeigen, dass ich den Ernst der Angelegenheit, des Systems, der
Titulatur und des Personenkultes begriffen hatte, kam ich am nchsten
Tag in meiner viel zu kleinen, aber immer noch, wie ich fand, schmucken,
dunkelblauen Pioniersuniform zur Schule. [...] Bei der ersten Frage, die
Herr Fazlagi der Klasse stellte, sprang ich auf und rief: betrachten wir
nun das Residuum der Arbeitsprodukte. Es ist nichts von ihnen brig geblieben als dieselbe gespenstische Gegenstndlichkeit, eine bloe Gallerte unterschiedsloser menschlicher Arbeit, das heit der Verausgabung
menschlicher Arbeitskraft ohne Rcksicht auf die Form ihrer Verausgabung. (WdS 79f)
Diese abstrakte politische Sprache ist nicht Teil eines kindlichen
Wortschatzes, so dass einerseits ein humoristischer Effekt entsteht, wenn sich ein
Kind derart altklug artikuliert (Scheifinger 2). Andererseits werden in den
Geschichten Themen angesprochen, deren Tragweite sich ein Kind nicht bewusst
sein kann. So macht sich Aleksandar beispielsweise Gedanken ber die Prsenz
des ehemaligen Prsidenten Tito ber dessen Tod hinaus. Des Weiteren deuten
die Geschichten schon frh den Konflikt zwischen den verschiedenen Vlkern
und Religionen an. Der ehemalige Vielvlkerstaat Jugoslawien manifestiert sich in
Aleksandars Familie selbst: Sein Vater ist ein serbischer Bosnier, seine Mutter
muslimische Bosnierin. Seine gemischte Identitt fasst Aleksandar in folgende
Worte: Ich bin ein Gemisch. Ich bin ein Halbhalb. Ich bin Jugoslawe ich zerfalle
also (WdS 53). Alexandar sprt in sich demnach den Zerfall Jugoslawiens. Der
Bosnienkrieg wird im Roman bereits frh angedeutet, wenn sich ethnische
Spannungen auf dem geselligen Fest der Familie entladen:
Kamenko hat doch Recht, wir drfen uns nicht alles gefallen lassen,
es ist an der Zeit, dass wir den Ustaschas und den Mudschaheddin die
Stirn bieten, es gibt dafr die Ohrfeige, es gibt verstohlene Blicke zu
meiner Mutter und zu meiner Nena Fatima; es gibt die taubstumme

Nena Fatima, die in die Runde sieht, als htte sie jedes Wort und jede
Geste und jeden Schuss verstanden: beschmt und traurig. (WdS 52)
Bereits im ersten Abschnitt des Romans werden die Ich-Erzhlungen
Aleksandars durch Geschichten aus der Perspektive anderer Romanfiguren
ergnzt. Zudem wird die Ich-Erzhlsituation bisweilen von einer personalen
Erzhlweise abgelst. Hierdurch entsteht eine multiperspektivische Erzhlsituation mit Nebenstrngen, die ein komplexes Bild der Stadt Viegrad und ihrer
Bewohner zeichnen. Aleksandars Freund Zoran trgt beispielsweise seine eigene
Version der Geschichte vor, wie seine Mutter seinen Vater betrogen hatte und
wie dieser sich anschlieend an dem Ehebrecher rchte (WdS 61-66). Diese
Nebenhandlung wird immer wieder von Ich-Erzhlungen Aleksandars unterbrochen. Anstelle eines linearen Handlungsaufbaus wird der Haupthandlungsstrang also mit mehreren Nebenhandlungen verwoben, und es ist die Aufgabe
des Lesers, einzelne Handlungsstrnge zu identifizieren und miteinander in
Beziehung zu setzen. Der Roman kombiniert verschiedene Textgattungen, die an
die Ich-Erzhlung frmlich angehngt werden, wobei fremdperspektivische
Nebentexte durch Aussagen Aleksandars in den Haupttext eingebettet werden
(Teubler 23). Die Erzhlinstanz verknpft demnach Teiltexte zu einem Textganzen
(Bode 252f). Beispielsweise soll Aleksandar in der Schule einen Aufsatz zum
Thema Eine schne Reise schreiben. Zunchst berlegt er, was er zu diesem Thema schreiben knnte, erwhnt, dass die Familie jeden Sommer an die Adria fhrt,
dass die Firma des Vaters den Urlaub bezahlt, etc. Dann gelangt er jedoch zu dem
Entschluss, diese Gedanken lieber nicht zu Papier zu bringen, da der Urlaub
immer gleich gewesen sei und ihn gelangweilt habe. Stattdessen entschliet er
sich, einen Aufsatz ber die Reise von Zorans Vater zu schreiben, was er wie folgt
im Text begrndet:
Walross' schne Reise zu einer neuen Frau und zu neuem Glck! In dem
Wissen, eine gute Geschichte ist niemals ein verfehltes Thema, schreibe
ich den Titel auf: Was Milenko Pavlovi, genannt Walross, von seiner
schnen Reise mitbringt, wie das Bein des Stationsvorstehers zum Leben
erwacht, wofr man Franzosen gebrauchen kann und warum die
Anfhrungsstriche berflssig sind. (WdS 86f)
Der Titel des Schulaufsatzes dient zugleich als Zusammenfassung fr das
nachfolgende Kapitel, welches die Form eines Aufsatzes hat. An diesen ist
wiederum der Reisebericht aus der Perspektive von Zorans Vater angehngt,
der den Schulaufsatz ergnzt und relativiert. Ein anderes Beispiel: Milenko
Pavlovi berichtet Aleksandar von seinen Erlebnissen und vom Ausbruch des
Krieges in benachbarten Lndern. Durch ihn wird den Bewohnern von Viegrad
175
176
der Krieg angekndigt: Viegrad! Ich bin zurck, und der Krieg ist mir auf den
Fersen! (WdS 99) Durch den Reisebericht wird die kindliche Perspektive ergnzt, wodurch eine Antwort auf die Frage des Kindes gegeben wird, weshalb
immer mehr Menschen aus der Stadt fliehen:
du, Aleks, ich glaube die fliehen. [...] Die rennen davon, sagte Edin leiser
und zupfte sich Steinchen aus der Handflche, die sich hineinbohrten, da
er sich auf die Hnde gelehnt hatte. Aber wovor?, fragte ich. (WdS 84)
Durch Perspektivwechsel und durch die Integration anderer Textsorten
werden also Wissenslcken, die beim Leser durch die kindliche Erzhlperspektive
entstehen, geschlossen und realpolitische Hintergrnde aufgezeigt.
Als die Stadt Viegrad von Soldaten belagert und eingenommen wird und
diese bosnische Bewohner mit muslimisch klingendem Namen verhaften, vergewaltigen und ermorden, beschlieen Aleksandars Eltern zu fliehen. Die Familie
flieht zunchst nach Serbien, wo sie bei Bekannten unterkommt, und dann weiter
nach Deutschland. Alles, was sein bisheriges Leben geprgt hat, muss Alexandar
zurcklassen. Dieser drastische Einschnitt wird erzhltechnisch durch eine neue
Textform zum Ausdruck gebracht: Aleksandar schreibt Briefe an ein Waisenmdchen namens Asija. Der Roman wird also in einer vollkommen anderen Form
fortgesetzt: Die Migration nach Deutschland bedingt, so lsst sich interpretieren,
dass das mndliche Erzhlen durch die Briefform abgelst wird. Der Ich-Erzhler
vollzieht dabei eine Entwicklung von einem kindlichen zu einem jugendlichen
Erzhler. Insgesamt schreibt Aleksandar sechs Briefe an Asija, deren Datierung
von 1992 bis 1999 reicht. Die Briefe bilden den zweiten Teil des Romans. Auf nur
wenigen Seiten wird ein sehr langer Zeitabschnitt, Aleksandars Jugend in
Deutschland, abgedeckt (Scheifinger 1).
hnlich wie im ersten Teil des Romans, wo die Ich-Erzhlungen des Kindes
Aleksandar durch andere Erzhlungen ergnzt werden, werden die Briefe des
Jugendlichen Aleksandar geschrieben sind, durch andere Texte unterbrochen.
Auch in den Briefen finden sich Hinweise auf die angefgten Texte. In einem Brief
schreibt Aleksandar beispielsweise, dass seine Ur-Oma Nena Fatima seit der
Flucht nach Deutschland ein Geheimnis hte, weil er beobachtet, dass sie immer
etwas schreibt und anschlieend unter ihrem Kopftuch versteckt. In einem
spteren Brief erzhlt er Asija, dass ihm seine Uroma ihr Geheimnis verraten
habe. Im Anschluss an diesen Brief ist angefgt, was auf dem Zettel geschrieben
stand. Es handelt sich um eine Art Wunschliste seiner Uroma, in der sie all das
aufgeschrieben hat, was sie sich im Leben noch vorgenommen hat:
ich will in die welt will ich
der mistkrieg kommt mir grad recht
[...] ich will jetzt noch ein bisschen jung sein so alt bin ich nicht (WdS
149)
In einem anderen Brief erwhnt Aleksandar, dass er auer seiner Oma und
Zoran niemand telefonisch in Viegrad erreicht habe und berichtet Asija kurz von
einem Telefonat mit Zoran, in dem ihm sein Freund erzhlt hat, dass die Serben
jetzt in den Husern der vertriebenen Bosnier wohnen. Im Anschluss an den Brief
wird der Inhalt des Telefonats aus der Perspektive von Zoran fortgesetzt. Durch
die berschrift Hallo. Wer? Aleksandar! So was, woher rufst du an? Nicht
schlecht! Beschissen, und selbst? (WdS 144) wird deutlich, dass es sich bei dem
Text um einen Ausschnitt aus dem zuvor im Brief erwhnten Telefongesprch
handelt.
Aleksandars allmhlicher Verlust der Heimat wird nicht nur durch den Inhalt
der Briefe reflektiert, sondern auch durch die Vernderung in der Erzhlweise,
die vom ersten zum zweiten Teil des Romans erfolgt. In seiner Kindheit war es
Alexandar mglich, seine Fantasie schweifen zu lassen und sich Geschichten auszudenken. Die bersiedlung nach Deutschland lsst den Ich-Erzhler hingegen
verstummen, er erzhlt keine Geschichten mehr, sondern schreibt nchterne
Briefe. Demnach uert sich der Verlust der Heimat vor allem als Sprachverlust.
Dann erlernt Alexandar die Sprache des Aufnahmelandes, was ihm hilft, die
belastenden Erinnerungen an seine Heimat zu verdrngen:
Ich sammle die deutsche Sprache. Sammeln wiegt die schweren Antworten
und Gedanken auf, die ich habe, wenn ich an Viegrad denke, und die ich
ohne Opa Slavko in der Nhe nicht aussprechen kann. (WdS 140)
Die Briefform und die vernderte Erzhlweise Aleksandars im zweiten Teil
des Romans reflektieren die neue Lebensphase der Ich-Figur. Eine erneute
Wendung tritt ein, als die Gromutter zurck nach Viegrad fhrt. Sie schenkt
Aleksandar ein leeres Buch, dessen erste Seite sie selbst beschrieben hat. Der
folgende Teil des Romans besteht aus eben diesem Buch, in das Aleksandar
Geschichten aus der Vergangenheit schreibt, das heit er beginnt wieder zu
erzhlen: Ich schreibe in Omas Buch Geschichten von der Zeit, als alles gut
war, damit ich spter nicht ber das Vergessen klagen kann (WdS 141). Das
Buch im Buch erhlt sogar eine eigene berschrift: Als alles gut war von
Aleksandar Krsmanovi und den Vermerk, dass im Buch ein Vorwort von Oma
Katarina und ein Aufsatz fr seinen Lehrer Herrn Fazlagi enthalten sei.
Gewidmet ist das Buch dem verstorbenen Opa Slavko.
Ein interessanter Aspekt ist die Erzhlsituation des Geschichtenbuches:
Aleksandar schreibt die Geschichten in Deutschland, durch die Geschichten
wird der Leser jedoch wieder in Aleksandars Kindheit in Bosnien versetzt, also
in die Zeit vor dem Krieg. Die Geschichten von Aleksandars Kindheit werden
also aus Aleksandars Perspektive als junger Erwachsener erzhlt. Es handelt
sich bei dem Buch im Buch demzufolge um einen Rckblick, um das Festhalten
von Erinnerungen an seine Kindheit. Innerhalb dieses Buches ist dabei eine
177
178
erzhlerische Entwicklung zu erkennen: Zunchst schreibt der Ich-Erzhler seine

Erinnerungen an die Heimat nur in knapper Form auf. Es sind Erinnerungen an
die Zeit des Kommunismus, einer Zeit, als alles gut war. Zum Ende des Buches
werden die Erinnerungen wieder in Geschichten verpackt. Durch bewusste
Erinnerungsarbeit, so lsst sich folgern, findet Alexander allmhlich seine Sprache
wieder und die Fhigkeit, Geschichten zu erzhlen. Aus Textfragmenten, aus
Gedichten und Aufstzen, werden wieder lngere fantasievolle Geschichten, die
denen im ersten Teil des Romans hneln. Auch die Charaktere, die dem Leser
bereits aus den Geschichten des ersten Teils bekannt sind, tauchen wieder auf.
Zudem schreibt Aleksandar eine neue Variante des Schulaufsatzes Eine schne
Reise fr seinen Lehrer, in dem er unter Beweis stellt, dass er die Anfhrungszeichen der direkten Rede zwar beherrscht, jedoch immer noch wie frher durch
seine Fantasie das Thema verfehlt. Aleksandar knpft also an die Geschichten
seiner Kindheit an.
Im Inhaltsverzeichnis des Geschichtenbuches findet sich wortgleich die
Inhaltsbeschreibung des ersten Kapitels des Romans, die entsprechende Seite
ist jedoch leer, wodurch der Leser wieder an den Anfang des Romans verwiesen
wird. Dieses kleine Detail, das leicht bersehen werden kann, ist ein Hinweis
darauf, dass sich der Kreis zum ersten Teil des Romans schliet: Aleksandar ist
es durch das Aufschreiben der Geschichten gelungen, sich nach und nach
immer besser an seine Kindheit in Bosnien zu erinnern und dadurch auch seine
Sprache und seine Fhigkeit, Geschichten zu erzhlen zurckzugewinnen.
Andererseits bedeutet dies, dass Aleksandar der Gegenwart in Deutschland und
der traumatischen Erfahrung des Krieges entflieht, wenn er mit seinen
Geschichten die idyllische Vergangenheit vor Ausbruch des Krieges wieder in den
Vordergrund rckt. Im Interview mit der Sddeutschen Zeitung erklrt Stanii
die unkonventionelle Form des Romans, die insbesondere durch den Abschnitt
des integrierten Geschichtenbuches entsteht, in dem Aleksandar erzhlen lernt,
noch einmal zurckschaltet und von vorne beginnt, die Rckblenden, die Vorblenden, die verschiedenen Stimmen (Bendixen 3).
Der letzte Teil des Romans beginnt mit dem letzten Brief an Asija, den ihr
Aleksandar im Jahr 2002 schreibt, also drei Jahre nach seinem letzten Brief. Der
inzwischen erwachsene Aleksandar fragt sich, ob er Asija nur erfunden hat, weil
seine Erinnerungen an sie verblassen. Es folgt ein Textabschnitt, in dem der
erwachsene Ich-Erzhler Aleksandar zwischen der Gegenwart in Deutschland
(2002) und der Erinnerung an die Tage der Belagerung der Stadt und der Vorbereitung auf die Flucht (1992) wechselt. In den Textabschnitten, die von der
Gegenwart in Deutschland handeln, erstellt Aleksandar Listen mit Kategorien von
Menschen und Orten seiner Heimatstadt, an die er sich erinnern kann. Zustzlich
recherchiert er im Internet und notiert sich fremde Erinnerungen (WdS 11).
Der Zwang, die Vergangenheit zu rekonstruieren, macht deutlich, dass
Alexandar mit seiner Kindheit und mit prgenden und traumatischen
Erfahrungen aufgrund des Krieges auch nach zehn Jahren noch nicht abschlieen
konnte. Schlielich ruft er spt nachts seine Oma in Bosnien an und erkundigt
sich nach dem Zustand einiger Gebude und nach aktuellen Neuigkeiten in
Viegrad. Schlielich beschliet er, erstmalig nach der Flucht, in seine Heimat
zurckzukehren: Ich habe Listen gemacht, und jetzt muss ich alles sehen. [...] Ich
will die Vergangenheitsschablonen nachzeichnen (216-219).
Aleksandar fliegt nach Sarajevo und verbringt dort zunchst ein paar Tage,
in denen er vor allem Asija sucht, die er in dieser Stadt vermutet. Die Suche
bleibt jedoch erfolglos. In einem Gesprch mit zwei Mnnern, die ihr Geld mit
Fuballwetten verdienen, erfhrt er, wie die Menschen mit der Vergangenheit
zurechtkommen: Hier wirst du zweierlei Leute finden [...]: die, die alles
vermissen und die, die ber alles schimpfen (230). Mit Hilfe seiner ErinnerungsListen trifft er in Sarajevo und spter in Viegrad alte Bekannte und lsst sich
deren Geschichten erzhlen. Aus dem Geschichtenerzhler Aleksandar wird
somit ein Geschichtensammler. Seine Hoffnung, alles so vorzufinden, wie er es in
Erinnerung hat, wird enttuscht: Je mehr Geschichten ich kenne, [...] desto
weniger kenne ich mich aus (265). In sein Als-alles-gut-war-Buch schreibt er:
[M]an msste einen ehrlichen Hobel erfinden, der von den Geschichten die Lge
abraspeln kann und von den Erinnerungen den Trug. Ich bin ein Spnesammler
(266). Aleksanders Freund Zoran, der den Krieg in Viegrad erlebt hat, bezeichnet
ihn sogar als Fremden und gibt ihm zu verstehen, wie sehr sich die Stadt und ihre
Bewohner durch den Krieg verndert haben:
Kennst du hier irgendjemanden? Du kennst ja noch nicht mal mich! Du
bist ein Fremder, Aleksandar! Zoran starrt mich aus der Nhe an. Sei
froh! Ich spreche zur Seite: ich will nur meine Erinnerung mit dem Jetzt
vergleichen. (277)
Zoran ist ber Aleksandars naive Vorstellung sichtlich verrgert und erzhlt ihm
von Kriegsverbrechen, die an zwei muslimischen Bekannten begangen wurden.
Bei dieser Schilderung bezieht sich Stanii offenbar auf die ICTY-Anklageschrift
(The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia) gegen drei
bekannte Kriegsverbrecher. Der Autor, dem eigene Erfahrungen fehlen, sttzt
sich folglich auf verschieden Quellen, auf Berichte und Erzhlungen von
Augenzeugen, ebenso wie auf ffentlich zugngliche Dokumente (Scheifinger 4).
Das sensible Thema der Kriegsverbrechen wird im Roman auch direkt mit
bestimmten Personen in Verbindung gebracht. Gerchten zufolge soll ein
Polizist der Stadt Kriegsverbrechen begangen haben: Ich habe Angst vor einem
serbischen Polizisten, der mit mutmalicher und es gab dafr genug Zeugen
beschrieben wird (WdS 281). Andeutungen, dass sein Onkel Miki ebenfalls an
Kriegsverbrechen beteiligt war, finden sich schon an frheren Textstellen, was
179
180
nun durch das unterwrfige Verhalten der Polizisten ihm gegenber besttigt
wird (vgl. WdS 304).
Die Tatsache, dass Aleksandars Reise in seine Heimat unweigerlich
Erinnerungen an seine Kindheit auslst, wird besonders deutlich, als er Marija
besucht. Der Keller, in dem seine Familie und viele andere Schutz gefunden
hatten, als die Stadt von Soldaten belagert wurde, befand sich in diesem Haus.
Als sie ihm den Keller zeigt, dessen Rume sie mit Kunstgegenstnden vollkommen verndert hat, kann sich Aleksandar trotz der groen Vernderung der
Rume, nicht lnger gegen die Erinnerungen wehren. So kehren auch die
Erinnerungen an Asija zurck, die besttigen, dass es Asija wirklich gegeben hat:
[I]ch mchte mich heute Abend an nichts mehr erinnern, was lter ist
als drei Stunden. [...] Hier auf der Treppe neben mir sa Asija und
weinte. Hier, ich, der heute Abend die Erinnerung nicht mehr vorhatte.
(WdS 285)
Die Erinnerungen des Erzhlers sind eng mit den Orten seiner Kindheit verknpft. Durch die Konfrontation mit diesen Orten ist er gezwungen, sich mit
unangenehmen Erinnerungen auseinanderzusetzen und diese zu verarbeiten,
was ihm durch den rumlichen Abstand in Deutschland bislang nicht mglich war.
Als er mit seiner Oma und seinem Onkel Miki zu seinen Urgroeltern fhrt,
um das Grab seines Opas zu besuchen, spricht Aleksandar zu seinem Opa und
verspricht ihm, die Geschichten, die er gesammelt und aufgeschrieben hat,
vorzulesen. Jedoch bricht er das Versprechen, niemals aufzuhren, Geschichten
zu erzhlen: Eine gute Geschichte, httest du gesagt, ist wie unsere Drina [der
groe Fluss in Viegrad, M.K.] [...] Aber eines knnen weder die Drina noch die
Geschichten: fr beide gibt es kein Zurck. (WdS 311). Diese Worte deuten
darauf hin, dass sich Aleksandar schlielich doch mit dem Verlust seiner
Heimat, so wie er sie aus seinen Erinnerungen kannte, abgefunden hat.
Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert ist ein Roman, der nicht nur von
Migration und Identittssuche handelt, sondern das Thema auch in seiner Form
und seiner Erzhlweise zum Ausdruck bringt. Da viele Eckdaten im Leben des
Erzhlers mit dem Autor bereinstimmen, knnte angenommen werden, es
handle sich weitgehend um eine Autobiografie. Dies bestreitet Stanii jedoch:
Der Sddeutschen Zeitung sagte er:
Viele lassen sich da fehlleiten, die biografische Vermutung liegt ja auch
sehr nahe, weil die Eckdaten eben bereinstimmen. Alles, was
Aleksandars Leben ausmacht, ist aber vollkommen artifiziell und
ausgedacht (Bendixen 4).
Dennoch entsteht beim Lesen des Romans unweigerlich der Eindruck, dass
Stanii diesen Roman nur schreiben konnte, weil sein eigenes Leben durch die
Erfahrung der Migration geprgt ist. Auf der bereits erwhnten Lesung in Jena
rumte er auch ein, dass der Fiktionalisierungsaufwand beim Schreiben des
Romans eher gering gewesen sei.91 Die Aussagen des Autors sind demzufolge
etwas widersprchlich. Offenbar mchte er vermeiden, dass der Leser seine Biographie mit der des Protagonisten gleichsetzt. Schon in seinem Essay Wie ihr uns
seht ber drei Mythen vom Schreiben der Migranten wehrt er sich gegen diese
Lesart, mit der sich Autoren mit Migrationshintergrund, die ber Migration
schreiben, hufig konfrontiert sehen. Seiner Meinung nach sei prinzipiell jeder
Schriftsteller in der Lage, ber jedes Thema zu schreiben: Wer schreibt, der erfindet Welten, die nicht Teil der Welt des Schreibenden sind. Durch Recherchen,
Reisen, Gesprche und andere Methoden, sich dem Unbekannten zu nhern,
jene Erfahrungen liegen in Reichweite jedes Schriftstellers (Stanii 2008b: 107).
Weiterhin macht Stanii deutlich, nach welchen Kriterien ein literarisches
Werk beurteilt werden sollte:
Nach alledem glaube ich, da Migrantenliteratur sich sehr viel sinnvoller im Hinblick auf ihre literarischen Voraussetzungen (Genre, Stil,
Tradition usw.) errtern liee. Diskurse ber Gegenstnde und Perspektiven, die einen sthetischen Ansatz verfolgen, insbesondere im Kontext der jeweiligen Nationalliteratur, sind viel wichtiger fr das Verstndnis eines Werkes und die Beurteilung seiner Qualitt, als es das
Privatleben des Autors je sein knnte. (Stanii 2008b: 106)
Beim Lesen des Romans sollten diese Ansichten des Autors bercksichtigt
werden. Die literarische Leistung von Saa Stanii besteht demnach vor allem
darin, einen Roman vorgelegt zu haben, der Migration nicht nur thematisiert.
Migrationserfahrungen zeigen sich auch und vor allem im Aufbau des Romans,
im Wechsel und in der Entwicklung verschiedener Erzhlweisen.
Literatur
Bay, Hansjrg. Der verrckte Blick. Schreibweisen der Migration in zdamars
Karawanserei-Roman. Sprache und Literatur 83 (1999): 29-46.
Bendixen, Katharina. Ich wollte ein Mosaik erstellen. Web. 14. August 2010.
<http://jetzt.sueddeutsche.de/texte/anzeigen/337030>.
Bode, Christoph. Der Roman. Eine Einfhrung. Tbingen: Francke, 2005.
91
Saa Stanii auf einer Lesung in Jena (Anm. 12), eigene Gesprchsnotiz.
181
182
Hillgruber, Katrin. Interview mit den Chamisso-Preistrgern. Widerstand ist

zwecklos.Web. 17. August 2010. <http://www.fr-online.de/kultur/literatur/widerstand-ist-zwecklos-/-/1472266/3123588/-/index.html >
Scheifinger, Laura. Kriegstexte Kindertexte. Eine Lektre der Romane von Saa
Stanii, Nenad Velikovi, Bora osi. Web. 4. August 2010. <http://www.kakanien.ac.at/static/files/50728/Kriegstexte.pdf >.
Stanii, Saa: Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert. Mnchen: btb, 2008. (Im
Text zitiert als WdS)
Stanii, Saa: Wie ihr uns seht. ber drei Mythen vom Schreiben der Migranten.
Eingezogen in die Sprache, angekommen in der Literatur. Positionen des
Schreibens in unserem Einwanderungsland. Hrsg. Uwe Prksen und Bernd
Busch. Gttingen: Wallstein, 2008.104-9.
Stanzel, Franz K. Theorie des Erzhlens. Gttingen: Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht,
2008.
Teubler, Andreas: Zwischen allen Sthlen? Migrationserfahrungen in der
deutschsprachigen Gegenwartsliteratur. Web. 17. August 2010. 21-28.
http://opus.bszbw.de/hdms/volltexte/2009/670/pdf/
Teubler_Andreas_2009_Zwischen_allen_Stuehlen_OPUS.pdf >.
Vogt, Jochen. Aspekte erzhlender Prosa. Eine Einfhrung in Erzhltechnik und
Romantheorie. Mnchen: Wilhelm Fink, 2006.
MIGRATION EXPERIENCE IN SAA STANIIS NOVEL HOW THE SOLDIER REPAIRS A

GRAMOPHONE
Staniis novel Wie der Soldat das Grammofon repariert (How the Soldier
Repairs a Gramophone) is much more than a migration story. This essay intends
to show that migration is not the writers only topic, and also that the
protagonists migration experience is reflected in the novels form and narrative
techniques as well. Analyzing different aspects of the novel, the article illustrates
how profoundly the protagonists life is shown in the text. It also discusses the
multiperspectivity of Stanisics text, as well as the diversity of genres that are
intertwined. With the war in Bosnia and political change as background, a
complex picture is drawn of people and life in Bosnia. Staniis complex novel
demonstrates that the national origin of an author should not be used as a basis
for judgment of his/her literary work.
Key Words: migrant literature, migration experiences, Saa Stanii,
childhood narrative perspective, multiperspectivity, Balkans.
enski glasovi u svjetu proze

Female Voices in the World of Fiction
183
184
UDK 82.09-31:141.72
Female Sexual Transgression in the

Nineteenth-Century Realist Novel: Literature
and its Medical Background
Maria Mikolchak
St. Cloud State University, USA
Abstract: Outlining the prevalent medical knowledge of sexuality in the nineteenth

century and closely reading three literary texts dealing with this taboo topic (Madam
Bovary by Gustave Flaubert, Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy, and Effi Briest by
Theodor Fontane), the article analyses connections between literature and science in the
era of realist novel. Specifically, my article is arguing that medical literature of the
nineteenth century allows to see the adulterous behavior of women in the so-called novel
of female adultery as textbook case studies of female sexuality. Reflected in three
national literatures, French, Russian and German, is the social construction of female
sexuality, based on contemporary medical knowledge as well as the heroines' attempts to
define themselves within the limits of this construction.
Key words: literature, medicine, 19th century, realism, sexuality, Madame Bovary,
Anna Karenina, Effi Briest, Flaubert, Tolstoy, Fontane
Substantial body of medical literature in the 19th century allows to see the
adulterous behavior of women in the so-called novel of adultery as textbook case
studies of womens sexuality. Reflected in three national literatures, French,
Russian, and German is the social construction of female sexuality, based on
contemporary medical knowledge as well as the attempts on the part of women
to define themselves within the limits of this construction.
This paper will start with outlining the prevalent medical knowledge of
sexuality in the 19th century and then, by closely reading three literary texts
dealing with the taboo topic, will show how literature mirrors the scientific
knowledge.
With few exceptions, physicians of the 19th century viewed sexual intercourse as constituting a danger to health, both of men and women, and saw
active sexuality as a leading cause of womens illnesses. Mostly, the studies
focused on the frequency of conjugal relationships. William Acton, the leading
185
186
authority on the subject, argued that [n]one, perhaps, but medical men can
know at all and they can know but a fraction of the misery and suffering caused
by ill-regulated desires and extravagant indulgences among married people
(185) due to the natural delicacy (191) for both doctor and patient in broaching
this topic. However, he went on to say, I believe general debility and impaired
health dependent upon too frequent sexual relations to be much more common
than is generally supposed and that they are hardly yet sufficiently appreciated
by the profession as very fruitful causes of ill health (190). Most doctors shared
Actons belief that semen was the vital force of the male body and that sexual
act, leading to the loss of this fluid, resulted in individuals exposure to a range of
diseases from lassitude, giddiness, dimness of sight, and paralysis to premature
old age, inability to concentrate, and sickly progeny (Acton 189, Stall 130, Lewis
58). Another authority on the subject, Dr. Sylvester Graham, insisted that orgasm
by rushing blood to the viscera had disastrous impact on the moral and mental
faculties, and included apoplexy, epilepsy, and insanity (34-35).
Since the above-mentioned negative consequences of sexual activity address
mens health alone, the medical men had to think of a way to make sex
dangerous for womens health too. While the physical connection between losing
semen and losing vitality seemed quite obvious, linking sexual activity further to
womens disability required a more sophisticated approach. As often happens,
psychology came to rescue. According to a well known authority on the subject,
William Kellog, sexual activity causes women to suffer still more terribly, being
of feebler constitution and hence less able to bear the frequent shock which is
suffered by the nervous system (470). Moreover, in addition to the physical
ailments, as a consequence of sexual intercourse, women suffered a decline in
mental energies.
The Victorians were also convinced that the full force of sexual desire is
seldom known to a virtuous woman (Sanger 488) and, as Dr. Alice Stockham
claimed in 1894, any husband who required a marital intercourse except with a
view to conceiving children was making his wife into a prostitute (Stockham 150160). Since Victorian morals taught young women physical revulsion to
intercourse and left them in total ignorance of physiology, any attempt at sexual
fulfillment in marriage seemed doomed from the very beginning. Not to say that
womens ignorance alone was at fault. Victorian husbands, obviously, had their
own inhibitions, and even medical men were inadequately informed about
female orgasm and the function of the clitoris (Tannahill 352). Even those
doctors, who considered sex a natural bodily function, proclaimed that it had to
be carried out plainly and without any extravagant expenditure of emotion
(Deslandes, ctd. in Tannahill 356).
It is apparent that such medical views and practices led to what Victorian
physicians would characterize as conjugal dysfunction; they also lend insight into
marital relations and adulterous behavior of the 19th-century literary heroines.
Now well see how medical views on sexuality are reflected in literature, in
particular in the Nineteenth-Century adultery novel.
Nineteenth-century Realist authors remain true to life in their portrayal of
marital relationship as sexually frustrating. They show the husband as cold and
insensitive and the everyday marital life as boring and unsatisfying for the wife,
who looks for sexual gratification and love out of wedlock.
Emma Bovary
Describing Charless mediocrity, Flaubert shows the reader why Emma is so
disappointed in her husband:
But on the other hand, shouldnt a man know everything, excel in
divers activities, initiate you into the forces of passion, the refinements
of life, all the mysteries? But he taught nothing, this one, knew nothing,
desired nothing.92
Emmas expectations of a man are clear: she needs a man through whom
she can realize herself, but also a man who would satisfy her sexual desires. She
needs an educator, a person to worship and to admire and Charles cannot
fulfill her expectations. For Emma this results in her inevitable disillusionment
with Charles and for her love affairs. She takes the initiative.
Talking to the servant Felicit about her health problems Emma says, Cest
aprs le mariage que a mest venu (It began after she had married) (112).93
Certainly the traits attributable to Emma her restlessness, vague longings,
instability of character are symptomatic of a sexual frustration. The scenes of
Emma and Charless married life without informing the reader of the sexual
aspect of the relationship allow, however, to visualize this relationship as
totally frustrating. We see, for example, husband and wife at table and feel
Emmas growing irritation. Nothing in particular happens. The spouses do not
quarrel, and there is no conflict. However, Emma is completely desperate, and
her aversion to Charles is a result of her broken dreams of a glamorous life.
92
Un homme, au contraire, ne devait-il pas tout connatre, exceller en des activits multiples, vous
initier aux nergies de la passion, aux raffinements de la vie, tous les mystres? Mais il
nenseignait rien, celui-l, ne savait rien, ne souhaitait rien. (42)
93
In her book Madame Bovary Rosemary Lloyd examines in detail the conversation that takes place
between Emma and her servant and comes to the conclusion that the source of the sickness is
sexual, and its nature seems incapable of being expressed in language and that Emmas desire to
confide in another person is shown to founder both on the social fact of there being no one else of
her class and age in the village, and on the difficulties inherent in giving expression to emotions as
fleeting and changeable as clouds (2).
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188
According to Stephen Heath, the novels readers found it so scandalous,

because the novel lacks a discernible moral design (82). Indeed, Charles is a
loving and caring husband, but one cannot help sympathizing with Emma who
cannot tolerate him no matter how good he is. The novel contains ample
evidence to prove that one of the main problems in Emmas marriage is sexual
frustration. Emma with her active personality tries to change her relationship:
she recites passionate poetry to Charles and sings melancholy airs to him, mais
elle se trouvait ensuite aussi calme quauparavant, et Charles nen paraissait ni
plus amoureux ni plus remu (but she found herself just as calm afterwards as
she had been before, and Charles seemed neither more amorous nor more
excited) (45). In his expression of affection he is as boring and predictable as
Innstetten: Il lembrassait de certaines heures (He embraced her at the
same time every day) (45). Emma is sexually frustrated, and Flaubert lets us feel
her physical torment. Lucette Czuba indicates as a corollaire du mariage
bourgeois, fond sur lintrt, et du statut des femmes maries rduites au rle
de reproductrices, la ncessit des amours adultres, seuls synonymes de
plaisir et de volupt (corollary of middle-class marriage, which was based on
financial interests, and on the status of married women reduced to their
reproductive role, the necessity for adulterous love affairs, the sole synonyms
of pleasure and sexual satisfaction) (39).94 The only bright episode in her
married life is a ball at Vaubyessard where she lives the life of her dreams,
while Charles spends five hours watching a game of whist sans y rien
comprendre (without understanding a thing) (55). Meanwhile Emma dances,
and her dancing is described in sexual terms: En passant auprs des portes, la
robe dEmma, par le bas, sriflait au pantalon; leurs jambes entrainaient lune
dans lautre; il baillait ses regards vers elle, elle levait les siens vers lui (Passing
near the doors, Emmas dress, at the hem, caught on his trousers; their legs
entwined; he looked down at her, she looked up at him) (54). The dance is
described in a language full of sexual innuendoes (their legs intertwined,
sweeping her away, panting), and Emmas main quality, her sexuality,
comes to the foreground.95 The next day Emma and Charles have to leave, and
this leaving the chateau too early reminds us of Cinderella with a dream come
true. But like Cinderellas, Emmas dream does not last. Becoming and feeling a
94
One of the earliest feminist accounts of Flauberts work, Lucette Czybas Mythes et idologie de la
femme dans les romans de Flaubert, for the first time developed the idea that Madame Bovary
appeared to be in complicity with patriarchal ideology, whilst recognising that it also subverted it.
95
In her article Emma Bovarys Dance of Death Sarah Goodwin argues that at the ball at
Vaubyessard Emma starts her dance, in which Death is the partner: the motif [of dance of death]
became especially popular as the basis for a moral tale, issuing a thinly-veiled warning to women
who were disobedient or who abandoned family and domesticity for the implicit erotism of the
ball (103). As we shall see later, for Anna Karenina the Moscow ball also plays a decisive role in her
affair with Vronsky which ultimately leads her to her suicide.
princess does not solve the problem: the miracle does not last, and the
disappointment is all the more depressing.
Accusing Emma of false romanticism the critics often forget that it served
as an outlet of her sexual longings. Even her religious ardor was nothing more
than an unconscious sexual desire. Lingering at the confessional Emma invents
sins, all engulfed by such terms as amant cleste (celestial lover) and
mariage ternel (eternal marriage) (37). Her frustration with marriage and
her life makes her physically and mentally sick, and without any idea of the
causes for the depression, Charles who, interestingly enough, is himself a
medical practitioner, treats her with valerian oil and camphor baths, whereas
she was filled with lust, with rage, with hatred (110).96
Anna Karenina
As the novel starts, Tolstoy, unlike Flaubert and Fontane, presents his
heroine as already married and a mother. This marriage of convenience does
seem a success, since although initially there is no feeling on the part of either
of the spouses; they have a family that outwardly seems to be a happy one.
It is as an irreproachable wife and mother that Anna first appears in the
novel being called to Moscow from St. Petersburg to save the marriage of her
brother. What is seen on the outside does not, however, tell the whole story. It
is Dolly, who is the character with a particular intuition for the real state of
things, who suggests that Annas married life may in fact not be a perfect one.
Recalling a visit to the Karenins home, Dolly remembers that
; -
(she had not liked their house; there was something false in the whole
atmosphere of their family life) (8: 83). Likewise, Anna herself in talking with
Dolly hints that there is a skeleton in her closet, too, and that it is a gloomy
one indeed (8: 119). The general impression, however, is still of Anna being
rather vague about her discontent, and it seems that she just tries to console
her sister-in-law by mentioning that nobodys family is perfect, rather than
suggesting problems in her family.
When Annas inner peace is disturbed after meeting Vronsky, as she settles
herself on the train Anna thinks: ,
, , , -
(Thank heaven, tomorrow I shall see Seriozha and Alexei, and my life, my nice,
ordinary life will go on as before) (8: 121). According to Benson, escaping
from a potential affair with a dashing young officer to the quiet safety of her
96
For analyses of the womans mortal fleshliness, and her repressed (but therefore all the more
frightening) capacity for explosive rage see Gilbert and Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic (26).
189
190
own family, Anna is the very model of wifely, motherly, and social virtues (81).
Yet, the reader does feel that Annas life is not quite what she herself tries to
see in it. The turmoil Anna feels traveling home by train is a proof thereof.
The scene reveals the manifestly sexual context of Annas travel (Wasiolek
134-135). Settled in her compartment, Anna tries to escape reality while
concentrating on an English novel of particular banality and wrapping her feet in
a blanket. However, the retreat into the make-believe world is unsuccessful. The
real world with its noises, people talking, train moving interferes with the
protective world of Annas reading. The storm outside is a symbol for the passion
that rages deep in Annas being and from which she is for now separated by the
window. Trying to think of Vronsky Anna feels shame despite persuading herself
that she did nothing she could be ashamed of. But the very vehemence with
which she protests any possibility of other than ordinary relations between her
and Vronsky convicts her (Wasiolek 134). The knife with which Anna is cutting
the pages of the book and whose cold blade she puts to her cheek signifies the
destructive possibility of passion, and is a very definite sexual symbol. The
emotions and heat inside that Anna experiences are almost coarsely sexual:
Anna feels her nerves tighten as if on a screwing peg; her eyes open wider and
wider, her fingers and nerves twitch; something within oppresses her breathing;
shapes and sounds come to her in unaccustomed vividness (Wasiolek 135).
Anna does not live reality any more: she does not know where she is going and
feels alienated from her usual self. As she symbolically shakes off her protective
wraps and goes out into the raging storm in search of relief, she meats Vronsky
on the platform. The scene of Anna and Vronsky in the storm, alone in the
whole world is a masterpiece of symbolic detail producing the feeling that Anna
has finally found what she has been looking for: passion, love, and escape from
her cold marital relationship.
Although Tolstoy is reticent on sex, which has led to accusations by critics of
an absolute silence on the fundamental human activity of sex, we can definitely
see that Karenin is a cold husband and that Anna is sexually unsatisfied
(Greenwood 116). When Anna undresses to go into Karenins bedroom because
of Karenins (significant smile) the fire in her is
- quenched or hidden, whereas
Vronskys caresses
(filled her heart with excitement and criminal joy) (8: 135; 8: 176).
But Anna does not operate in the same system of suppressing her sexuality
any more. The final scene of the chapter shows us Anna, with Karenin snoring at
her side, staring into the darkness; the demonic glowing of her eyes transcends
her growing vitality and aspiration to live her passion through.
Effi Briest
Effi Briest, as a latecomer, offers interesting parallels to the two preceding
feminocentric texts, Madame Bovary and Anna Karenina.
While Effi resembles Anna Karenina in very little other than an arranged
marriage and an older husband who plays a role of an educator and a moralist,
with Emma Bovary Effi shares romanticism, hatred of boredom and love of risk.
One of the leitmotivs in Effi Briest is Effis love of swinging, which for her means
a mingled thrill of pleasure and danger with a distinct sexual connotation.
Nevertheless, Effi is often seen by critics as a sexless creature. According to
Segal, as adulterous, no womans body was ever less motivated. Where is
the woman in all this? asks Segal (The Adulteresss Child 166). In my analysis I
will try to show that, although in a manner very different from Flaubert,
Fontane does show us a woman and her transgressive sexuality. I will study the
marital relationship between Effi and Innstetten and show how emotional and
sexual repression invites Effis adulterous liaison with Crampas.
Frau Briest, evidently feeling uneasy about Effis immaturity and ignorance
but not able to talk openly to her, keeps asking if there is anything that troubles
her daughter: La mich also wissen, Schatz, was du noch weiter auf dem
Herzen hast? (So tell me, darling, what else have you set your heart on?) (620).
To which Effi first says nothing, but when her mother insists, adds that she
wants ein japanischer Bettschirm sein, schwarz und goldene Voegel darauf,
alle mit einem langen Kranichschnabel... Und dann vielleicht auch noch ein
Ampel fr unser Schlafzimmer, mit rotem Schein (A Japanese bedroom screen,
black with gold birds on it, all with long beaks like cranes. And a lamp for our
bedroom to give a red light) (620).97 This is definitely a revealing answer, also to
Frau Briest who reacts to the sexually loaded imagery her daughter comes with,
with a resolute: Also nichts Japanisches und auch kein Ampel (All right then,
nothing Japanese and no red light) (621). Effis vague attempts to imagine the
sexual side to her marriage (she talks about the bedroom) are suppressed at
once by her mother.
After the marriage comes the husbands turn to keep Effi suppressed. On
their honeymoon the couple travels through South Germany, Austria, and Italy.
This travel reveals, mostly through Effis postcards to her parents, not only the
underlying differences of temperament of husband and wife, but also
Innstettens self-imposed role of an educator whose affection for his wife is
97
Since Fontane is reticent on the question of sexuality, most critics cite this detail. It seems,
however, that to consider it as [Effis] dsir dun amour passionn, as Y. Rollins does (108), would
mean to exaggerate its significance.
191
192
passionless and marked by the desire to instruct rather than to love

(Zimmermann 817).98
As Effi and Innstetten come to Kessin, Effi is confronted with living in a small,
dull, rigidly stratified town with a long winter and extremely limited diversion.99
Innstettenss cold, pedagogical attitude towards Effi exacerbates the situation his
teenage wife finds herself in. This, however, does not seem enough to Innstetten.
To make sure Effi is sufficiently scared into total obedience he exploits the story
of the family ghost who haunts the house. The ghost becomes the focus of the
story. As Fontane himself writes in one of his letters, the ghost is the pivot of the
novel (Brinkman 454). One can hardly agree with Zimmermann when she writes
that the ghost can help alleviate the boredom and loneliness that Effi
experiences in Kessin (25). Strange noises Effi hears frighten her and when she
for the first time has to spend the night alone in the house she receives a severe
shock. Suddenly awake in the middle of the night she sees a ghost of the
Chinaman, and is shattered to such an extent that it takes her a long time to
recover.
The ghost represents Effis fear of her husband, of her new life and her
inability to adapt to married life. It becomes the medium for a revelation about
her husband, her marriage, and her suppressed sexuality. Crampas is right in
arguing that Innstetten uses the story of the ghost of the Chinese as an
educational tool, as the cherub with a sword that bars the entrance to his
house and his young wife when he is away. What Innsteten does is a deliberate
inculcation of fear in order to serve his needs. He fully succeeds at first in what
he does: Effi lives in constant fear of the ghost, as Crampas calls it eine Art
Angstapparat aus Kalkl (Sort of calculated means of inspiring fear) (709).
A vivid picture of marriage is given by Fontane in Chapter 13, where the
reader sees the day-to-day existence of Effi and Innstetten. For the greater part
of the evening Innstetten works at his papers in his study, while Effi is left alone
in company of her dog. At nine he joins her and talks to her about things that are
of interest to him (since Effi is supposed to be interested in what is of interest to
her husband and does not need any interest of her own, except for sewing and
music). Then Innstetten asks her to play the piano a little, and finally: Um zehn
war Innstetten dann abgespannt und erging sich in ein paar wohlgemeinten, aber
etwas muden Zrtlichkeiten, die sich Effi gefallen lie, ohne sie recht zu
erwidern (At ten Innsteten had relaxed and indulged in a few well-meant, but
tired caresses, which Effi accepted without any real effort at responding to them)
(682). Analysing this scene, Garland remarks: Such a picture might reflect the
98
According to Zimmermann, there is parallelism between Effi Briest and Anna Karenina not only in
the husbands assuming the role of educator and moral guide, but also in the means: both exploit
mysticism to suppress the wifes sexuality.
99
For a detailed comparison between Kessin and Yonville see L. Furst, Madame Bovary and Effi
Briest and M. Bonwit, Effi Briest und ihre Vorgngerinnen Emma Bovary und Nora Helmer.
routine of a marriage gone stale with the years. It is certainly not the way in
which a husband of nearly forty, married only a few months, might teach a
seventeen-year old wife to love him (181). Repressed himself, no wonder he
attacks any signs of Effis awakening sexuality. Fontane shows Effi making some
attempts at intimacy: Nur einen Ku knntest du mir geben. Aber daran denkst
du nicht. Auf dem ganzen weiten Wege nicht gerhrt, frostig wie ein
Schneemann. Und immer nur die Zigarre to which her husband responds: La,
ich werde mich schon bessern und will vorlufig nur wissen, wie shehst du zu
dieser ganzen Umgangs- und Verkehrsfrage? (You might give just one kiss. But
you dont even think about that. Throughout the whole long journey, you didnt
touch me once, youre as chilly as a snowman. All you can do is smoke a cigar)
(652). Innstetten at forty years is not easy to change, nor does he really want to
think about his teenage wife as a human being with needs and demands of her
own. Effi, despite some careful attempts at tenderness, confronted with coldness
and even rebuke, humiliated by neglect, looks for affection somewhere else.
Though many causes contributed to driving the nineteenth-century heroines
to adultery inevitably culminating in suicide, the Realist authors represent sexual
frustration as one of them. Paradoxically, the male authors had a clearer view of
womens sexual desire than most medical men; however, themselves a product
of a conservative culture, they were unable to find a viable solution to the
womens problem. The attempt to break a dysfunctional marriage inevitably led
to the death of the erring heroine.
Bibliography:
Acton, William. The Functions and Disorders of the Reproductive Organs. 5. ed.
Philadelphia: D. Blakiston, 1988.
Brinkman, Richard. Theodor Fontane. Munich: Piper, 1967.
Czuba, Lucette. Mythes et ideologie de la femme dans les romans de Flaubert.
Lyon : Presses universitaires de Lyon, 1983.
Garland, Henry. The Berlin Novels of Theodor Fontane. Oxford: Clarendon, 1980.
Graham, Sylverser. A Lecture to Young Men. New York: Arno, 1974.
Greenwood, E. B. Tolstoy: The Comprehensive Vision. New York: St. Martins,
1975.
Heath, Stephen. Gustave Flaubert: Madame Bovary. Cambridge-New York:
Cambridge UP, 1992.
Howe, Joseph W. Excessive Venery, Masturbation and Continence. 1887.New
York: Arno, 1974.
Kellog, J. H. Plain Facts for Old and Young: Embracing the Natural History and
Hygiene of Organic Life. 1888. New York: Arno, 1974.
Lewis, Dio. Chastity or Our Secret Sins. 1874. New York: Arno, 1974.
193
194
Segal, Naomi. The Adulteresses Child: Authorship and Desire in the NineteenthCentury Novel. Cambridge: Polity, 1992.
Stall, Sylvanus. What a Young Husband Ought to Know. Philadelphia: Vir, 1897.
Stockham, Alice B. Karezza: Ethics of Marriage. Chicago: Stockham, 1896.
Tannahill, Reay. Sex in History. London: Scarborough House, 1982.
Wasiolek, Edward. Tolstoys Major Fiction. Chicago-London: U of Chicago P, 1978.
Zimmermann, Gisela. The Civil Servant as Educator: Effi Briest and Anna
Karenina. Modern Language Review 90.4 (1995): 817-29.
ENSKA SEKSUALNA TRANSGRESIJA U REALISTIKOM ROMANU DEVETNAESTOG VIJEKA:

MEDICINSKA POZADINA KNJIEVNOSTI
Poto rezimiramo preovlaujue medicinsko znanje o seksualnosti u devetnaestom vijeku, prei emo na detaljnu analizu tri knjievna teksta koja se bave
ovom tabuiranom temom (Madam Bovari Gistava Flobera, Ana Karenjina Lava
Tolstoja i Efi Brist Teodora Fontana). Rad e se fokusirati na povezanost ova tri
knjievna teksta sa medicinskom naukom u eri romana realizma. Posebno emo
istai da je devetnaestovjekovna medicinska literatura dozvoljavala da se takozvani romani o enama preljubnicama koriste kao validni materijali za izuavanje
enske seksualnosti. Kao to pokazuju djela kojima emo se baviti, tri nacionalne
knjievnosti kojima ona pripadaju, francuska, ruska i njemaka, reflektuju drutvenu konstrukciju enske seksualnosti, zasnovanu na savremenom medicinskom znanju, kao i na pokuaju heroina da sebe definiu unutar granica ovih
konstrukcija.
Kljune rijei: knjievnost, medicina, devetnaesti vijek, realizam, seksualnost,
Madam Bovaro, Ana Karenjina, Efi Brist, Flober, Tolstoj, Fontan
UDK 821.133.1.09-32
Violent Wives and Liberated Husbands: MaleFemale Relations in Tahar Ben Jellouns
LHomme rompu
Shonu Nangia
Louisiana State University at Alexandria
Abstract: This article examines tormented male-female relations in Francophone

writer Tahar Ben Jellouns LHomme rompu and focuses on violence and mysticism.
The question of male-female estrangement is inscribed within a husband-wife dialectic
that is characterized in particular by the aggression of the wife in the role of the
subordinate female. While it is unarguable that Ben Jelloun denounces the societal
subordination and victimization of the female, LHomme rompu in particular
represents/reveals the existential impact of the disharmony in male-female relations that
is felt by the male. I discuss the ramifications of such disharmonious relations as
depicted in the novel and focus especially on the manner male-female hostility is played
out. My analysis also traces the evolution of a spiritual and liberatory resolution that
opens up beyond the limits of rupture at the end of the novel.
Key Words: Francophone literature; Tahar Ben Jelloun; male-female relations;
violence; Sufi mysticism
Introduction
This article examines the theme of disharmony in male-female relations in
LHomme rompu, a novel by Francophone author Tahar Ben Jelloun, and uncovers
the conflation of violence and mysticism in this work. Critics such as Elia Nada
have claimed that Tahar Ben Jelloun differs from his Francophone Maghrebi
counterparts is that his work does not highlight colonial oppression but focuses
instead on the struggle within his own society, with special emphasis on love and
tormented male-female relationships (757). The problematic of male-female
estrangement is inscribed, in LHomme rompu, within a husband-wife dialectic in
particular that is characterized not only by the absence of love, affection,
friendship and kindness, but also by the aggression of the subordinate female.
195
196
While it is known that Tahar Ben Jelloun denounces through his writing the
subordination and the victimization of the female, I argue that he resists refracting the problematic of male-female relations into a male-female dichotomy
wherein the male is the oppressor and the female, the oppressed. LHomme
rompu foregrounds, in particular, the impact of the disharmony in male-female
relations on the male. The text relates the sociocultural subordination of the
female to the failure of the male in his engagement with the female, and disharmonious male-female relations to the males experience of existential
malaise. Examining the theme of violence in male female relations, I discuss, in
this paper, the nature of the rupture in male-female relations and the manner
male-female conflict plays out in LHomme rompu. My analysis also traces the
evolution of a seemingly liberatory prospect that opens up at the end of the novel.
LHomme rompu is fundamentally the story of the gradual and inevitable
erosion of the dignity and integrity of the male protagonist, Mourad, who
succumbs to the pressures of his wife and his decadent socio-economic milieu.
While the main themes of the novel pertain to corruption in modern Morocco,
and to the frustration and existential alienation of its male protagonist, the
interpersonal relations between Mourad and Hlima (his aggressive wife) and
between Mourad and Najia (and his attractive cousin) form important parallel
narratives. Highlighting the existential malaise of the male and the societal
subordination of the female at the macrolevel, the novel foregrounds microlevel
conflict between the female and the male, which is marked by violence.
Violence of the Subordinate Female

Hlima, Mourads wife, is depicted as the epitome of the subordinate woman.
Her character is the locus of a certain representation of femininity and
exemplifies the internalization by women of cultural meanings and practices that
reinforce their own subordination. However, she is also depicted as a fierce nag,
a fury, who initiates bitter quarrels with her husband over their modest financial
condition. In the light of this characterization, it is pertinent to consider the texts
representation of femininity and the way certain underlying concepts connected
to gender roles, masculinity, sexuality and power are tied to female subordination in the text. Hlima, as Mourads dependent, equates economic power
with masculinity. Perpetually angry with her husband for not being rich, she
harasses him for not being more like his junior colleague, Haj Hamid, who, as a
corrupt official, is able to provide the best of material luxuries for his wife and
children. Believing the wealth of a man to be a sign of his masculinity, Hlima
often attacks Mourad by questioning his manhood. In one typical incident, as she
attacks Mourad for not being the greatest provider, a bitter Hlima insinuates that
it is his junior colleague Haj Hamid who is a real man, and not Mourad:
She told him, angrily, Your junior, hes a man! He makes less than you
and he lives in a beautiful villa, with two cars, and his children go to the
French school, and he also takes his wife to Rome when they go on
vacation. As for you, all you give me is an intrauterine device and we
eat meat only two times a week. (My translation)100
Mourad knows that his limited income produces an adverse effect on
Hlimas temperament, but he refuses to compromise his integrity and become
more of a man like the corrupt Haj Hamid. Mourad, as the narrator of his
story, relates another incident in which he describes a violent dispute that
takes place between him and Hlima after his appointment to a key position in
the Planning and Development Ministry. Hlima suggests to him that he take a
commission for every signature of approval. Mourad tries to explain to her that
corruption is a cancer harming the country and that because of his conscience
he cannot take bribes. Hlima is unable to understand his logic. When she
scornfully tells him that he is not a man, Mourad, accustomed to this taunt,
responds by laughing. This attitude infuriates Hlima further and she starts
throwing objects at Mourads face. The only way Mourad can calm her down is
by pouring a bucket of water over her head. Hlima, thoroughly drenched and
subdued, sits down on the floor and begins to cry. She stammers and tells
Mourad that she was asking Mourad to do these things for his own good, and for
the good of the son they would have one day. She also informs Mourad that
although he is welcome to stay poor if he wants, she personally has dislike for
people who are poor. Narrating this incident, Mourad specifies that while in
Hlimas eyes their condition constituted poverty, in his own view they were not
living in poverty but in a modest condition (27). While Mourads morality
exacerbates Hlima tremendously, it is ultimately because she sees wealth as a
function of masculinity that she loses respect for her husband and causes their
relationship to deteriorate.
Hlimas notions regarding masculinity are also related to a sexuality that
involves physical abuse and is degrading to her. Mourad is astonished soon
after marriage when he learns that Hlima has her own peculiar definition of
virility and that it involves physical violence. Hlima wants Mourad to beat her
while making love. With reality staring him in the face, Mourad soon realizes
that the period of romance in his marriage was over:
100
Elle lui dit, en colre: Ton adjoint, lui, est un homme! Il touche moins que toi et il vit dans une
superbe villa, avec deux voitures, et ses enfants sont lcole de la mission franaise, et en plus il
offre sa femme des vacances Rome! Toi tu moffres un strilet et on ne mange de la viande que
deux fois par semaine. (11-12) All the translations in the paper are mine.
197
198
She had her own definition of virility and I learnt with astonishment
that physical violence hitting was one of its signs. She would thus
ask me to beat her while making love. We were far from the tender and
romantic kiss between Cary Grant and Ingrid Bergman. We had fallen
into the rut of daily life.101
In fact, the first time Mourad experiences Hlimas aggression after their
marriage is when he refuses to perform an act of sodomy. Lashing out with her
acerbic tongue, Hlima calls into question his masculinity. Mourad, naked in
front of Hlima, is unable to react and feels impotent:
I refused to perform. I dont like to sodomize. It was that day that I was
for the first time the object of her aggression. She stood up and said,
You are not a man! I was sitting at the edge of the bed, my penis had
shrunk to the smallest possible size. I felt ridiculous and understood that
with this insult and especially with my lack of a reaction my life was now
gradually going to change and would soon turn into hell.102
Hlimas notions regarding masculinity involve the very stereotypes of
masculinity that are responsible for and associated with the economic and
cultural subordination of women. Hlimas concepts relate to what Fatima
Mernissi writes in Beyond the Veil as she discusses the economic basis of sexual
anomie in Morocco. Mernissi states that money and sex are intimately linked in
the definition of identity and that a respectable man is someone who acquires
some degree of economic power and at the same time can control the sexual
behavior of his wife, daughters, and sisters (149).
As times goes by Mourad begins to think more and more about his cousin
Najia, realizing that he had made a big mistake by marrying Hlima who would
have been happier with a brute (my emphasis) or a corrupt man (26). Citing
Evelyne Accad, who is another noted feminist writer from the Arab world,
Mernissi argues that the ability to experience pleasure in suffering and subjugation is the kernel of femininity which is masochistic by its very nature (33).
Hlima, as a character, supports this view.
101
Elle avait sa propre dfinition de la virilit et j'appris avec stupeur que la violence physique les
coups en tait l'un des signes. Elle me demandait donc de la battre pendant que l'on faisait
l'amour. Nous tions loin du baiser doux et romantique entre Cary Grant et Ingrid Bergman. Nous
tions tombs dans la vie quotidienne. (25)
102
Je refusai de m'excuter. Je n'aime pas la sodomisation. Ce fut ce jour-l que j'eus droit une
premire aggression. Elle se leva et me dit: "Tu n'es pas un homme!" J'tais assis sur le bord du lit,
mon sexe rduit sa plus petite taille; je me sentis ridicule et compris qu'avec cette injure et surtout
mon absence de raction ma vie allait petit petit se transformer en quelque chose qui n'allait pas
tarder ressembler l'enfer. (24-25)
Mourad also relates that each time Hlima visits her mother, she comes back
charged, ready for battle (77). Economic deprivation creates a psychological
impact on Hlima. She turns into a bitter and fury-filled nag. Mourads selfinflicted poverty and their hard life are all the more humiliating for Hlima since
the rest of her sisters are married to prosperous spouses and live well.
Considering him a failure, Mourads in-laws too treat him with disdain (18-19).
The text depicts Hlimas economic marginalization as having negative
consequences on her marriage. Her economic frustration and her financial
dependency on Mourad quickly lead to the loss of mutual understanding and
solidarity. Mourad specifies that although he loved Hlima, each time Hlima
reminded him of their difficult condition, some of that affection got eroded (41).
The main reason for the bitterness in the couples conjugal life is Hlimas
incessant nagging over financial matters. A stage comes when Hlimas shrill
cries are enough to cause Mourad physical and existential pain. Feeling stifled
and persecuted, he bemoans the wide chasm between him and his wife caused
especially by her economic aspirations. He relates the following: Hlimas cries
cause me pain. She does not understand me. There is no solidarity, no
understanding between us. We are poor and we do not have to live above our
means as if we were rich (20). The only time Hlima is happy in the novel is
when she herself makes some money thanks to a sewing order for a dress. As
Mourad returns home from work that evening, he is pleasantly surprised to find
Hlima in a cheerful mood. He understands that is the money that has pleased
her. Mourad decides to avail of the opportunity offered by the situation. He
makes an advance so that there can be lovemaking that night:
My wife is in a good mood. How lucky! She has done up her hair, has
dressed up and is talking sweetly. Its suspicious. She is telling me about
the woman next door who has ordered a dress from her for her
brothers wedding; she even gave her an advance. Thats what it is!
Money makes her happy. She is right. I smile and kiss her on the neck.
Tonight we will make love.103
Throughout the novel one thus finds that Hlima considers Mourad
responsible for her economic frustration and constantly persecutes and mistreats
him. Expecting him to do something to change their material circumstances, she
remains powerless to make a difference in her own life. Eventually, as Mourad
succumbs to her pressures and starts taking bribes, he starts dreaming of starting
a new life with Najia, his cousin. He is however daunted by the prospect of facing
103
Ma femme est de bonne humeur. Quelle chance! Elle est bien coiffe, bien habille et me parle
gentiment. Cest suspect. Elle me parle de la voisine, qui lui a command une tenue pour le
marriage de son frre; elle lui a mme donn une avance. Ctait a. Largent la rend heureuse. Elle
a raison. Je souris et lembrasse dans le cou. Ce soir on fera lamour. (40-41)
199
200
the "war" that he fears Hlima would launch in order to prevent Najia from
benefitting from the "bonuses" that she has been waiting for (93). While the
narrative depicts Hlima as a violent and dominating female, it strongly links her
violence to her subordinate status as a wife and to her economic dependence on
Mourad. Moroccan sociologist Abdelhak Serhane writes in his very influential
sociological treatise LAmour circoncis that the husband-wife relationship is from
the outset a relationship of violence and domination and that there is a social
moral concerning marriage: the husband has to dominate on the first night itself
and prove his virility, for afterwards, it becomes too late (195). LHomme rompu
depicts this peculiar relationship of violence and domination.
Feminine Violence/Masculine liberation

Eventually cracking under Hlimas pressures, Mourad starts to accept bribes.
One of the bribes is in the form of a huge commission in American dollars. This
act of corruption later precipitates a crisis in his life when it triggers an
investigation. As a narrator telling his own story, Mourad relates towards the end
of LHomme rompu that since he was incapable of transforming the world, he
was dreaming the world. Evoking Schopenhauer and his idea that life and dream
are like pages in a book, Mourad states that to read the pages in order is to live
and to read them in disorder is to dream. He also expresses his increasing
propensity for disorder and dream. Indeed, towards the end of the novel Mourad
is a traumatized man. On the one hand he has to contend with domestic
disharmony and, on the other hand, his situation in his office becomes just as
unbearable. Mourad is accused, of all things, of the theft of a rusty and
abandoned typewriter that had been lying around in the office. An investigation
is launched during which Mourad, suspended from work, remains at home.
During this period, fantasy, illusion and dream offer him an escape from an
increasingly degrading and hostile reality. Mourads imaginations and fantasies
reveal his suffering and the fact that his suffering is mainly the result of the
intellectual, psychological and emotional distance between Hlima and him.
As Mourad begins taking more and more recourse during this period to his
favorite pastime reverie, he imagines various things. It is however Hlima who
stars in these imaginations. Mourad thus visualizes Hlima liberated from a
husband incapable of fulfilling all her fantasies. He imagines her living without
him in a wretched state, poisoning their childrens minds with stories about his
death, his enchantment by an evil sorceress, and his seduction by a prostitute
(189-190). He imagines his mother-in-law heaving a sigh of relief upon his death
and calculating how much this sudden absence is going to set her back
monetarily (191). He imagines the scenario of Hlima, an addict of televised
melodramas, enacting a real life melodrama in order to save her husband from
an unjust accusation. He imagines Hlima defending him passionately against his

prosecutors and against the judicial machinery, as a heroine would do in a film
(193). Saying the right things, making the right calculations, and producing the
right gestures for once, Hlima would then be defending him instead of attacking
or blaming him. Mourad also imagines himself alone, happy and free, without his
wife and children (202).
Memories of unpleasant past experiences with Hlima also keep invading his
thoughts during this period when he remains at home. Unable to free his mind of
Hlima, Mourad remembers that in the beginning of their marriage, he used to
share with Hlima his most intimate philosophical reflections. He emphasizes, as
narrator, that soon after marriage, Hlima had ceased to be a friend and a
confidante. Mourads sensitive nature, his lofty thoughts and his disillusions had
been beyond her understanding. He remembers an incident when he had shared
his reflections on life, death, happiness, and Schopenhauer with her. Hlima had
ridiculed him for his impractical notions and had repeated her mothers
teachings: In life, there is no pity for one who chooses to be poor; no pity for
one who hesitates, or practices philosophy or poetry (202). Hlima had also
stated that since real life was a struggle, one had to know how to fight and,
further, since life was rough, one had to be equally rough. She had also reminded
Mourad of his insignificance and had pointed out the fact that despite his
degrees, his higher education and his books, it was his junior who had
constructed a villa and who took his wife and family on vacations (202-203).
Mourad also relates that he had eventually given up on Hlima, knowing that it
was impossible for her to emerge from her mediocrity, modify her thinking and
change her behavior. He also recounts that Hlimas voice, which in itself was
enough to cause him pain, was as unpleasant as the words she pronounced.
Mourad also specifies, as narrator, that having picked the wrong wife, he had lost
in life and that he had even contemplated suicide (204). He also cautions, as
narrator, that his flirtation with the idea of self-destruction be seen not as a
renunciation, but as an affirmation of his desire to live, an affirmation of his
desire to lead a life different from the kind that Hlima, Haj Hamid, and his boss
symbolized (204). Wanting to live without suffering, he had chosen solitude
(202). Mourad makes it clear that the cause of his misery is Hlima, or more
precisely, the nature of his relationship with Hlima.
As his story unfolds, the nature of his consciousness changes. Thanks to a
consciousness wherein illusion and fantasy begin edging out reality, Mourad also
fantasizes an affair between the Olivetti typewriter he is accused of misappropriating and his Larousse dictionary (196). Najia had suggested to him at
one point to confide his misadventures to the machine. Mourad now finds the
typewriter and the machine to be churning out words. He starts locking himself
up in his sons room during the day to read what the machine and the dictionary
have produced the previous night. Deciphering and reading the messages of the
201
202
typewriter become for Mourad a distraction and a secret (200). While the
language that the machine churns out is by and large incomprehensible to
Mourad, he occasionally catches phrases that could be titles of a book.
Mourad collects these and creates a poem that speaks of cruelty and suffering:
The laugh is cruel
When the soul suffers
When desire is impatient
And the sky mocks104
Mourad, as narrator, explains at one point towards the end of the novel
that his story, as character, is not over and that he does not know how it will
end. He explains that he is writing the story of his life as it unfolds and that is
why he is narrating in the present tense (209). This explains the texts curious
narrative style that becomes highly pronounced towards the end of the novel
wherein the reader finds Mourad providing a present tense narration that is a
live, lucid, and realistic commentary of the unreal events and illusions that he is
experiencing thanks to an altered consciousness and that are occurring and being
related simultaneously. Mourads story however is by now more and more a
narrative where memory, illusion, fantasy and real events combine and become
an indistinguishable blur. His story is no longer a narration of just real/realist
events.
As this story continues, Mourad, who is now at home because of the judicial
investigation, reveals (as narrator) and realizes (as character) that he is the victim
of an intrigue hatched by Haj Hamid. He reveals/realizes that the typewriter
scandal is a ploy by Haj Hamid and other employees meant to teach him a lesson
for being an obstacle and to encourage him to join the ranks of the corrupt.
Mourad also reveals/realizes the fact that it is Haj Hamid who had arranged his
intimidation at the bank. With this revelation/realization, Mourad finds himself
immobile in his armchair. He is unable to move his limbs. He tries calling for
help but he is unable to produce any sound. He finds his voice stuck in the back
of his throat. It appears to him that he is in a dream where he is trying to shout
for help but nobody can hear him because his scream is stuck inside him. He
just sits transfixed in front of the television, waiting to be liberated. As he sits
there, he has a hallucination in which he sees Haj Hamid and his boss prosecuting
him in a tribunal. He feels he is in hell with only the flames missing. He also
wonders why Najia and Nadia (another minor female character) are not hearing
his call for help and appearing to save him. Physically frozen and mentally over104
Le rire est cruel

Quand lme est souffrance
Quand le dsir est impatient
Et le ciel moqueur (197)
wrought, Mourad simply waits to be freed. Sitting in the armchair, he undergoes

intense suffering, conscious of his isolation and abandonment. Just before falling
asleep, he has a vision in which he views various versions of his own execution at
the hands of various actors like Hlima, his mother-in-law, and Haj Hamid
executions which he knows he would be condemned to undergo infinitely
according to Muslim religious tenets, if he really did commit suicide (213).
The next moment, Mourad is roused from his sleep by a furious Hlima who
violently pulls him off the chair and shoves him against a mirror on a wall.
Mourad feels a bump on his head and notices that some blood has appeared on
his forehead. Hlima who had just returned home charged, presumably from her
mothers, is in a fit of rage. Bombarding Mourad with insults that are now
incomprehensible to his ear, she kicks him out of the house (215). Mourad
spends the night roaming about the city and this is a night that is fraught with the
experience of Sufi mysticism. Mourad undergoes a liberating transformation as
all traces of identity and all attachments to the body dissolve that night.
During this night, as Mourad rambles along the streets, he feels happy to
be alone. The sentiment of joy wells up suddenly and is intense. Aware that he
is leaving behind the dimension of reality, he decides to let go of all that is
holding him back. Unable to recall even his childrens faces, Mourad realizes he
is now very far and finds he has turned into a stranger. He feels freedom from
all botherations, bonds, or bondages, and concerns. He relates these experiences
while they are happening to him. We find Mourad relating that like the Sufi
mystics who have renounced, he is flying and disappearing. Mourad
experiences himself rising above the brutal and mediocre earth with his head
above the clouds. He senses his body being carried away by the wind, enveloped
in words and syllables. Acknowledging a feeling of security that he experiences
during this state, Mourad decides there is no need for him to descend to the
Earth (219). What Mourad undergoes this fateful night may be assimilated to a
deathlike experience that liberates him. The ambiguity of this death and the
certainty of a subjective liberation are revealed when Mourad as narrator asks
himself if it is the night that has delivered him from the greatest anguish or if it is
death that has freed him of his burden (220). As he experiences/recounts his
liberation, he is no longer sure whether the death he has experienced is a
literal death or a transformation of consciousness.
As the novel concludes, dawn breaks and Mourad decides to descend to
firm ground. He breaks into Najias house and takes a shower. He feels like a
new man in body and spirit. Looking into the mirror, he can barely recognize
himself. He puts on expensive clothes belonging to Najias dead husband,
makes coffee for her and wakes her up. Najia is surprised to see him in her dead
husbands clothes, feels afraid at first and then smiles. Mourad communicates to
her his experiences of the night and informs her that he had desired to see her.
He also declares to her that he had done nothing wrong and was returning to
203
204
work. An unconvinced Najia reminds Mourad that she is not his mother.
Mourad then holds her in his arms and kisses her. Mourad, as narrator, then
announces the beginning of a new life for him, one without scruples or remorse.
He also reckons the death that he will have to face for selling his soul and has a
vision of wild beasts devouring his internal organs. As these images flicker out in
a few seconds, he once again finds himself kissing Najias humid lips and
avows an intense desire to live (222). This beatific and harmonious communion
with Najia is followed by his triumphant entry into his office where he is
respectfully greeted and congratulated by his colleagues for entering into the
ranks of the corrupt.
Conclusion
The last few pages of the novel thus mark a major shift in Mourads
consciousness from pessimism and misery to optimism and beauty, and from
death to life. What is significant is that the male first undergoes acute existential
suffering in the absence of love and then traverses a mystical experience
triggered by the tormenting female. During this magical moment, the Self,
bursting forth, breaks with corporeality/corporeal constraints. A sense of
freedom dawns in the male as anguish and misery lift from his consciousness.
In typical Ben Jellounian style, the narrative is replete with various
ambiguities that play upon reality and perception. There is an abrupt change in
the reality that is being perceived by Mourad, or perhaps it is only Mourads
subjective perception that is now different. Everything takes place as if in a film
or a dream. The events are accelerated and are narrated and described from the
perspective of Mourads altered consciousness that suggests a Sufi or mystical
transcendence. As for Mourads union with Najia and his triumphant reentry into
the office, the reader remains unsure if Mourad has hallucinated yet again or
whether these events are really happening. At any rate, breaking completely with
material reality, Mourad experiences a mystical transcendence and a subjective
liberation. The narrative does point to the improbability of a literal communion
between Mourad and Najia, given Mourads altered state of consciousness and
the textual ambiguities. The text plays upon reality, dream, and fantasy. It then
follows that while Mourads relationship with his wife Hlima was destined to be
doomed, his blissful communion with his flame Najia may be seen as occurring
only in his own imagination and reflects his desire for harmony and love. Through
Mourads tragic relationships with Hlima and Najia, LHomme rompu depicts the
male as a victim of not just a corrupt economic system but also of disharmonious
and dysfunctional male-female relations in the form of Mourad who is not able to
have a fulfilling and nurturing relationship with either Hlima or Najia. He
experiences acute existential isolation and emotional suffering for the most part.
Not finding love and understanding from the female, the male in LHomme
rompu undergoes death and achieves only an imaginary communion with the
female through mystical illusion. Mourad thereby also attests to the power of the
female on the life and imagination of the male. To quote Acha Belarbi, the male
forever remains in search of the ideal female who finally does not exist except in
his own imagination and whose construction, as Belarbi argues, may be
modeled purely on a maternal substratum (13).
Bibliography
Accad, Evelyne. Veil of Shame: Role of Women in the Contemporary Fiction of
North Africa and the Arab World. Sherbrooke: Namaan, 1978.
Belarbi, Acha. Introduction. Femme et Pouvoirs. Ed. Fatima Mernissi. Casablanca:
Editions Le Fennec, 1990. 11-14.
Ben Jelloun,Tahar. LHomme rompu. Paris: Seuil, 1994.
Elia, Nada. Le premier amour est toujours le dernier by Tahar Ben Jelloun. Rev.
of Le Premier amour est toujours le dernier, by Ben Jelloun. World Literature
Today 69.4 (1995): 757-8.
Mernissi, Fatima. Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim
Society. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1987.
Serhane, Abdelhak. LAmour circoncis. Casablanca: Editions Eddif, 1995.
POUSES VIOLENTES ET EPOUX LIBERES: LE RAPPORT HOMME-FEMME DANS

L'HOMME ROMPU DE TAHAR BEN JELLOUN
Cet article examine les relations hommes-femmes "tourments" dans
L'Homme Rompu de lcrivain francophone Tahar Ben Jelloun et se focalise sur la
violence et le mysticisme. Le problme de la rupture homme-femme sinscrit
dans une dialectique poux-pouse qui se caractrise notamment par l'agression
de lpouse dans le rle de la femme subalterne. Alors quil est incontestable que
Ben Jelloun dnonce la subordination de la femme au niveau social ainsi que sa
perscution, L'Homme Rompu reprsente/rvle, en particulier, l'impact existentiel
du dsaccord sur le mle. Je discute des ramifications de ce manque dharmonie
dans le rapport homme-femme telles quelles sont dpeintes dans le texte et je me
concentre particulirement sur la manire dont lhostilit masculine-fminine se
joue. Mon analyse trace aussi l'volution dune rsolution spirituelle et libratrice
qui surgit au-del des limites de la rupture la fin du roman.
Mots-cls: littrature francophone; Tahar Ben Jelloun; relations hommesfemmes; violence; mysticisme soufi
205
206
UDK 821.112.2.09-31
Govor ena u delu ita Bernarda linka
Budimka Uskokovi
Univerzitet u Beogradu
Apstrakt: U radu se nudi pregled teorijskih razmatranja odnosa izmeu enskog i

mukog pola, rodne razlike i osobine enskog govora koje su prikazane na primeru dve
enske osobe Hane mic i mlade Jevrejke koje u mnogome zavise od sredine u kojoj
sazrevaju. U njihovim razlikama se sagledava itav dvadeseti vek i moe se odrediti
dalje kretanje enskog roda.
Kljune rei: jezik, mo, krivica, rod, nacionalsocijalizam, uloga ene
Uvodna razmatranja
Razlika izmeu polova, odnosno njihova slinost, predstavlja jedan od vanih
faktora u poimanju sveta i nastaje upravo u interakciji sa njim, kao i sa osobom
suprotnog pola. U engleskom jeziku postoji jedinstvena razlika izmeu rei sex i
gender, dok u srpskom i nemakom jeziku takva razlika ne postoji. Razlika izmeu
sex i gender predstavlja razliku izmeu biolokih i kulturnih injenica (Holmes and
Mayerhoff 22). Ovde se koristi jedna re, tanije Geschlecht, odnosno pol, a u
poslednje vreme, sa zahtevom za veom politikom korektnou i re rod, koja se
nekada koristila samo u gramatikim kontekstima. Zato su ova dva jezika ovako
ustrojena? Da li je razlika koja se javlja izmeu engleskog i nemakog jezika
iskljuivo lingvisitke prirode ili se pak moe posmatrati u jednom irem sociolingvistikom okviru? Ko je zasluan za takve razlike i koliko vreme i mesto na
kojem se bie nalazi mogu uticati na njegov dalji razvoj? Koji je odnos izmeu
jezika, roda i moi? Ko je zasluan za odreene promene meu polovima?
Drutvo ili sam jezik?
Literatura koja nam daje odgovore na ovakva i slina pitanja potie pre svega sa anglosaksonskog podruja i direktno se moe dovesti u vezu sa veoma popularnim romanom Bernarda linka koji na jedan drugaiji nain rasvetljava
stanje u Nemakoj u doba nacionalsocijalizma.
Polaznu taku u ispitivanju enskog govora u noveli predstavlja istraivanje
Lejkofove (Robin Lakoff), u kojem je ona dola do veoma konciznih zakljuaka o
207
208
karakteristikama enskog govora, a koji se izmeu ostalog mogu nai i kod Romejnove (Romaine 154). Do slinih zakljuaka dolazi i Don Dozef Gamperz (John
Joseph Gumperz). Njegovi zakljuci su od velikog znaaja za prikaz univerzalnih
diferencijacija izmeu mukaraca i ena koje se mogu napraviti u bilo kom
drutvenom sistemu ili vremenu. Dela autora En Vitherol (Ann Weatherall),
Vandane Joi (Vandana Joshi) i Ketlin Kening (Kathleen Canning) se pak koncentriu na vanjezike razlike izmeu mukaraca i ena. Vandana Joi ide ak tako
daleko da u svojoj knjizi daje potpuni prikaz poloaja ena u II svetskom ratu, govorei o njima kao o rtvama, ali s druge strane i o preutnim sauesnicima,
kojima se u mom istraivanju moe pridruiti glavna junakinja romana Hana mic.
Koriena literatura i istraivanja mojih prethodnika govore o modernom
pristupu i univerzalnosti teme, a glavni cilj mog istraivanja predstavlja uspostavljanje paralele izmeu govora ene u prolosti i sadanjosti, na osnovu koje
se konstruie enski govor u budunosti. On treba da bude dovoljno precizan,
smislen, elokventan, bez krivice i dovoljno snaan da se u svakom smislu moe
suprotstaviti mukom govoru, te da samim tim ima sva prava, da bude jednak,
ali da i dalje ostane zatitniki, pokazujui interesovanje kako za enski svet,
tako i za muki bez ustruavanja i inferiornosti.
ena u doba Treeg rajha na primeru Hane mic

Razlike meu ljudima nastaju kao odraz varijabli: starost, pol, poreklo, obrazovanje, socijalni status, etnika pripadnost. Razlike meu polovima se uglavnom
zasnivaju na drutvenoj hijerarhiji i ve utvrenim pravilima kojima nova jedinka
mora da se prikloni i prilagodi da bi postala deo jedinstvenog sistema. Ove razlike
se mogu menjati u zavisnosti od istorijskog trenutka, ali do veih pomaka jo nije
dolo. Postavlja se pitanje o poreklu takve hijerahije. Da li je i sama re istorija
(history) mukog porekla (Lakoff and Buchholtz 47) i da li bi trebalo da bude
promenjena u herstory? Kao to se ve moe primetiti, u engleskom se uoava
jasna razlika i moe se spekulisati u ovom domenu, dok u srpskom i nemakom
ovakva potencijalna diferencijacija nije mogua. Re Geschichte je enskog roda, kao i istorija. U nemakom je re Geschichte polisemina i oznaava, izmeu
ostalog, priu. Da li se prie iskljuivo vezuju za enski svet i koje su osnovne
karakteristike njihovih pria? Don Dozef Gamperz navodi sledee karakteristike enskog govora: naklonjenost ka postavljanju pitanja, aktivnije uestvovanje
u interakciji sa sagovornikom, sklonost ka tihom protestu nakon prekidanja
razgovora, sklonost ka upotrebi zamenica ti (Vi) i mi koja govori o postojanju sagovornika. Za razliku od ena, mukarci su skloniji prekidanju govora svojih sagovornika, ignorisanju komentara svojih sagovornika, korienju vie mehanizama za kontrolisanje teme razgovora, ukljuujui i sam tok razgovora i uvoenje
drugih tema, direktno afirmiui svoje predloge i misli (Gumperz 197200). Te

karakteristike treba upravo pokazati u ovom radu.
Hana mic, glavna junakinja romana Bernarda linka, ima 36 godina, odrasla
je u Transilvaniji, sa 17 godina dolazi u Berlin, radi u Simensu i u nacionalsocijalizmu se pridruuje SS jedinicama. Sedamdesetih i osamdesetih godina prolog veka dolazi, u znaku feministikog talasa, do veoma velikog interesovanja za poloaj
ena u Treem rajhu i uopte u II svetskom ratu. ene su bile ili rtve nacistikog
reima ili njihovi pasivni uesnici (Joshi 62). U dravi mukaraca (Mnnerstaat) ene su bile ili bolniarke, asne sestre, uiteljice ili majke. Postojala su razna odlikovanja za majke i njihovu hrabrost u Treem rajhu (Ehrenkreuz der deutschen
Mutter) i sve ostale funkcije koje su mogle obavljati su proizilazile upravo iz
takvog stava ili su bile u direktnoj vezi sa njim. Tako se ve na samom poetku
primeuje zatitniki odnos i materinski instikt prema Mihaelu koji je 21 godinu
mlai od glavne junakinje. On je deai (Jungchen). Nazivajui ga tako, Hana
se ve na samom poetku distancira od njega kako bi zadobila potovanje sagovornika koji izvrava nareenja. Ona koristi imperative koji govore o njenom dominantnom odnosu, ali u isto vreme podseaju i na njenu prolost. Lejkofova
govori o povienoj intonaciji na onim mestima gde bi se mogla oekivati padajua
intonacija (Romaine 154), npr. uzmi (Schlink 6), ekaj (15), izai (36), itaj (43, 61),
kao i o upotrebi modalnog glagola morati (37). U samoj interakciji izmeu Hane i
Mihaela moe se primetiti veliki broj pitanja koje Hana postavlja i koja motiviu
sagovornika: Ui li i nemaki (42), kao uvod u sesiju itanja i preutno priznanje analfabetizma; Da li opet bei iz kole? (47), uvod u razgovor o njenom
veoma tekom ivotu i nemogunosti da neto pomeni, ali i priznanje da ceo
njen ivot nema smisla, utoliko to svoj posao smatra glupim i to ga se stidi;
Da li e pisati druge knjige? (62), predvianje Mihaelove svetle budunosti
kao odraz njegovog obrazovanja i vaspitanja, ali u isto vreme i priznanje podreenog poloaja zbog nedovoljnog obrazovanja i primoranost da zbog toga obavlja sramne poslove. Putajui ga da pria, ona u isto vreme skriva svoj pravi
identitet i nemogunost da se suoi sa svojom prolou na adekvatan nain.
Ona je svesna svoje krivice, poloaja u drutvu koji joj pripada i smatra da je to
poniavajue, ali upravo pod diktaturom mukaraca (Joshi 187) i njihovim neprikosnovenim autoritetom postaje izloena surovosti ivota. U Treem rajhu su
iskljuivo mukarci bili na vodeim poloajima, jer prema Vajningeru, ena nije ni
dubokoumna, ni visokoumna, ni otroumna, ni pravoumna; ona je, tavie, sve
suprotno tome.
ene su zapravo jo u staroj Grkoj imale podreenu ulogu i filozofi su smatrali da ena razmilja u logikim kategorijama koje se razlikuju od onih u kojima
mukarci razmiljaju, te da zbog toga mora imati podreenu funkciju u drutvenom sistemu za ije su ustrojstvo zasluni upravo mukarci. Tu se moe govoriti i
o vrsti konformizma, odnosno potinjavanja putem nasilja i nametanja vrednosti i
normi suprotnom polu, izuzimajui ga iz sfere aktivne politike i drutvenog ivota.
209
210
Trei rajh je u mnogo emu bio zasnovan na klasinom periodu svetskog razvoja,
odnosno na premisama antike Grke i Rima. Margareta Mierlih (Margarete
Mitscherlich) smatra da su zapravo postojale dve vrte antisemitizma, enski i
muki antisemitizam, nastale zbog razlike izmeu dva pola u razvoju njihovog
superega (Joshi 198). Na razvoj enskog superega utiu pre svega drutvene
norme, pa se, u tom smislu, on moe posmatrati sa bihejviorisitke take gledita.
Devojica posmatra svoju okolinu i ponaa se u skladu sa onim to nalazi u toj
okolini, najee onako kako je majka vaspitava, odnosno kako se i ona sama
ponaa u mukom svetu. U sluaju da devojica odstupi od takvih normi, postaje
izoptena iz drutva ili ismejana, to kasnije utie na dalji razvoj njenog stava
prema svetu. Ona je tako prisiljena da preuzme ve uspostavljena pravila bez
daljeg razmiljanja i da nastavi tradiciju bez mogunosti da joj se suprotstavi ili
uvede odreene promene. Drutvo je uokviruje ne ostavljajui joj mesta za
samostalno delanje. ak i onda kada bi se to moglo oekivati ili kada bi se moglo
smatrati da je u stanju da sama preuzme odgovornost, ona se mora oslanjati na
muki princip u svom okruenju, jer je njen superego pod velikim uticajem muke
diktature. Ona nema mogunosti da se u potpunosti afirmie, uvek oekuje
potvrdu od suprotnog pola, nije dovoljno sigurna u svoje prohteve, misli i stanje u
kojem se nalazi, biva nipodatavana i denuncirana. Ona nikada ne biva posmatrana kao ozbiljno bie sa sopstvenim pogledima (Lakoff and Buchholz 40).
Rastrgana izmeu tradicije, spoljanjih uticaja i unutranjeg stanja, naviknuta
da ne moe samostalno da razmilja, dela i govori, Hana se predaje spoljanjim
uticajima svesna da nikada nee imati dovoljno moi da upravlja sopstvenim ivotom. Hanin analfabetizam govori o tome da je nacionalsocijalizam doputao kolovanje devojica, ali da su postojale odvojene gimnazije, da je znanje koje je
trebalo da usvoje devojice bilo praktinog karaktera, primenjeno njihovom
misaonom razvoju, dok su deaci imali jedinstveno pravo da se koluju itajui
nemaku klasinu knjievnost i filozofe, gradei superioran svet u kojem su se
plaili ena. Nastale razlike u drutvenom kontekstu mogle bi otud da se posmatraju kao strah od nepoznatog, nedovoljno istraenog i dalekog, koje se mora
ukrotiti i kazniti, kako bi se obezbedio slobodan prolaz za delanje koja se ne sme
kritikovati. Tek u dodiru sa mukim svetom koji filtrira enske misli i prua im
makar i deo svog fragmentisanog duhovnog ivota, ena moe uvideti realnost
koje vie nema. Tek se tada moe osvestiti. Samo u dodiru sa fragmentima muke
due ona moe razmiljati o pravim vrednostima ivota, ali i ovde njene mogunosti zavise od uticaja i raspoloivosti muke due, potvrujui da ena nikada
ne moe biti samostalna. Na takav primer nailazimo i u ovom romanu.
S obzirom na to da Hana ne zna da ita, ona u potpunosti zavisi od Mihaelove elje da sa njom podeli deo svog sveta. Od njega zavisi koje e joj knjige itati, koje delove iz tih knjiga i na koji nain. Ona ne poznaje dovoljno taj svet, tako
da ne moe biti svesna u kojoj meri Mihael upravlja njenim duhovnim ivotom.
Njoj se odreeni delovi mogu svideti, ali ona njihovu pravu vrednost ne spo-
znaje do kraja. Hana nikada nije imala pristup tom svetu i od nje se ne moe
oekivati prepoznavanje estetske i poetske vrednosti odreenog dela. Tek pri
prvom susretu sa Kantom moe se naslutiti izvesno razumevanje, ali iskljuivo
zbog njenog iskustva i njene prolosti. U Kantovom delu je mogla da spozna sebe i svoju krivicu jer je odstupila od kategorikog imperativa. Kroz njeno ponaanje se pre svega ogleda duhovno siromatvo koje ona pokuava da popravi
traei od Mihaela da joj ita. Bez obzira na svoju privremenu dominaciju, Hana
upravo kroz takav stav pokazuje svoj strah od mukaraca i od njegovog gubitka,
od mogunosti da bude naputena ne znajui kuda bi trebalo dalje da se kree,
jer nikada nije osetila potpunu samostalnost. Samostalnost u Haninom sluaju
proizvodi samo kontraefekat, nesigurnost i nesnalaljivost. Nju prate separacioni strahovi od samog poetka, jer je naviknuta na prisustvo savetnika, pomagaa, osobe koja se brine o njoj, o njenom izgubljenom duhovnom svetu. Hana je
svoj svet izgubila zahvaljujui mukom polu i na isti taj nain je pokuala da ga
povrati. Njen govor se ini superiornim u odnosu na govor mlaeg Mihaela, ali
je po svemu sudei praen nedostatkom odlunosti. Ekert (Eckert) smatra da
upravo zbog ovakve subordinacije, enama nije dozvoljeno da se bore za iste
ideale i istu stvarnost koja je namenjena mukarcima (Duranti 378). Iz istog razloga one moraju razvijati simbolike izvore kao to je pojava i razvoj jezika, njegovo svekoliko pojavljivanje, a zahvaljujui tome i ispoljavanje njihove linosti
kao prihvatljivih lanova kulture. Zbog toga razvijaju visoke standarde lingvistike kompeticije. Odreeni teoretiari smatraju da ene ne mogu da spoznaju
svoju ivotnu vrednost dok im neko ne ukae na to. U Haninom sluaju su to
upravo bili mukarci koji su uticali na njeno devijantno ponaanje unutar patrijarhalne zajednice. U tom smislu se lingvistiki parametri ne razlikuju od socijalno uspostavljenih normi i od enskog uea u njihovom kreiranju. Dominacija
mukaraca u konverzaciji, prema Gamperzu (199), predstavlja osnovnu paralelu
sa njihovom dominacijom u drutvu. Hanina dominacija s poetka novele prerasta u njenu nesigurnost, ambivalentnost i sve jai separacioni strah zbog nemogunosti da se suoi sa svojom prolou, a Mihaelova deaka naivnost, nesigurnost, omamljenost i nivelisan Edipov kompleks prerastaju u neprikosnovenost
miljenja, surovu dominaciju i glavni pokreta za Hanino suicidno ponaanje.
Iznenauje i injenica da ena mora podravati mukarce u njihovom kontrolisanju i upravljanju komunikacijom, jer bi u suprotnom mogla naii na represivne
mere. Lejkofova je primetila da je upravo vaspitanje i rani razvoj ene krucijalan
faktor za njeno dalje ponaanje i da upravo zbog toga imaju probleme u kasnijem
ivotu. Nauene jo kao devojice da se ponaaju i govore kao dame, njima ostaje
uskraena mogunost za uspostavljanjem moi nad mukarcem i postaju nesigurne, jer su naviknute da sluaju bez pogovora. Njihove misli bivaju suene i
retki su trenuci njihovog slobodnog misaonog toka. Nemogu pokuaj spajanja
uloga ene i odraslog bia, koji Lejkofova smatra kulturno nekompatibilnim,
uskrauje enama samouverenje i jainu (Gumperz 199).
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O Haninom detinjstvu autor malo govori, ali se ve u samom njenom izgledu moe naslutiti nedostatak istinske ljubavi. U njenom poistoveivanju sa uniformom, ne samo za vreme Drugog svetskog rata, ve i nakon njega, primeuje
se nedostatak odlunosti, samostalnosti i argumentovanog razmiljanja, konformizam, mediokritet, tenja ka tome da se bude vaan deo drutvenog sistema
bez viih ciljeva ka samoostvarivanju i linom uspehu. U takvom sistemu se rauna samo kolektivni uspeh. Nijedan lan drutva, a posebno ena, ne sme razmiljati o tome da se otrgne iz njega, da mu se suprotstavi, da ga kritikuje. Da
bi ostala ravnopravna u totalitarnom sistemu, ena mora izvravati nareenja,
trudei se da postigne to bolje rezultate, razmilajui o njima kao o svojima,
iako oni mogu biti jedino deo drutva iz kojeg su nastali. Zahvaljujui takvom
oseaju, ena prestaje da se razvija u duhovnom domenu, jer a priori zna da joj
je uskraena sloboda govora i razmiljanja i da je osuena da ivi u senci sistema iji e biti jedini krivac. U takvom sistemu svaki njen korak se ini bezvrednim i biva osujeen, bez obzira na jainu njene elje za promenom. Ona se ne
moe promeniti ak i kada bi to elela. Zaslepljena mukom neprikosnovenou,
ona ne eli da se osvesti i da uvidi nastale greke, jer zna da joj je pravo govora
uskratio muki svet koji e joj suditi kao da sudi sebi. ena zapravo predstavlja
glavni izgovor za sva poinjena zlodela, jer muki svet ne moe suditi sebi. On
takvu kategoriju ne poznaje.
Odnos izmeu ena i mukaraca u romanu predstavlja circulus vitiosus iz
kojeg mukarac mora izai kao pobednik kako bi svet mogao i dalje da poiva na
logikim tokovima misli. Hana se u takvim trenucima ne moe sama ni odbraniti, ve je njena savest i svest predstavljena u liku jednog mukarca, njenog advokata. Na granici izmeu poslunosti i moralnog kodeksa, Hana ostaje posluna,
svesna moguih konsekvenci, ali u isto vreme i nemogunosti za drugi, bolji
izbor. Preispitujui svoje greke, ona dozvoljava da i dalje neko drugi razmilja
umesto nje. Njen govor na tom mestu polako nestaje, jer, s jedne strane, ona
ne moe da se suprotstavi autoritetu, a s druge strane, ona ne moe srediti svoje misli i iskazati ih kroz koncizne reenice. Njene misli je ine nesigurnom, jer je
mogla raunati sa takvim ishodom. Kao da joj se sada njena moralna razina sveti, podseajui je, da je trebalo pobei iz mukog sveta i osamostaliti se u sistemu koji je mogao potovati enske vrednosti ili se potruditi za ostvarivanje
istog, ak i u sistemu koji takve vrednosti ne poznaje. rtva koju je mogla podneti borei se za enska prava, bila bi prevelika, ali bi drugim enama donela
slobodu. Ovako ona pristaje na pravila koja su joj predstavljena kao jedina
mogua i koja je muki svet propisao.
Hanin advokat na jednom mestu kae: ta treba da znai da je jedna ena
trebalo pre da bude predradnica u Simensu nego da bude deo SS jedinica? Nita
ne opravdava injenicu da elite, da odluka moje mandatkinje bude predmet
vaeg pitanja (Schlink 92). Njen advokat osea da je muki svet nametnuo balast i pokuava da opravda njenu odluku, jer je u tadanje vreme bila jedina mo-
gua. Za neku drugu odluku morala bi da podnese veliku rtvu. Advokat u isto
vreme eli da predoi sudu da takva odluka nije zavisila samo od nje i da se ta
injenica mora uzeti u obzir. Sud se ne obazire na sistem u celini, ve na pojedine osobe u tom sistemu. U trenucima kada je mogla sama da donosi odluku,
kao to je bila prijava mesta boravka, ona je to redovno inila. Jedino se tada
mogla pridravati moralnog kodeksa. Svesna da za odluke koje nije mogla donositi sama nema opravdanja, ona postaje jo nesigurnija. Ona prestaje da razmilja u prvom licu jednine i posee za prvim licem mnoine traei podrku enskog pola na koju nije naila. Ta injenica ukazuje i na to da se sa solidarnou
meu enama nije moglo raunati i da je superiorni stav pobedio. Primenom
sile, ali u cilju samoodbrane, njene sauesnice su pobedile. ene jedino u grupi
mogu postii svoj cilj. Bespomono traganje za odgovorom koji nije mogla nai
u svojoj podsvesti, pretvara se u agoniju i besciljno tumaranje prema reima koje nisu mogle opravdati njene postupke. Nedovoljno samopotovanja i samouverenosti predstavlja najvei uzrok njene odanosti mukom svetu.
Vilijam OBar (William OBarr) smatra da ljudi govore indirektno pre svega
zbog nemoi, a ne zbog rodnih razlika (Lakoff and Bucholtz 175). U Haninom
sluaju oba faktora se mogu posmatrati kao faktori njenog nesmotrenog i disidentskog ponaanja. Nerazumevanje okoline za njena poinjena zlodela i razloge zbog kojih je to uinila, odvelo ju je direktno u smrt. Nedovoljno intimnosti u
njenoj okolini i nedovoljan broj prijatelja koji bi je podravali od njenog najranijeg detinjstva jeste jedan od razloga za njenu samodestrukciju i depresiju. Iz
ovoga ne sledi direktno da je ena nenije bie, kako se navodi, ve da je svakom
biu, bilo ono mukog ili enskog pola, potrebna podrka, iskrenost i pomo u najkritinijim trenucima u ivotu i da se na osnovu toga ne moe zakljuiti da se svet
deli na snane mukarce i bespomone ene, ve da svako bie nosi u sebi ova
dva neodvojiva dela. Kao to smo videli, u dominantnosti se krije nedovoljno
samopouzdanja i previe samoprekora.
enski govor u savremenom svetu

U cilju lingvistike promene prvo mora doi do promene u realnom svetu
(Lakoff and Bucholtz 108). Za razliku od perioda nacionalsocijalizma, u modernom svetu se moe govoriti o odreenim promenama koje su usledile veim zalaganjem ena za svoja prava poevi od sedamdesetih godina prolog veka.
Ovaj period predstavlja prekretnicu u razvoju enske misli, jer su se desile odreene promene, pre svega, na politikom planu. Dok su poetkom dvadesetog
veka ene morale da se pridravaju pravila koja su propisivali mukarci i da ih
dalje prenose, kao uiteljice na primer, u modernom svetu se moe priati o
nadgradnji enske uloge, o njenom osamostaljivanju i sve veoj emancipaciji. S
obzirom na to da je re o nadgradnji enske uloge, postulat i dalje ostaje isti, a
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214
on se ogleda u tome da ene moraju obavljati svoje primarne funkcije i da te

funkcije ne predstavljaju njihovo jedino interesovanje, ve se podrazumevaju,
ali se njihov stav prema svetu i okolini promenio utoliko to se moe govoriti o
njihovom drutvenom zalaganju i o njihovim vodeim funkcijama u drutvu. Primera ima dosta, a meu njima su i oni koji se mogu nai upravo u Nemakoj nakon ezdeset godina.
Vaspitavane u drugaijem duhu, ene su samouverene i svesne svojih uloga
ak i na politikoj sceni. ene su nekada bile samo refleksije u oima drugih. Danas one imaju pre svega pravo i veliku sposobnost za slobodno predstavljanje
svog identiteta, kreiranje identiteta, a tek onda za ostale (Lakoff and Bucholtz
110). U skladu sa tim, one su ravnopravne i mogu same birati. Iza emancipacije i
liberalnog ivota krije se i vea odgovornost prema sebi, ali i prema drugima. Za
moralni kodeks se vie ne moe okriviti neko drugi. U modernom svetu je svako
odgovoran za svoje ponaanje i svoje postupke. Sa veim uestvovanjem u
drutvu ene polako menjaju pogled na svet ne samo na lokalnom, ve i na globalnom planu, pa se tako ene nalaze na poloajima na kojima se do sada nisu
mogle nai. Da li se na osnovu ovoga moe zakljuiti da je nepravda ispravljena?
Romejnova navodi da pravo poiva na patrijarhalnim odnosima i da se zbog
toga moe smatrati monim, jer ga izmeu ostalog mukarci kontroliu
(Romaine 38). Ta injenica ukazuje na to da bez obzira koliko se svet promeni
spolja, unutranji odnosi u drutvu ostaju nepromenjivi. Ona dalje navodi da je
ak i u liberalnim demokratijama na zapadu enama pravo glasa bilo uskraeno
sve do prve etvrtine prolog veka. U Nemakoj ene dobijaju pravo glasa tek u
Vajmarskoj Republici 1919. Ipak, kao to se ve moglo uoiti, sliku ene u tadanje vreme, bez obzira na kratkoroni uspeh ena i njihovu emancipaciju zlatnih
dvadesetih godina prolog veka, kreirali su upravo mukarci. Bez obzira koliko
se inilo da su ene mogle biti samostalne, a to se moe zakljuiti i u modernom
svetu, mukarci su upravljali njihovom samostalnou i dozirali je u skladu sa
svojim potrebama i interesovanjima. Tako se za mukarce moe rei da ive u
takmiarskom svetu, dok ene razvijaju oseaj solidarnosti (Talbot 137). U modernom svetu pak, dolo je do odreenih pomaka, pa ene vie nemaju tako dobar oseaj solidarnosti, to se moe primetiti i u stavu jedne osumnjiene: Ti
prljava laljivice! Tvoje ljubimice to je bilo tvoje delo, samo tvoje! (Schlink 111).
Tim inom su ene pokuale da opravdaju svoja zlodela okrivljujui samo jednu
osobu. Moe se takoe zakljuiti da ene mogu pokazati svoju mo jedino prema
osobama istog pola, a da se u drugim situacijama ne moe oekivati snaniji oseaj moi, upravo zbog naina na koji su vaspitavane i odrasle.
U modernom svetu pak, postoji vea korelacija sa dominantnim nastupom,
to se moe videti i u stavu mlade Jevrejke koja je preivela pogrom. Ona zapoinje razgovor povienom intonacijom upravo na mestu gde bi se moglo oekivati gostoprimljiv i ljubazan ton. Pitanje ta vas dovodi ovde? (Schlink 200)
dovoljno govori o enskom stavu prema modernom svetu i prema mukom po-
lu. Takvoj eni nije potrebna zatita mukarca jer je ona dovoljno zrela i samouverena da moe sama da se brani i da se bori za svoju nezavisnost pouena primerima iz prolosti. I ovde se moe govoriti o znaaju detinjstva i vaspitanja od
najranijeg detinjstva i razvoju stavova prema mukarcima. Mlada Jevrejka je
odrasla u nacistikom drutvu u kojem je bila progonjena kao i njena majka.
Ona je uspela da sublimira svoj bes i da ga pretvori u drutveno korisne radnje.
Emancipacijom je uspela da se suprotstavi svojoj prolosti, to Hana nije mogla,
jer nije umela da planira svoju budunost. Hana na jednom mestu kae: Ti i dalje kuje velike planove, zar ne? (Schlink 191). Hana svojim retorskim pitanjem
iskazuje razliku koje je uvek bila svesna, ali koju nije umela da promeni. U njenom retorskom pitanju se krije jo jedna karakteristika enskog govora. Bez
obzira na to to je svesna injenica koje se tiu njenog odnosa prema Mihaelu i
svog podreenog poloaja, ona trai potvrdu u njegovom odgovoru, ali sa druge
strane eli da mu pokae da se njen stav prema ivotu i dalje nije promenio i da se
ona moda kaje zbog toga, ali da nikada nije bila dovoljno hrabra da to promeni.
Mlada Jevrejka je u romanu postavljena kao Hanin antipod, kao argumentacija za ensku emancipaciju i jedini izlaz iz zaaranog kruga u kojem se Hana
svojevremeno nala. Ona ima toliko samopouzdanja da je spremna da upravlja
razgovorom i da prekida svog sagovornika. Iako se na poetku ovog rada moe
primetiti da te dve osobine karakteriu muki govor, u modernom svetu ene
sve vie prisvajaju crte mukog govora radi lakeg konfrontiranja sa mukim
svetom, odnosno radi povoljnije rodne jednakosti i na lingvistikom planu. Da bi
uopte mogle da prisvoje crte mukog govora, moraju dobro da ga proue u
svim njegovim pojavnim oblicima. Jevrejka je imala dovoljno vremena u svom
detinjstvu u kojem nije bilo mesta za igru. Mnogi autori navode da se upravo kroz
igru razvijaju odnosi prema svetu, pa tako ve u prvoj deijoj igri, devojice se solidariu, dok se deaci takmie. U njenom detinjstvu nije moglo biti rei o tome,
ve samo o savlaivanju prepreka koje su joj smetale i koje bi joj ugrozile ivot
da nije uspela svojom trezvenou i samopouzdanjem da im se suprotstavi. Na
taj nain ona razvija i odnos prema drugim enama, a pogotovo prema Hani
kojoj nije mogla oprostiti.
Iako je ve pomenuto da je Jevrejka predstavljena kao apsolutni Hanin antipod, moe se govoriti i o odreenoj vrsti sinteze dvaju vremena. Kroz sintezu bi
trebalo da se predstavi uloga ene budunosti. Ona bi mogla biti u isto vreme
majka, nastavnica ili bolniarka, ali u potpunosti emancipovana i njeno samopouzdanje bi joj moglo pruiti dovoljno moi za promene ne samo na lingvistikom planu, ve i na drutvenom. Menjajui svoj svet, promenila bi i svet
mnogih ena koje se i dalje nalaze u senci mukog sveta. Spajajui ta dva vremena, odnosno samo ono to je moglo biti dobro za enu, mogle bi se konstruisati odreene norme budueg vremena, u kojem bi ena mogla imati mnogo
vea prava i gde bi u komunikaciji sa mukarcem mogla iskazati svoju postignutu ravnopravnost. Samo u takvom kontinuumu ena moe ostvariti svoj
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maksimalni potencijal, oslanjajui se iskljuivo na svoje resurse i ne traei pomo od mukog sveta. Njena emancipacija bi joj pomogla da iskae svoju intelektualnu, a samim tim i svoju fiziku mo.
Mo koja se postie na lingvistikom nivou ne mora uvek biti vidljiva (Talbot
5). Povezanost mlade Jevrejke sa raznim nevladinim organizacijama i uopte znanje o njihovom postojanju govori upravo o tome da ene i kada nisu na odreenim vidljivim funkcijama, imaju mnogo veu mo u poreenju sa mukarcima. Njihova mo izraavanja im moe omoguiti efikasnije uee u drutvu, ak i onda
kada se nalaze u senci mukaraca i kada se o njima nedovoljno zna. Pomo i
podrka koju mogu dati mukom svetu je od neprocenjivog znaaja, ali se ni u
jednom trenutku ne sme posmatrati kao na poetku dvadesetog veka, kao obaveza i kao danak, ve kao veoma cenjen izvor misli i oseanja koji je mukarcima
uskraen i nedostupan. Ako bismo odnos izmeu ena i mukaraca posmatrali na
ovaj nain, ena ne bi bila vie u podreenom poloaju i ne bi obavljala veoma loe plaene poslove, ve bi mogla sebi da priuti mnogo vie. U ovom smislu bi trebalo jo raditi na ve pomenutoj solidarnosti ena, ali ne u smislu njihovog odnosa prema mukarcima, ve u snanijoj borbi za svoja prava kako bi se odnosi promenili ne samo na lokalnom, ve i na globalnom nivou. Sigurnost koju je mlada
Jevrejka osetila zahvaljujui svojoj emancipaciji ne moe se ni u jednom trenutku
porediti sa poslom koji je Hana obavljala bez obzira na njenu dominantnost u
datom trenutku. Intelektualna dominacija ena trebalo bi da predstavlja postulat
za enu budunosti bez obzira na njeno poreklo i vaspitanje koje je mogla dobiti u
detinjstvu. Posmatrano iz te perspektive, ona bi u svakom trenutku mogla videti
svoj cilj i u svakom neuspehu bi mogla nai impuls za dalji uspeh.
Mlada Jevrejka je veoma uspena i emancipovana ena jer je u svom detinjstvu uspela da pronae impuls za svoje ivotne uspehe. Sagledavajui prolost, ona je pronala put ka svojoj budunosti i zadrala ironiju iz svoje prolosti
koju sada moe prilagoditi i iskoristiti u interakciji sa mukarcima to je ini neprikosnovenim upravljaem svog ivota.
Zakljuna razmatranja
Razlika izmeu ene s poetka i kraja dvadesetog veka je u mnogome oigledna. Dok se uloga ene na poetku dvadesetog veka mogla predvideti jer nije
bilo veih odstupanja, uloga ene u savremenom svetu je nepredvidljiva, jer se
eni prua mnogo vie mogunosti za ostvarivanje njenih ivotnih ciljeva. Ona
se vie ne nalazi u senci mukaraca, praena njegovim eljama za samoostvarivanjem, pri emu je njena uloga marginalizovana, ponekad u cilju podrke ostvarivanju mukih ciljeva. ena danas ima apsolutno pravo na svoj ivot i jedino ona
moe upravljati i uticati na deavanja u svom ivotu. Ipak, njena uloga zavisi u
mnogome od sistema u kojem se nalazi.
Bez obzira na promene koje su se desile od poetka dvadesetog veka do danas, ena u odreenim sistemima i dalje nije samostalno bie jer zavisi od mukaraca. U cilju prevazilaenja nejednakosti meu sistemima, a samim tim i meu enama, trebalo bi raditi na to veoj solidarnosti ena na globalnom planu.
Hani se ne moe i ne sme pripisati krivica u punoj meri jer njena odluka nije
zavisila od nje same, ve od sistema kojem je morala da se prilagodi. U romanu su
prikazani trenuci njenih samostalnih odluka iz kojih se moe zakljuiti da je bila
veoma paljiva (prema Mihaelu) i njena solidarnost u poslednjoj odluci suda nije
se branila. Ipak, njena ivotna nesamostalnost prouzrokovala je njenu smrt. Hana
nijednog trenutka nije kriva to u takvom sistemu nije uspela da se osamostali, ali
je u okviru takvog sistema mogla dati odreene smernice ostalim enama.
Mlada Jevrejka, kao Hanin antipod, i za razliku od drugih Jevreja koji nisu
uspeli da se spasu ili, ak iako se to desilo, nisu imali dovoljno sredstava za dalji
ivot, svojom emancipacijom dostigla je glavne ciljeve svake ene u modernom
drutvu. Zahvaljujui svojoj emancipaciji, ona je spremna da se suoi sa tradicijom i prolou bez problema. Konfrontirajui se sa svojom prolou, ona je
uspela da izgradi svoju budunost. Hana nije imala dovoljno hrabrosti i njena
prolost je jo jedan od uzroka za njeno suicidno ponaanje.
ena budunosti bi trebalo da sadri u sebi oba elementa dovoljno panje
i solidarnosti, ali i emancipacije i inteligencije kako bi se uzdigla iznad svih prepreka i kako bi izgradila svoju budunost u kojoj bi se mogla suprotstaviti mukarcu u svakom trenutku. Njena odlunost, samopouzdanje i samouverenost bi
predstavaljali temelj njene sigurne budunosti.
Literatura:
Canning, Kathleen. Gender History in Practice. Historical Perspectives on Bodies,
Class and Citizenship. New York: Cornell UP, 2005.
Duranti, Alessandro. Language and Identity. A Companion to Linguistic
Anthropology. Malden: Blackwell, 2004.
Gumperz, John J. Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1982.
Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann. Gender Across Language: The
Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. 2.ed. Philadelphia: John
Benjamin, 2002.
Holmes Janet and Miriam Mayerhoff. Theorizing Gender in Sociolinguistics and
Linguistic Antropology. The Handbook of Language and Gender. Malden:
Blackwell, 2003.
Joshi, Vandana. Gender and Power in the Third Reich. Female Denouncers and the
Gestapo, 193345. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Lakoff, Robin T. and Mary Buchholtz. Language and Womans Place: Text and
Commentaries. New York: Oxford UP, 2004.
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Romaine, Suzanne. Womans Language Fact or Fiction?. Communicating

Gender. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.
Schlink, Bernhrad. Der Vorleser. Zrich: Diogenes, 1995.
Talbot, Mary M. et al. Language and Power in the Modern World. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh UP, 2003.
Weatherhall, Ann. Gender, Language and Discourse. New York: Routledge, 2002.
WOMEN`S SPEECH IN THE READER BY BERNHARD SCHLINK

This article deals with the relationship between women and men in two
different political and social systems in the 20th century Germany, as represented
in Bernare Schlinks The Reader. Differences between two characters, Hanna
Schmitz and the young Jewish girl, are presented through their attitudes and
their speech, which clearly reflect the systems in which they grew up. Men
influenced the world of women in Germany in the 20th century and women had
special role in Nazism. This article shows, however, that at the end of the 20th
century, female power, womens identity and their social roles had changed
significantly.
Key words: language, power, guilt, gender, Nazism, womans role
Savremena crnogorska knjievnost

Contemporary Montenegrin Literature
219
220
UDK 821.163.4.09-21
Principi organizacije vremenske ravni u

romanu Hodoae Arsenija Njegovana
Maja Sekulovi
Apstrakt: U ovom radu bavimo se organizacijom vremenske ravni u Pekievom romanu

Hodoae Arsenija Njegovana. Za potrebe prouavanja oslonili smo se na stavove
erara eneta koji se tiu tumaenja vremena sa stanovita specifinih kategorija.
Zastupajui miljenje da je svako pripovijedanje dvostruko temporalno enet izdvaja
kategorije trajanja, redosljeda i uestalosti pomou kojih tumai istaknutu temporalnost.
Oslonimo li se na kategoriju redosljeda zapaziemo da vrijeme u Hodoau ne tee
pravolinijski, ve se temporalna shema zasniva na ukrtanju tri vremenske dimenzije
narativne sadanjosti, prolosti i budunosti. Druga kategorija iz enetove podjele tretira
odnos izmeu realnog trajanja nekog dogaaja i duine teksta posveene
pripovijedanju o njemu. Ovom kategorijom se pravi razlika izmeu subjektivnog i
objektivnog vremena. esto se u Hodoau dogaaji koji u stvarnosti relativno kratko
traju, posredstvom razliitih asocijacija produavaju u svijesti lika-naratora. Posljednjom
u nizu, kategorijom uestalosti, razmatra se odnos izmeu uestalosti ponavljanja nekog
dogaaja u prii i uestalosti pominjanja tog istog dogaaja u pripovijedanju. Tri su
dogaaja koji se ponavljaju na paradigmatskoj ravni pripovijedanja, irei svoja
semantka polja.
Kljune rijei: temporalna shema, retrospekcije, anticipacije, subjektivno vrijeme,
objektivno vrijeme, redosljed, trajanje, uestalost.
Jedan od kljunih elemenata pomou kojeg tumaimo narativni tekst jeste

struktura. Ona podrazumijeva sistem i zakonitu organizaciju u kojoj su svi ukljueni elementi preobraeni u skladu sa prirodom cjeline. Vano mjesto u procesu
organizacije narativne strukture, pored pripovjedake situacije i glavnog junaka,
pripada vremenskoj ravni. Zajedno sa prostornom strukturom ona gradi hronotop
koji oznaava prostorno-vremenski kontinuitet unutar knjievne stvarnosti djela.
Prouavajui narativni tekst sa razliitih aspekata erar enet iznosi interesantno zapaanje u vezi sa temporalnou pripovijedanja. Naime, pozivajui se
na Kristijana Meca, teoretiara filmske naracije, enet istie da je svako pripovi-
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jedanje dvostruko temporalno, to bi trebalo da znai da pripovjedni tekst

svoje trajanje ispoljava u dvije dimenzije dimenziji prie (dogaaja o kojima se
pripovijeda) i dimenziji pripovijedanja (samog narativnog teksta) (Mareti
104). U skladu sa tim, A. Mareti napominje da je vrijeme prie, uslovno reeno, hronoloko, jer su dogaaji poreani onim redosljedom kojim su se dogodili, dok je vrijeme pripovijedanja, kako bi rekli ruski formalisti, vrijeme siea,
podlono razliitim temporalnim deformacijama. Dvostruka organizacija temporalne ravni, kao to je ova, omoguava pripovjedau razliita poigravanja vremenom. Na taj nain se dogaaji koji veoma kratko traju u stvarnosti mogu iriti
na temporalnoj shemi zahvatajui dui vremenski period, kao i suprotno, dogaaji koji veoma dugo traju mogu biti samo ovla ocrtani. Uz ove navedene primjere nijesu rijetki ni sluajevi kada je redosljed dogaaja ispremetan, a vremenski planovi preklopljeni, dok se kao posebna mogunost izdvaja isputanje
pojedinih epizoda. Odnos izmeu vremena prie i pseudovremena pripovijedanja enet prouava u okviru tri kategorije koje mu se, kako sam kae, ine
sutinskim. To su kategorija redosljeda, trajanja i uestalosti.
Pristupajui analizi redosljeda enet posmatra odnos izmeu hronolokog,
uzrono-posljedinog, nizanja dogaaja u prii i naina na koji su ti isti dogaaji
rasporeeni u narativnom tekstu, tj. kojim redosljedom se javljaju u pripovijedanju. Ovakva analiza redosljeda svodi se na tumaenja ruskih formalista, koji su posmatrali kako se dogaaji iz fabule rasporeuju u sieu, da li su, na primjer,
povezani prstenasto, stepenasto ili linearno, da li se siejna pozicija jednog
dogaaja podudara s njegovom temporalnom pozicijom u fabuli, ili je moda taj
dogaaj premjeten, ispripovijedan unaprijed ili ostavljen za kasnije. Jezikom
tradicionalne teorije reeno, enet u okviru ove kategorije posmatra odnos
izmeu anticipacija i retrospekcija u siejnoj konstrukciji narativnog teksta.
Temporalna shema romana Hodoae Arsenija Njegovana (dalje u radu samo Hodoae) zasniva se na ukrtanju razliitih vremenskih planova, tj. na
ukrtanju tri vremenske dimenzije narativne sadanjosti, prolosti i budunosti. Modelovanje vremena na ovaj nain odraava se na uspostavljanje fabularnog niza, koji nije dat u hronolokom slijedu ve je izlomljen. U skladu sa tim
siejna organizacija razbija fabulu na dva osnovna i jedan sporedni tok. Osnovni
tokovi obuhvataju narativnu sadanjost i narativnu prolost, dok sporedni tok
pripada narativnoj budunosti. Narativni tok koji se odvija u narativnoj sadanjosti je znatno redukovan u odnosu na tok narativne prolosti, koji ini
dominantu narativnog vremena u ovom tekstu. Retrospektivni tok funkcionie
kao retardaciono sredstvo koje usporava i odlae razvoj dogaaja u pripovjednoj sadanjosti. On je znatno sloeniji i njegovom naracijom dominira splet dinamikih motiva. Sjeanje lika-naratora grana se u dva pravca, ka vrlo bliskoj
prolosti 1968. godini u kojoj je doivljena trauma i ka daljoj prolosti, odnosno dvama dogaajima iz 1919. i 1941. godine.
Vremenska ravan u Hodoau umnoava svoje funkcije obezbjeujui na

taj nain povlaeno mjesto u strukturi romana. Tri su kljuna dogaaja koji se
svojom semantikom optereenou izdvajaju na paradigmatskoj ravni teksta.
Zbivanja kojima to mjesto pripada su: susret glavnog junaka sa crvenoarmejcima 1919. godine u Voronjeu, susret sa demonstrantima 27. marta 1941. Godine, kao i suoavanje sa studentskim demonstracijama 1968. godine. Sva tri dogaaja se esto ponavljaju, ponekad i prepliu u sjeanju glavnog junaka, irei
svoja semantika polja. Miki zakljuuje da se sva tri dogaaja za Arsenija pretvaraju u simbole onih, za njega tamnih, sila usmjerenih protiv Posjeda, tj. protiv posjednike strasti i zbog toga mu se ini da su svi ovi tako razliiti dogaaji
bili jedan te isti napad na posjed, na njegove kue: ONI su uvek traili jedno te
isto. ONI su hteli moje kue. ONI su to hteli i marta 1941-e, ONI to hoe i juna
1968-e! (Peki 2002, 262)
Pria o kuevlasniku Arseniju smjeta se i ostvaruje u okviru ova tri centralna dogaaja koji obrazuju jedan isti istorijski, a za glavnog junaka, i simboliki
niz. Ta tri dogaaja su i jedini trenuci kada se Arsenije sreo sa socijalnom stvarnou koja je za njega uvijek bila u drugom planu, potisnuta kuevlasnikim i posjednikim brigama.
Ve na okviru teksta, prolokoj granici, narator nas upoznaje sa ova tri kljuna
dogaaja iz svog ivota, stavljajui ih u isti semantiki niz. Primarnim se izdvaja
sinhroni plan pripovijedanja jer je testament koji pie glavni junak datiran 3. juna
1968. godine. Ovaj istorijski znaajan datum, kao i preostala dva, svojom semantikom utie na aktiviranje istorijskog konteksta i jedne od ravni sa koje je mogue
tumaiti zbivanja koja su njima obuhvaena. Grafiki izdvojenim segmentom
teksta i estim isticanjem sintagme ono prepodne, koje je pri tom negativno
vrednovano kao opako, Arsenije nagovjetava budua zbivanja u romanu.
Ovakvo modelovanje proloke granice utie na aktiviranje itaoeve funkcije,
jer se on nalazi u poziciji da ve na poetku prie posjeduje ire okvire znanja,
nego to bi to bilo u skladu sa ustaljenim romanesknim konvencijama. Vano je
napomenuti da u trenutku kada pristupa sastavljanju testamenta i sjeanju na
neke segmente svog ivota Arsenije Njegovan ve zna za 3. jun 1968, ali izbjegava da dogaaje iz prolosti posmatra na osnovu tog saznanja. Opisu svih dogaaja pristupa kao da se sada deavaju na sceni. Iako je u svijesti lika-naratora,
u sutini, sve sama narativna prolost, u romanu, kada je rije o transponovanim dogaajima sve je sama narativna sadanjost.
Jedan od dinamikih motiva koji utie na oblikovanje poetka teksta jeste
motiv hitnje za zavjetanjem, koji e posluiti kao dobro motivacijsko sredstvo
za opravdanje nekih od postupaka glavnog junaka, kao to su izriita ponavljanja na semantikom planu, nesreenost reeninih izraza, gubljenje niti pripovijedanja. Stie se utisak da lik-narator eli to prije da okona pisanje navedenih
redova jer je svjestan posljedica koje je na njega ostavio izlazak u grad nakon
dvadeset i sedam godina dobrovoljne izolacije. Nakon upoznavanja sa nara-
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tivnom sadanjou i budunou narator skree panju i na trei element

temporalne sheme narativnu prolost. itajui prolog teksta kao primaran se
namee motiv uzbuenja ili pak nespokojstva, koje Arsenije osjea dok pie ove
redove, a koji doprinosi vaskrsavanju prizora iz prolosti. Taj motiv postaje
vezivni element jer utie na spajanje vie vremenskih planova:
Kad mi se eto i pero otima da potanje objasni ovu hitnju za zavetanjem,
hitnju kojoj su i godine, ma koliko da ih je, i zdravlje, ma kako narueno,
tek sporedan povod, prosto rei izgovor, najbolje da ponem time to u,
bez dvolinosti svojstvene takozvanom samoposmatrakom razmiljanju,
priznati da sam onog prepodneva (kurziv M. S.), presudnog, u to sam nekako ubeen, po tok mog do tada prilino ujednaenog ivota, bio vrlo
uznemiren, satrven od uzbuenja, da ne kaem pometen. U takvom, za
uglednog posednika i poasnog potpredsednika Trgovake komore
krajnje nedolinom stanju nisam se zadesio jo od 1941, kada sam prividno napreac, stvarno meutim blagodarei mukotrpnom kolebanju i
predomiljanju doneo i protokolisao ozbiljnim razlozima izazvanu pa stoga i neopozivu odluku da se povuem, bolje rei izvuem iz poslova [...]
Dodue, naoko isto nespokojstvo bilo me je uhvatilo Devetnaeste kada
sam u istonom predgrau Voronjea prvi put susreo boljevike u
avetinjskoj najezdi [...] i tu bi se, izuzimajui pokora o martovskom puu,
popis mojih izrednih uzbuenja sasvim iscrpao. (Peki 2002, 32-33)
Po meni ovek putuje im pree prag, Mademoiselle Foucault. Van kue sve
je put (Peki 2002, 34). Ovim rijeima glavni junak kao da prua opravdanje za
naslovnu sintagmu, kao i jednu od tematskih ravni sa koje je mogue posmatrati
roman. Prekoraivi kuni prag nakon dvadeset i sedam godina Arsenije zaista
zaplovljava u hodoae, a kao izrazito upeatljivo se izdvaja hodoae koje prati
tok njegovog sjeanja. Retrospektivni ugao gledanja izvodi se neposredno iz
sadraja svijesti lika-naratora. Retrospekcije se uspostavljaju asocijativnim putem
i predstavljaju osnov za graenje pripovjedne prolosti. Vraanje u prolost se
motivie na razliite naine. Jedan od njih se odvija posredstvom ogledala koje
istovremeno utie i na udvajanje lika glavnog junaka:
Pokupivi najzad rukavice, tap i eir, priao sam njegovoj koso obeenoj i iliastom parom propadanja obloenoj povrini da ocenim kako
izgledam u odelu koje sam, po svoj prilici, poslednji put nosio na pogrebu
Konstantina Njegovana.
U pogrebnom osmopregu moj parnjak je Jakov Njegovan, sin naslednik preminulog. Iza nas se, jedva uvajui dostojanstvo, pod polijedarskim hrastovim kovegom savija Timon. (Peki 2002, 62)
U ovom primjeru se prelaenje sa sinhronog na retrospektivni plan pripovijedanja odraava i na promjenu narativnog vremena, odnosno glagolskih oblika
kojima se pripovjeda slui. U reenici koja prethodi smjenjivanju planova
zastupljeni su glagolski oblici kojima se signalizira prolo vrijeme, dok su u retrospekciji dominantni oblici koji ukazuju na sadanjost. Na taj nain se u prolosti
osjea sinhronost zbivanja, koja je posredovana odgovarajuim vremenskim
oblicima ili pak nekim drugim inocem. Ovakvo modelovanje vremena utie na
neutralizovanje retrospektivne pripovjedaeve i itaoeve pozicije. Iluziju sinhronosti pojaava i pripovijedanje u Ich-Form-i.
Sve pojavnosti koje okruuju Arsenija bude u njemu davno pomrle slike iz
prolosti, istovremeno otkrivajui itaocu kakva je bila. Uvijek je jedan predmet
iz pojavnog svijeta impuls koji pokree i vee promjenu narativnih planova:
I opet sam se, tamo u gongu ispred kunih vrata, naao u jednoj od
svojih rastuujuih prolosti.
Evo ih, ve padaju prve bombe. Bombe padaju kosimice. Kao da pritiu
niotkud, volebno da se roje iz belog nebesnog saa. Crne se rupe
otvaraju u vazduhu bez oblaka. (Peki 2002, 71)
I ta monstrum-klupa mi je bila poznata, samo je pree bila u zagrljaju
batice, koja je sada, korak po korak branei pristup kui, iezla potiskivana ulicom.
A kua me je grubo setila ne izgledom, jo dosta ouvanim i vrstim,
niti nekom zloslutnom pukotinom, ve nadutou karakteristinom za
tuberkulozne bolesnike, za bolesnike koji trule iznutra, ispod lane
jedrine podsetila me je, kaem, na Agatinu tragediju. (Peki 2002, 79)
Opruen u mlakoj i rastresitoj tmui, naspram prozora koji je odonud sa
Save proputao, duevalja, jo uvek nerazgovetnu vrevu prevrata,
oslukivao sam lupkanje potpetica Melaninijih dubokih cipela na nir, i
najedared opet bio u deijoj komori nae kue u Gospodskoj ulici, na
susednom divanu mekoljio se orije (Marko, budui Emilijan, ve je
bio na karlovakoj bogosloviji), a koraci to su zamirali kao otkucavanje
sata kojeg odnose bili su majini, majka je malopre bila ovde, jo uvek
je vazduhom vajao miomiris urevka, s njom u troglasju, oitali smo
Oe na i Bogorodice Djevo. (Peki 2002, 285)
Fabularna nit se u ovom romanu, kao to je napomenuto, ostvaruje u izlomljenom obliku, na ta pored navedenih retrospekcija utie i veliki broj anticipacija. Misli glavnog junaka su esto nesreene i isprekidane, naroito ako se u
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obzir uzmu njegove godine, kao i psihiko stanje u kojem se nalazi nakon izlaska
u grad i suoavanja sa zbivanjima koja su bila odraz drutvene stvarnosti toga
vremena. Takvu drutvenu stvarnost Arsenije ne uspijeva da dekodira zaralim
kodnim kljuem. Nesreenost u mislima prouzrokuje i nesreenost u pravolinijskom prikazivanju dogaaja. Interesantno je pratiti kako se pripovjeda poigrava proznim tkivom pruajui du cijelog teksta nagovjetaje buduih zbivanja. Anticipacije umnogome utiu na prijevremeno doitavanje teksta od strane
itaoca. U tom sluaju one su ponekad veoma produktivne jer kod itaoca pored novih saznanja bude i interesovanja za dalji nastavak itanja. Donosimo neke od njih:
Uprkos obeavajuem prijemu, ja se sa svojim u potpunosti autohtonim
uglom nikad nisam pojavio za katedrom Kolarca, a ni dan danji nisam
pametan zato je do toga dolo, i zato je umesto mene predavanje
odrao sam gospodin Teodorovi lino i personalno, pokorno i neinteligentno sledei sve ustaljene zablude koje su harale ovim neograenim
podrujem. (Peki 2002, 92-93)
Bie zaista neprijatnih zgoda, zgoda ispod dostojanstva, o kojima nisam
oran da razmiljam. (Peki 2002, 121)
[N]eu se zakloniti iza tog prava, u prvom redu stoga to e ovaj incident
tek u zbiru buduih dogaaja, onih koji su me oekivali u nastavku etnje,
zasluiti jasno, da ne kaem nakaradno proroansko obeleje, jer e u
njima zao udes posednika gospodina Jovana Martinovia dobiti, ako nita
drugo, ono bar potpunu satisfakciju u zlom udesu, koji se upravo u onom
asu, upravo dok sam uzaludno smirivao pomahnitalu domaicu, tamo
na drugoj obali Save, pripravljao i za nas. (Peki 2002, 168)
Ovo beleim samo stoga da bih objasnio kukavno raspoloenje sa kojim
sam sveo raune sa Nike, a i stoga to sam, zaudo, ba zahvaljujui tom
depresivnom stanju, ponovo bio stekao mladalako samopouzdanje, a
preko njega i pravo da krojim ambiciozne planove u pogledu kuevlasnike karijere. Ali o tome kasnije, na drugim obrascima i priznanicama!
(Peki 2002, 172)
Poto sam obeao da u ve sutra opet naii rano je za raspredanje alosnih dogaaja koji su me u tome spreili izdao sam majstor-Tomi jo
jedno nareenje o kome nigde ne elim traga da ostavim. (Peki 2002,
251)
Druga kategorija u enetovom prouavanju temporalnosti jeste kategorija

trajanja. Ova kategorija obuhvata odnos izmeu trajanja dogaaja u prii i njihovog pseudopripovijedanja u pripovijedanju tanije, odnos izmeu realnog
trajanja nekog dogaaja i duine teksta posveene pripovijedanju o njemu. U
okviru ove kategorije, kako istie A. Mareti, enet u stvari posmatra, figurativno
reeno, brzinu pripovijedanja: npr., da li pripovjeda brzo, u nekoliko reenica, u
saetom pregledu, prelazi preko dogaaja koji su u vremenu prie trajali
nekoliko mjeseci, godina ili decenija. Ili, naprotiv, usporava narativni tok posveujui nekom zbivanju koje je realno kratko trajalo vie stranica svog teksta.
Za razliku od auktorijalnog romana u kojem pripovjedaev izvjetaj saima
cio ivot nekog junaka, u romanu u prvom licu koji naginje ka personalnom, u
naelu se prikazuju samo kratki vremenski periodi, esto samo trenuci, ali doivljeni sa svom zgusnutou i simultanou utiska, misli, osjeanja i asocijacija,
pa stoga radnja takvog romana ima drugaiji vremenski okvir. U Hodoau je, s
obzirom na uspostavljenu pripovjedaku situaciju, subjektivno vrijeme dominantno i predstavlja najvii stepen fiksacije kojom se jedan trenutak zadrava i
usporava u svom narativnom slijedu. Granice objektivnog vremena svedene su
na nekoliko dana koliko je junaku-naratoru neophodno da napie testament.
Funkcije objektivnog i subjektivnog vremena se znatno uslonjavaju. Kroz objektivno vrijeme se simbolizuju istorijski dogaaji, dok se modelovanje subjektivnog vremena zasniva na efektu produenog, odnosno zadranog trenutka.
Jedan trenutak se zadrava u svijesti glavnog junaka i moe se iriti po dubini
sjeanja ili po irini, tj. zgusnutosti doivljenog trenutka. Modelovanje po irini
podrazumijeva zaustavljanje i zadravanje jednog trenutka u kojem se moe javiti veliki broj asocijacija, dok modelovanje po dubini obuhvata vraanje u prolost. Proirenje subjektivnog vremena u Hodoau se ostvaruje kretanjem po
dubini sjeanja, jer se uspostavljanjem retrospektivnog ugla gledanja Arsenije
uestalo vraa u prolost, ali i kretanjem po irini, jer je esto jedan trenutak iz
prolosti zaustavljen i doivljen sa svom zgusnutou utiska.
Ukoliko poemo od enetovog razmatranja kategorije trajanja zapaziemo
da je tekst koji je predmet nae obrade veoma specifian. Specifinost posebno
dolazi do izraaja ako se u obzir uzme vrsta teksta koji se tumai. Hodoae je
testament iju dominantu ini pripovijedanje u prvom licu koje skree ka personalnom. U skladu sa vrstom dokumenta koji je utkan u pripovijedanje testamentom, pripovjeda je ogranien obimom pripovijedanja, i biljei samo neke
od najznaajnijih dogaaja iz svog ivota, kakvi su oni iz 1919, 1941. i 1968. Godine, dok preko ostalih prelazi bez reljefnijeg prikazivanja. Pripovjedaka situacija, pak, uslovljava modelovanje subjektivnog vremena, pa se esto trenuci koji
u stvarnosti veoma kratko traju posredstvom razliitih asocijacija produavaju.
Jedan od primjera gdje se dvije komponente subjektivnog vremena, kretanje po dubini i kretanje po irini, pretapaju jeste trenutak kada Arsenije nakon
dvadeset i sedam godina ponovo stoji na istom oku kao onoga dana, 1941.
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godine, kada su ga zbivanja u tom istorijskom trenutku natjerala da se povue u

svoj dom i obustavi svaki kontakt sa spoljanjou. Taj ugao\oak postaje granica koju treba prei, iako se njenim prelaskom zalazi u domene nepoznatog.
Ona je, takoe, u funkciji vezivnog tkiva koji spaja dva vremenska plana sadanjost sa prolou:
pa ipak, kad god bih ovaj razuman stav pokuao da primenim na situacije
stvorene zamiljenim izlaskom, uvek bih se, pre ili kasnije, poto izvesno
vreme bez smetnji lutam preobraenim ali jo uvek prepoznatljivim ulicama, sukobio sa onim neizbenim i presudnim uglom [...] sa okom na
kome bi mi najednom sve postalo nepoznato, strano, mrsko.
I eto, posle dvadeset i sedam godina opet sam na onom oku, samo
ne leim, stojim kao da sam se tek malopre podigao, kao da sam to nepoznato vreme, to kao bunar duboko vreme proveo u plitkom slivniku
koji se, suv i pranjav sputa niz ulicu. (Peki 2002, 145)
U zadranom trenutku, dok stoji na oku, u glavnom junaku se, posredstvom psiholoke motivacije, budi veliki broj asocijacija koje utiu na stvaranje
mozaine strukture i otvaranje velikog broja retrospekcija u jednoj velikoj retrospekciji. Glavna tematska cjelina obuhvata zbivanje od 27. marta, koje je uokvireno epizodom o kui Nike. Ovaj segment teksta se i na stilskom planu diferencira od cjeline, jer se modeluje posredstvom dijaloke forme koja se odvija
na relaciji Arsenije Njegovan fiktivni oponent. Pored ove cjeline izdvajaju se i
retrospekcija o kui Agati, Arsenijeva teorija o posjednitvu, te Stefanova
licitacija. Ova velika retrospekcija je obiljeena i jednom od parenteza u kojoj
glavni junak prua objanjenje za in zadravanja na tom kako on kae istorijskom mestu. Prenosimo parentezu u cjelosti:
Poto mi iskljuivi cilj zadravanja na ovom u neku ruku istorijskom mestu
nije bio da svoja ondanja oseanja rekonstruiem u kontekstu ondanjih
uslova i njihovih ondanjih znaenja za mene to bi bilo puko i nekorisno
seanje nalik onom to me je protivu moje volje ponovo odvelo na
sahranu Konstantina Njegovana ili u veernicu, pod kameno korito
nego da ih podvrgnem kritikom sudu sa dananjeg prilino izmenjenog
gledita, kako bih otkrio pogreke u mom ponaanju koje su zamalo
uinile da nastradam, morao sam da ih komentariem, da sa njima, tim
nekadanjim oseanjima, polemiem, kao da nisu pripadala Arseniju Njegovanu ve nekoj njemu ravnodunoj osobi. (Peki 2002, 89)
Ovom parentezom se onaj trenutak diferencira od ovog, i rekonstrukciji
zbivanja iz 1941. godine pristupa se sa kritikog stanovita lika-naratora.
Slian navedenom je i sljedei primjer koji kao vezivni element, koji utie
na spajanje sadanjosti sa prolou, ima klupu.
ali pre e biti da su mi mojih sedamdest i sedam godina potkopali
sveinu i izdrljivost, te me nagnale da potraim klupu na kojoj bih
odmorio noge (Peki 2002, 172)
Vojvoda je u neobuzdanom naletu, prsa u prsa, snano bio zakoraio
desnom nogom, savijenom u kolenu, ispod kojeg se gvoe umotavalo u
vojnike uvijae, leva mu je pod otrim uglom bila uprta u poutelo,
roavo postolje, u levoj je ruci, odmaknutoj od slabina, stezao karabin, a
desnu bee potpuno ispruio prema meni kao prema dumaninu koga
treba na bajonet razneti. (Peki 2002, 173)
Kao ovaj komitski vojevoda, srljao je na mene i pandur koga sam
ugledao pre no to sam se onamo na kaldrmi Pop-Lukine ulice naisto
izgubio. (Peki 2002, 174)
S oseanjem olakanja i pregalakog zanosa ustao sam sa klupe, i koliko
su mi godine doputale, urno se uputio prema Simonidi, od koje je
tako sam se bar nadao imalo da otpone poslovno vaskresenje Arsenija
Njegovana, kuevlasnika. (Peki 2002, 201)
Izmeu ovog poetka i kraja, kao jedne velike retrospekcije, niu se zasebni
segmenti teksta o Arsenijevom grotesknom snu i Stefanovoj licitaciji, potom
pripovijedanje o naputanju drutvene stvarnosti i razloga koji su ga naveli to
da uini, popisivanje imovine za testament, te Voronje i 1941. godina.
Na osnovu navedenih primjera zakljuujemo da glavni junak esto u svojoj
svijesti zadrava jedan trenutak, koji u realnosti veoma kratko traje, ali se
putem asocijacija koje se otvaraju taj trenutak produava. Izuzetna panja i prostor u pripovijedanju usmjereni su na tri kljua dogaaja iz ivota glavnog junaka. Nijedan od njih nije trajao toliko dugo koliko glavni junak o njemu pripovijeda. Ali, pod uticajem psiholoke take gledita, njihova duina se produava.
Trea kategorija koja se izdvaja na skali prouavanja vremena jeste
kategorija uestalosti. U okviru ove kategorije enet posmatra odnos izmeu
uestalosti ponavljanja nekog dogaaja u prii i uestalosti pominjanja tog istog
dogaaja u pripovijedanju. Kao i prethodne dvije, i ova kategorija raspolae velikim brojem mogunosti kombinovanja. Najprostiji oblik u okviru ove kategorije
jeste kada se o dogaaju koji se zbio samo jedanput, jedanput i pripovijeda.
Meutim, pored ove, moglo bi se rei tradicionalne, postoje i druge mogunosti. Recimo, ima dogaaja koji su se zbili samo jedanput, a o njima se pripovijeda vie puta i iz vie razliitih perspektiva.
229
230
Paradigmatska ravan Hodoaa specifina je po izdvajanju tri centralna dogaaja koji priu o kuevlasniku Arseniju ine umnogome zanimljivom i dinaminom. Ova tri zbitija iz 1919, 1941. i 1968. godine, permanentno se javljaju na
ravni pripovijedanja, ostvarujui se kao tri veoma vane kompozicione take.
Prvi prizor oivljava dogaaje iz 1919. godine i on je neka vrsta inicijalne kapisle
za prizivanje dogaaja iz 1941, dok dogaaji iz 1941. utiu na oivljavanje onih
iz 1968. i dovode se u isti semantiki niz. Sam Peki u jednom od svojih eseja
istie da: Tragian susret Arsenija sa istorijom kod Solovkina, postao je 27.
marta godine 1941. groteska, a pretvorie se 3. juna 1968. u farsu, kao to biva
sa svakim ponavljanjem (Peki 1996: 64). U skladu sa tim Petar Pijanovi ova tri
dogaaja tretira na planu tragedije groteske farse.
Izaavi na ulicu nakon dvadeset i sedam godina izolacije, Arsenije se susree sa drutvenom stvarnou koju ne umije da dekodira svojim kodnim kljuem.
Nailazak na grupu ljudi budi u njemu sjeanja na rulju iz 1941. godine najedared sam bio zaao meu sasvim druge ljude, opet je po ko zna koji put i po ko
zna koju cenu bio Dvadeset i sedmi mart etrdeset i prve, opet sam urio na
Stefanovu licitaciju, i opet naiao na rulju. (Peki 2002, 81)
Nosei sliku drutvenih odnosa s poetka rata, lik-narator se susree sa
socijalnom stvarnou koja se zasniva na za njega nepoznatim principima. Upravo takvo stanje u kojem se nalazi glavni junak doprinosi rekonstrukciji dogaaja
iz njegove prolosti, koji se esto pretapaju sa zbivanjima iz sadanjosti. U
jednom segmentu narativnog teksta dolazi do spajanja tri vremenske take u
jednoj. Modelovanje subjektivnog vremena omoguava koegzistenciju prolosti
i sadanjosti u svijesti lika naratora, kao i dozvoljene brze i nagle prelaze iz
jedne vremenske dimenzije u drugu, pri emu se obino biraju za lik emotivno
relevantni momenti. Arsenije se nalazi na ulici, u 1968. godini, gdje poslije dueg vremenskog perioda nailazi na grupu ljudi. Ovaj prizor priziva iz sjeanja dogaaje iz 1941. i 1919. godine.
Iznad rulje su se propinjale motke sa jugoslovenskim i srpskim trobojkama (jedna od njih je bila crvena, jeste sasvim crvena kao tek isputena krv, i premda sam, im u tesnacu Zadarske najpre zauh, a odmah
zatim i ugledah gomilu, pouzdano znao da je i ona tu negde, kad sam je
najzad opazio bila je, dabome najvea, toliko iroka da je razveana
izme` dva jarbola liila na krvav zavoj smaknut sa nekog divovskog ela
kad sam je, dakle, najzad ugledao, opet sam se obreo u istonom predgrau Voronjea, u pasjem meteu kao umur crnih i mokrih atrlja, bila
je Devetnaesta. (Peki 2002, 83)
Da ne pravi razliku izmeu rulje koja je stajala pred njim sada i dvadeset i
sedam godina ranije svjedoi i sljedei primjer:
Ako bi se sad pomislilo da sam, sopstvenog mira radi, za posetu Simonidi

mogao da izaberem i neku zaobilaznu relaciju, stranputicu neku na kojoj
neu biti presretnut od ove urlajue procesije isterivaa avola, koja se,
zbrda-zdola sakupljena po podne 27. marta 1941. godine, prosto ustuboila du Pop-Lukine, pa se sputa nadole sve do dana dananjeg, kao da
ba mene oekuje, kao da bi opet preda me da se isprei. (Peki 2002, 84)
Ako se uzmu u obzir primjeri koje smo naveli, a kojih ima mnogo, jasno je da
je kategorija uestalosti najinteresantnija za posmatranje u ovom narativnom
tekstu. Pored tri kljuna dogaaja koji se du cijelog pripovijedanja prelamaju u
svijesti glavnog junaka, izdvaja se jo jedan, semantiki veoma znaajan. Naime,
rije je o scenama sa Konstantinove sahrane. Ovaj dogaaj se nekoliko puta
ponavlja na paradigmatskoj ravni teksta ime zavreuje dodatnu panju i kao
posebno kompoziciono vorite bie razmatran u okviru kompozicije Hodoaa.
Literatura
Beanovi, Tatjana. Poetika Lalieve trilogije. Podgorica: CANU, 2006.
Mareti, Adrijana. Figure pripovijedanja. Beograd: Narodna knjiga; Alfa, 2003.
Miki, Radivoje. Romani Borislava Pekia ili kako upokojiti prolost. Hodoae
Arsenija Njegovana. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 2002.
Nedi, Marko. Uzmak konzervativne svesti. Knjievnost 12, 1970.
Peki, Borislav. Hodoae Arsenija Njegovana. Zavod za udbenike i nastavna
sredstva, 2002.
Peki, Borislav. Skinuto sa trake (Dnevnike zabeleke i razmiljanja 1954-1983).
Beograd: Narodna knjiga; Alfa, 1996.
Pijanovi, Petar. Poetika romana Borislava Pekia. Beograd: Prosveta, 1989.
Uspenski, Boris. Poetika kompozicije. Semiotika ikone. Beograd: Nolit, 1979.
tancl, Franc. Tipine forme romana. Novi Sad: Knjievna zajednica Novog Sada,
1987.
THE PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION OF THE TEMPORAL PLANE IN THE PILGRIMAGE OF

ARSENIJE NJEGOVAN
This paper deals with the organization of the temporal plane in Boris Pekis
novel The Pilgrimage of Arsenije Njegovan. For the purposes of this study, we
relied on Grard Genettes stances relating to interpretations of time from the
viewpoint of particular categories. Arguing that every narrative is a double
temporal sequence, Genette gives prominence to the categories of duration,
order and frequency, by means of which he interprets the specified temporality.
231
232
If we rely on the category of order, we will notice that time in the Pilgrimage
does not flow in a linear way, but the temporal scheme is rather based on the
intertwinement of three temporal dimensions the past, the present and the
future. The second category of Genettes division deals with the relation between
the real duration of an event and the length of a text which describes it. This
category makes a distinction betwee subjective and objective time. Short-lasting
events in the Pilgrimage are often prolonged by way of different associations.
The last in the series is the category of frequency. Through this category we
observe the relation between the frequency of reoccurrence of an event in the
story and the frequency of referring to the same event in the narrative. There are
three events that reoccur in the paradigmatic plane of the narrative, thus
expanding their semantic fields.
Key words: temporal scheme, flashbacks, anticipations, subjective time,
sequence, duration, frequency.
UDK 821.163.4.09-31
Autobiografski roman kao medijacija izmeu

fikcije i stvarnosti (na osnovu romana Mimesis
Andreja Nikolaidisa i Privatna galerija Bale
Brkovia)
Katarzyna Sudnik
Jagelonski univerzitet u Krakovu
Apstrakt: Romani Mimesis Andreja Nikolaidisa i Privatna galerija Bale Brkovia

vjerovatno su najvie komentarisana knjievna ostvarenja u poslednjih deset godina u
Crnoj Gori. Obojica autora postali su vrsti elementi nove knjievnosti i nove
kulture, a njihove knjige doprinele su promeni u dosadanjem knjievnom modelu
(velikih naracija), koji je due vreme vladao na tom podruju. Oba romana imaju vie
zajednikih imenioca knjievnih reenja, pri tom su konstrukcije romana osnovane na
autobiografiji njihova najvanija odlika. U sklopu sa teorijom autobiografizma
francuskog naunika Filipa Leena, ni jedan od ova dva romana nije tipina
autobiografija. Poto ne ispunjavaju osnovni uslov poklapanja osobe autora sa glavnim
likom i naratorom, autentinost je dovedena u sumnju zbog ega njihovi tekstovi spadaju
u kategoriju autobiografskog romana. Uprkos drugaijih tema kojima se bave autori i
naina konstruisanja prie, u oba sluaja se sreemo sa vrstom katarze nalik ispovedi,
kao to i nalazimo vie elemenata u priama, koje su iste stvarnim situacijama iz
biografije autora ovih pria. Meutim, u oba romana su izmenjena imena glavnih likova/
naratora, koja ne odgovaraju imenima autora, ta samim time iskljuuje tekstove iz
uske grupe autobiografija. Teorija Leena, naime, uzima u obzir mogunost vie nivoa,
na kojima moe se izvriti neka vrsta identifikacije knjievne fikcije sa stvarnou ili
projekcija stvarnosti na knjievnu osnovu. Od stepena ove identifikacije i njene vrste
zavisi tip autobiografije i autobiografskog teksta.
Kljune rei: autobiografizam, roman, nova knjievnost, Crna Gora, Philippe Lejeune,
Mimesis, Andrej Nikolaidis, Privatna galerija, Bala Brkovi.
Jedan od kljunih vidova preokreta koji se desio crnogorskom narodu devedesetih godina je dubinska promena kako u samoj knjievnosti, tako i u njenom
shvatanju. Meu autorima i naslovima koji su u najveoj meri potresli knjievnu
scenu nalaze se spomenuti u naslovu Andrej Nikolaidis sa Mimesisom i Bala
233
234
Brkovi sa njegovom Privatnom galerijom. Premda svaki od ovih autora ima drugaiji nain knjievnog izraavanja, a njihovi romani se meusobno razlikuju, oni
svakako imaju neke zajednike imenioce. Pored antitradicionalizma, provokativnosti, intelektualizacije, otklanjanja stereotipa i pripadnosti istom knjievnom
prostoru, oba romana odlikuje vrsta autobiografizma kao naina dijaloga sa
stvarnou.
Konstrukcije Brkovieve i Nikolaidisove knjige zasnovane su na privatnim
ivotima autora. Istovremeno, autori su u tekstove uveli neka knjievna reenja,
koja direktno ukazuju na fikcionalnost pria. Ova reenja se vezuju pre svega za
glavne likove i naratore, iji su identiteti kao autora pria dovedeni u sumnju (iako
mnogi detalji svedoe upravo suprotno, te se slinosti uslonjavaju). Takva strategija ima neposredni uticaj na recepciju teksta. Panja itaoca je prenesena sa
nivoa prie i fabule na nivo sadraja i znaenja. Eventualno deava se jedna
intertekstualna igra sa itaocem105.
Filip Leen (Philippe Lejeune) je francuski profesor knjievnosti koji se bavi
autobiografijom kao knjievnom vrstom. Godine 1975. napisao je veoma vaan
rad na tu temu Autobiografski sporazum (Le Pacte autobiographique106), u kojem autobiografiju definie na sledei nain: retrospektivna pria u prozi, u kojoj
stvarna osoba predstavlja svoj ivot, naglaavajui svoju pojedinanu sudbinu, a
naroito istoriju svoje linosti (Lejeune 22).
Leen takoe izdvaja nekoliko obaveznih odlika autobiografskog teksta, koje
zatim deli na etiri opte kategorije (ove kategorije uglavnom odgovaraju romanesknim strategijama): Jezika forma, Tema, Situacija autora te Status naratora
(Ibid).
Prva od spomenutih kategorija vezuje se za formu prie u prozi, dakle detaljnije prepriavanje nije neophodno u ovom sluaju. Romani analizirani u ovom
radu bez ikakve sumnje ispunjavaju taj prvi uslov. Ostale kategorije koje je Leen
uveo vie nisu toliko jednostavne i zahtevaju iri komentar. Promeniemo navedeni red prvo emo prokomentarisati relacije narator-glavni lik-autor, koje nalazimo u okviru tre i etvrte grupe. Zahvaljujui takvom analitikom redu, lake e
biti proceniti poslednju od Leenovih kategorija Teme.
Pojam Status naratora oznaava kod Leena retrospektivnu viziju prianja,
te srodnost naratora i glavnog lika. Prvo je, dakle, potrebno objasniti kategoriju
tog identiteta, koja je u tekstu izraena gramatinom ja-formom. Upotreba
naracije u prvom licu jednine ne mora nuno da znai da su narator i glavni junak
ista osoba. Identinost ovih figura mogua je i pri upotrebi naracije u treem licu
105
Aktivizacija itaoca se vri na isti nain, koji je predlagao Rolan Bart u tekstovima Smrt autora i
,,S/Z.
106
Le Pacte autobiographigue je bio izdat na poljskom jeziku pod naslovom Pakt autobiograficznv.
Svi citirani fragmenti i termini (sem naslova) su u prevodu autorke ovoga rada. Rad Pakt
autobiografwzrty je 2001. ukljuen u izbor tekstova o autobiografiji P. Lejeunea. P. Lejeune, Pakt
autobiogrqficzny [u:] Wariacje na temat pewnego paktu. O autobiografii, Krakow, 2001.
jednine, to u autobiografiji znai pre svega da je auto-izjava konstruisana kao

biografija sa zadranom distancom.
Relacija izmedu naratora i glavnog lika u Mimesisu jasno je odreena ve u
prvom redu teksta: Moje ime je Konstantin Teofllis (Nikolaidis 25). Poto je itav
tekst Konstantinova pria ispriana u prvom licu, moe se izmeu komentarisanih
figura lika i naratora staviti znak jednakosti. U romanu Privatna galerija situacija
je slina, samo se povremeno tok naracije u prvom licu zamenjuje treim licem
jednine:
Naravno, i dalje sam razveden, i dalje Brajana viam tek povremeno...
Sada Baki ima trideset i pet godina Dante je te godine zvao polovinom
ivotnog puta. (Brkovi 199)
Promena vrste naracije menja perspektivu u tekstu poveava se distanca u
odnosu na glavnog junaka, slui kao opis misli ovog lika ili izaziva ironian efekat,
na primer: Baki je nepopravljiv: kao to rekoh, on vjeruje da je stvarnost podnoljiva ako je stalno spektakulativno razlae na njene bizarne sastojke (31).
U sluaju Brkovievog romana takav nain izraza je od velikog znaaja kada
je u pitanju recepcija dela Privatna galerija se odlikuje specifinom strategijom graenja prie kao filmskih slika ili filmske trake. Knjievni tekst je, dakle (u
ovome sluaju), podreen filmskom kadru.
Sledee pitanje koje zahteva objanjenje jesu imena glavnih likova kao i nain na koji su oni predstavljeni nama, itaocima. Sve se deava u skladu sa
vrstom voene naracije kod Nikolaidisa, lik (kao i narator) predstavlja se punim imenom i prezimenom; kod Brkovia je sve posredno, indirektno, u skladu
sa pasivnom naracijom ime glavnog junaka (Baki) saznajemo iz dijaloga, kad
se drugi likovi obraaju glavnom, te iz naracije u treem licu. O imenima drugih
likova informie nas sam Baki tokom svoje prie, najee kada pravi digresiju u
radnji ili u dijalogu. Bez takve pomoi, italac ne bi bio u stanju da odredi
identitete veine likova.
Treba takoe podsetiti da, za razliku od Mimesisa, (filmska) naracija u
prvom licu kod Brkovia izriito pretpostavlja da zapravo postoji neki italac
(gledalac), neki Ti ili Vi, ija prisutnost je izraena u tekstu, ali bez ikakve
formalizacije i imenovanja. Zahvaljujui neodreenim Vi sve se moe uoptiti,
kako u knjievnosti, tako u jeziku: Sanjao sam sino jedan od onih snova u kojima vam sve izmie (Brkovi 186). Slino izjave upuene direktno itaocima nalazimo kod glavnog lika Nikolaidisovog romana.
Ako vjerujete u happy end; ako vjerujete u ljudski razum; ako vjerujete
da u svakome od nas poiva izvjesna koliina zaliha dobra [...] tada
svakako smatrate da u naveer ui u avion za Amsterdam. [...] Kaem,
ako u sve to vjerujete. Jer ja ne vjerujem. (Nikolaidis 33)
235
236
Upravo na taj nain ostvaruje se direktan kontakt izmeu poiljaoca poruke i

njenog primaoca, a njihov odnos se zasniva na poverenju. Konano stie ispovest,
sasluanje i, kao posledica svega, obostrani zaista aristotelovski katharsis.
Neizraen odgovarajuom formom glagola, primalac u romanu Bale Brkovia naglaava karakter Bakijeve naracije; kao da glavni lik iznova i bez kraja pria
sam sebi, a ovaj tok svesti prekidaju jedino dijalozi. Ba kao da bi Baki vodi naraciju vlastite svesti u svojoj glavi, a knjiga Privatna galerija predstavlja samo
projekciju tih misli. Ovo bi moglo opravdati neujednaene, povremeno previe
detaljne, povremeno previe krte, opise, koji, u svakom sluaju, odgovaraju vremenu koje prolazi i toku misli. Ova strategija omoguava utapanje itaoca u svet
prie te doivljavanje istog (dakle, opet katarza). ovek funkcionie u sferi
simbola i upravo rei odreuju granice njegovog iskustva i prostor njegove mate mislimo koristei rei i, dalje je, ne toliko slika, koliko re, nain recepcije
stvarnosti.
Moe se zakljuiti da su obe figure narator i glavni lik, u oba analizirana
romana, ista osoba. Za analizu tada ostaje linost autora i odreenje njenog
odnosa prema naratoru. U oba romana, ova kategorija izgleda mnogo komplikovanija nego prethodna. Meu Leenovim uslovima autobiografizma, relacija
izmeu autora i naratora ipak je kljuna. Prema njemu, model autobiogrfije
zahteva identinost osobe autora, naratora i glavnog lika kao i afirmisanje
identiteta na nivou ina izgovaranja, a tek sledea je slinost graena na nivou prianja (Cf. Lejeune 34). Meutim, kada je u pitanju fiktivno prezime osobe (drugaije nego prezime autora)107 koja pripoveda svoj ivot i italac ima
razlog da pretpostavi kako je tekst zaista autorova pria, tada takav tekst NIJE
autobiografija. Takvu vrstu prie francuski teoretiar naziva autobiografskim
romanom i definie kao
fikcionalne tekstove, u kojima na osnovu od nae strane pretpostavljenih
slinosti, italac smatra da se poklapaju identitet autora i lika, a da pritom
sam autor isti takav identit negira ili bar ga ne eli afirmisati. (Lejeune 34)
U okviru autobiografskog romana nalaze se takoe lini roman (narator je
srodan liku) te bezlini roman (lik je odreen u treem licu). U ova dva sluaja,
gore navedena definicija vezuje se za svet koji je predstavljen u delu, a ne za
stvarnost i ivot autora. Ni Mimesis ni Privatna galerija nisu autobiografije. Ni u
jednom sluaju autorovo prezime nije isto kao prezime glavnog junaka u pitanju
su, dakle, romani tipa lini roman. Kako kod Brkovia, tako i kod Nikolaidisa, mi
samo pretpostavljamo da se prie slau sa stvarnim biografijama oba pisca.
107
Ne uzimamo u obzir situaciju korienja pseudonima. Autor koji pie i izdaje koristei pseudonim
je, prema Philippe Lejeune, jedno te ista osoba i moemo pretpostaviti da je autobiografija njegova.
Ako i u najmanjoj meri poznajemo biografije autora analiziranih romana, tokom itanja i upoznavanja sa priama primeujemo mnoge paralele izmeu
stvarnosti i fikcije. Analogije se ostvaruju ne samo na nivou radnje i injenica,
nego ak i u imenima. Dok se likovi u Nikolaidisovom romanu zovu isto kao
stvarni ljudi iz autorovog okruenja (sem glavnog junaka), Brkovi je odabrao ili
anagrame, ili potpunu izmenu i fiktivna imena. Konstantin Teofilis funkcionie u
knjizi kao Nikolaidisov dvojnik kako po konstrukciji imena, tako i po svom ivotu. Meutim, glavni junak Privatne galerije zove se Bartolomej (Baki) Braunovi
poetna slova imena i prezimena podseaju na original. Otac Bale Brkovia,
Jevrem (poznata linost u Crnoj Gori), u romanu je imenovan kao Josif. Meu
brojnim likovima u Brkovievom tekstu nalazimo takoe (uprkos potpuno izmenjenim imenima) pisce Andreja Nikolaidisa i Ognjena Spahia, koji su u postali
Igi, odnosno Aleks.
Primeri autentinosti u oba romana umnoavaju se i gomilaju gotovo bez
kraja. Meutim, identitet likova i srodnost s autorom ne moe se izvesti kao injenica. Filip Leen u ovakvim sluajevima pretpostavlja postojanje jednog sporazuma, paralelnog autobiografskom sporazumu; zove ga romanesknim sporazumom i njegova karakteristika je dvostruka: javna praksa neidentinosti
(autor i lik nemaju isto prezime), potvrena fiktivnost (danas ovu funkciju
obavlja podnaslov roman) (Lejeune 36).
Oba romana potvruju prvi deo navedene karakteristike, dakle praksu neidentinosti, meutim samo Brkoviev roman potvruje fiktivnost. Jakov Sablji
je primetio tu dvostruku konstrukciju romana i stoga obraa panju na ulogu
podnaslova. U lanku Crnogorska mlada proza (premreenost suprotnostima) istraiva konstatuje:
Brkoviev roman, kao i Nikolaidisov Mimesis, pripada autofikcijskim
ostvarenjima u kojima je autor razdvojen od pripovjedaa, a potonji
poistovjeen s protagonistom iji je svijet kao narativna konstrukcija
posveen podnaslovom roman. [...] S druge strane, krhkost pripovjedaeve perspektive, koja u kratkom razmaku moe preuzeti sva gramatika
lica jednine uronjena u knjievnoteorijski ili filmski diskurs, element je
pripadan polidiskurzivnom autobiografskom romanu. (Sablji 2007: 48)
Kod Brkovia se, dakle, primeuje odreena vrsta povratnosti, kada ivot
postaje fikcija, ali ta fikcija pria o ivotu. Paratekst podnaslova Roman je zaista
jaka sugestija od strane autora da je potraga za paralelama sa stvarnou
nepotrebna. Pria se bavi nekim drugim stvarima. Brkovi, tavie, na nekoliko
mesta informie itaoca da je tekst koji upravo dri u rukama izmiljen i potpuno nestvaran. Prvi dokaz nalazi se u podnaslovu, kao to smo ve rekli, drugi je
u adnotaciji na poetku romana, trei u Bakijevim izjavama u samom tekstu.
Baki je mistifikaor. Brkovi takoe. Sve analogije sa stvarnou, vremenski
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odnosi i slino, ine se manje vanima od neega to moemo nazvati igrom

intertekstualnosti umetnosti uopte i mistifikatorski karakter romana (o emu
govori sam Baki). Privatna galerija je knjiga viestruke tekstualnosti one interkao i one hiper-; postala je nain realizacije Borhesove intelektualne fikcije, to
se moe ilustrovati primerom Bakijeve izjave:
napisau mistifikatorsku povijest o Bakiju. Ponekad mi svi mogui knjievni siei, ma koliko bizarni bili, izgledaju smirenije i intimnije, i manje
bizarno, od sopstvenog bivstvovanja. Kaem mistifikatorsku jer, bilo
kako govoriti o sebi, znai upravo to stvari initi unekoliko drugaijima. (Brkovi 162)
Pored toga, spomenuta zabeleka na prvim stranicama knjige glasi:
Vrlo je vjerovatno da e neko u prii to slijedi prepoznati dogaaje i
ljude veoma sline onima iz sopstvene memorije. No, to ne znai nita.
Nijedan knjievni lik nije ovjek. (5)
Ovim reima Brkovi nam je oduzeo mogue analitiko orude. Sa druge
strane, nije rekao da ne opisuje stvarnost, nego da sve ono to je u prii i na papiru prestaje biti stvarnost, zato to je njeno prepriavanje tako se prua pria, ne ivot. Navedene knjievne situacije dovode u sumnju bilo kakav pokuaj
da se pronae (auto)biografija u tekstu.
Nazvati Brkoviev roman mistifikacijom znai potvrditi pravac ove analize.
Mistifikacija u knjievnom delu je krajni sluaj identinosti sa izvan-knjievnim
modelom (ovde sa ivotom autora), meutim hiperbolizacija igra ulogu liavanja
realnosti predstavljenog sveta i ini od fiktivnosti nadreenu kategoriju. Konstrukciju glavnog lika/naratora/autora u Brkovievom romanu komentarie
Boena Jelui:
Tako nam i Brkovi prodaje knjigu koju pria knjievni junak. A on, navodno nije ovjek, ma koliko nalikovao piscu. Rorahove mrlje su samo
mrlje, a ljudi uvijek uitavaju ono to ele da vide. Zato Brkoviev roman
nije roman o njemu, ma koliko to ipak bio, i to je osnova erlokovskoderidijanskog plesa sa tekstom koji nam nudi Privatna galerija. (37)
Jelui u autobiografizmu romana vidi nivo intertekstualnosti, koji u komentarisanom sluaju nije nita drugo nego knjievna fikcija.
U ovome radu navedene odlike oba romana i autora svedoe o pristajanju
na romaneskni sporazum Filipa Leena. Kao napomenu vredi dodati da kod
Nikolaidisa funkciju podnaslova ima sam naslov njegove semantike i knjievne konotacije. Intertekstualnost ovog pojma ne moe se zaobii. Direktno
ukazuje na postojanje verovatane i realne stvarnosti, na Aristotelovu Poetiku, to nikako ne moe da biti beznaajno. Prema Umbertu Eku (149), ako je
neto u tekstu previe oigledno, onda tamo vredi traiti druga znaenja. Zato
mi, kao itaoci, moramo uvek biti na oprezu.
Srodnost izmeu autora, naratora i junaka je injenica ve na nivou iskaza i
prie, primetna i odreena. Meutim, slinost zahteva potvrdu u vanknjievnoj
stvarnosti, u vanknjievnim odnosima. Ne iskljuuje istovremeno autentnost
koja je, prema francuskom nauniku, primarna i prisutna za priu u prvom licu
jednine108. Na temu ove autentinosti u autobiografskim tekstovima Leen kae:
Interesovanje za autobiografske tekstove poiva na verovanju u diskurs
koji potie direktno od onoga, kojega se to tie, diskurs u kojem se ogleda
njegova vizija sveta i njegov nain izraavanja. ak i ako italac primeti
prisustvo nekakvog pisanja, ta intervencija koja potie od samog autora, ni u emu ne oduzima izjavi njenu autentinost tavie, poveeva
joj vrednost. (159)
Premda je ovakav zakljuak istinit, u odnosu na Nikolaidosov i Brkoviev roman vredelo bi obrnuti proporcije. Naime, autentinost se u njima javlja u pisanju, kojem se pridruuje italaka svest da je osnovna pria sam ivot.
U ovom trenutku, nakon takvog zaljuka, moe se u sutini odustati od dalje
analize. Meutim, ostala su jo dva Leenova uslova koja bi valjalo ukratko okarakterisati. Ovi uslovi su Retrospektivna vizija prie i Tema.
U knjievnosti i literaturi, retrospekcija je jedno od pravila konstruisanja dela koje prekida fabularni tok uvodei dogaaje iz prolosti. Ova prolost, meutim, postoji izvan formalnog okvira dela i prikazana je najee sa take gledita
jednog od knjievnih junaka (Milkowski 194). Retrospekcja koju zahteva autobiografija prisutna je u oba analizirana romana, ali stepen njenog uea je razliiti. U Mimesisu, besprekorno, itava pria zasnovana je na retrospekciji. Glavni
lik se nalazi pred verovatno najvanijom odlukom u svom ivotu ili e otii u
Amsterdam, gde ga eka ljubav njegovog ivota, ili e ii na apsolventski bal i nikad vie nee ni uti za voljenu enu. Primoran je da napravi izbor budunost
ili prolost. Ovakav sudbinski trenutak postaje podsticaj za priu. Iz epizoda i
digresija koje slede upoznajemo se sa Konstantinovom istorijom od samog
roenja, saznajemo njegove strasti, hobi i muziki ukus. Sve to treba da nama,
itaocima, objasni zato on jo uvek nije doneo odluku. Pria se razvija hronolokim redom, koji je ponekad prekinut digresijama, manje ili vie vezanim za
opisivani period u Konstantinovom ivotu. Stvarna radnja kod Nikolaidisa
odgovara vremenu trajanja prie, dakle vremenu u kojem junak pokuava da
108
ne bi trebalo da ga meamo ni sa identitetom, koji nas vodi do prezimena, niti sa slinou, koja
pretpostavlja neiju procenu onih analogija izmedu dve razliite slike (Lejeune 51).
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donese odluku (pokuava, jer pria se zavrava pre nego to tu odluku saznamo). Sve izvan tog vremenskog toka je retrospekcija. U romanu tako postoje
dva vremenska nivoa vreme prie i vreme uspomena, i oba se lagano prepliu.
Vano je i to da sve uspomene imaju onaj specifian karakter toka svesti, koji
izmie uskom hronolokom redosledu. Premda ovakav red postoji, on nije
glavna organizaciona jedinica romanesknog vremena. Primarna organizaciona
jedinica u sluaju Nikolaidisovog Mimesisa je neto veoma neobino muzika.
Deset muzikih kompozicija markiraju deset poglavlja romana. One su glavni
interpretacijski kontekst i igraju istu ulogu koju igra miris kod Marsela Prusta
miris uspomena i muzika (zvuk) uspomena.
Brkoviev roman, za razliku od Nikolaidisovog, ne sadri gotovo nikakve
informacije o prolosti svoga protagoniste. U sutini, Privatna galerija ostaje fabularna pria, ija se radnja odvija u sadanjem vremenu, a slika vie lii na
filmsku traku nego na tekst. Dodue, Baki se povremeno vraa u prolost i javljaju
mu se uspomene (najee neke epizode ili detalji iz prethodnog ivota), ali
glavna tema romana ostaje sadanjost, aktuelni trenutak i posmatranje aktuelnog
delia Bakijevog ivota. itaocima su predstavljeni nekoliko meseci iz ivota, Bakijeva linost i osobine, njegovi prijatelji, problemi i svakodnevica. Izvor takvih
saznanja prvenstveno je u dijalozima, tek kasnije u opisima i uspomenima. Filip
Leen takvu vrstu naracije naziva naracija drugog stepena i objanjava je na
sledei nain:
Meu mislima junaka, navedenim od strane naratora u izrino odnosnom
govoru i u sadanjem vremenu, mogu da se nalaze retrospektivne misli.
Junak se sea ta se desilo jue, nekad, nedavno, ili neeg to mu se
stalno dogaalo u odreenom periodu; ako ova seanja nisu prekinuta,
junak se trenutno pretvara pretvara u neto poput naratora drugog
stepena. (Lejeune 108)
Upravo ovakvu strategiju je primenio Bala Brkovi, to u tekstu izgleda ovako
I dok gledam usnulog sina, sjeam se jedne od Josifovih pria iz vremena
kada sam ja imao Brajanove godine. Rekao je, jedne veeri, prije
spavanja, Kuzmi i meni da e nam, budemo li spavali zagrljeni, doi aneli
u san. I, dvije male barabe, dva Denisa (tamni i svijetli) su najpredanije na
svetu zaspali zagrljeni i u oekivanju angelskog... (Brkovi 99)
Ipak, naracija kod Brkovia je preteno ostvarena upotrebom nezavisnog
govora. Ona poprima formu opirnih dijaloga uz naglaenu savremenost akcije,
njeno odvijanje je ovde i sada.
Analiza vremenske perspektive omoguava jednostavan odgovor na pitanje

da li ova dva romana ispunjavaju poslednji od Leenovih uslova autobiografizma, koji je oznaen kao Tema.
Pojam Tema u autobiografiji odgovara sudbini pojedinaca i njegove linosti. Iz analize izvrene u ovom radu jasno se moe zakljuiti da ovaj uslov zadovoljava jedino roman Andreja Nikolaidisa. Kod Bale Brkovia fabula je ograniena na odreeni deli vremena, to onemoguava upoznavanje itave prie
kao i sudbine pojedinaca i njegove linosti.
Nekoliko osnovnih pitanja vezanih za autobiografizam nove proze kojima se
ovaj rad bavi dozvolilo je da se odredi relacija izmedu dela/teksta i stvarnosti u
kojoj ova potonja funkcionie kao matrica za stvaralaku matu. Uvoenje
sopstvene linosti i biografije u roman ili priu koja nema jasnih autobiografskih
namera esta je i popularna praksa kod savremenih prozaista. David Albahari je
jednom rekao zato bih izmiljao druge likove kad postojim ja (Jovanovi 27).
Nikako ne smemo povezivati autobiografske elemente u savremenoj prozi sa
kategorijom mimetinosti u njenom klasinom obliku (iskljuujui, naravno,
anr autobiografija). Prema tome, jedna od primarnih funkcija konstruisanih
kao simulacija autobiografije dela bie medijacija izmeu stvaralake, odnosno knjievne fikcije i stvarnosti. tavie, odreenje oba romana, Mimesis i Privatna galerija, kao autobiografskih romana, od velikog je znaaja za njihove budue interpretacije ono otkriva naredne semantike povrine i naredne intertekstualne nivoe, te svedoi o spomenutima. Sve ovo, dakle, ima veliki uticaj na
proirenje konteksta, u ijem se okviru nalaze oba analizirana teksta, kao i svi
drugi koji otklanjaju do sada vaee strategije, otvarajui se savremenoj
(postmodernistikoj) tekstualnosti. Istovremeno, ovaj iskorak mlade crnogorske
proze u odnosu na njenu dosadanju knjievnost pre svega je dokaz njene postmodernizacije i evropeizacije.
Literatura
Brkovi, B. Privatna galerija. Roman. Zagreb: Durieux; Sarajevo: Buyboo; Cetinje:
Otvoreni kulturni forum, 2002.
Eco, U. O symbolu [u] O literaturze. Warszawa: Warszawskie Wydawnictwo
Literackie MUZA SA, 2003.
Jelui, B. Moderni crnogorski roman izmeu Mihaila Lalia i Danila
Kia.Najnoviji glasovi crnogorske proze. Knjievnoteorijski i izborni pregled.
Ur. J. Sablji.Osijek: IVP; Cetinje: RCG, 2007.
Jovanovi, B. Najnoviji crnogorski roman (dekonstrukcija, autopoetika,
diskontinuitet). Najnoviji glasovi crnogorske proze. Knjievnoteorijski i
izborni pregled. Ur. J. Sablji. Osijek: IVP; Cetinje: RCG, 2007.
Lejeune, P. Pakt autobiogrqficzny. Krakow: Universitas, 2001.
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Milkowski, T. Slownik terminow literackich. Red. M. Kosacka. Warszawa: KRAM,

1998.
Nikolaidis, A. Mimesis i drugi skandali. Beograd: V.B.Z., 2008.
Sablji, J. Crnogorska mlada proza (premreenost suprotnostima). Najnoviji
glasovi crnogorskeproze: Knjievnoteorijski i izbornipregled. Ur. J. Sablji.
Osijek: IVP; Cetinje: RCG, 2007.
POWIE AUTOBIOGRAFICZNA JAKO MEDIACJA POMIDZY FIKCJ A RZECZYWISTOCI

(NA PRZYKADZIE POWIECI MIMESIS ANDREJA NIKOLAIDISA I PRIVATNA GALERIJA BALY
BRKOVICIA)
Powieci Mimesis Andreja Nikolaidisa i Privatna galerija Bale Brkovia byy
jednymi z najbardziej komentowanych utworw literackich w ostatnich dziesiciu
latach w Czarnogrze. Obaj autorzy stali si elementami "nowej literatury" i "nowej
kultury", a ich teksty przyczyniy si do przeamania dotychczasowego modelu
literackiego (wielkich narracji) panujcego w regionie. Obie powieci czy szereg
podobnych rozwiza literackich, przy czym ich najwaniejsz wspln cech jest
konstrukcja powieci oparta na autobiografii. W wietle szczegowej teorii
autobiograficznoci francuskiego badacza Philippea Lejeunea, adna z tych
powieci nie jest typow autobiografi. Poniewa nie speniaj one warunku
tosamoci autora z bohaterem i narratorem, autentyczno jest poddana w
wtpliwo, a utwory naley zakwalifikowa jako "powieci autobiograficzne.
Pomimo odmiennej tematyki i konstrukcji obu powieci, w obu przypadkach
dochodzi do swoistego katharsis poprzez spowied oraz odnale mona liczne
zbienoci w yciu bohaterw i biografii autorw. Jednoczenie, w obu
powieciach, zmienione zostay imiona bohaterw/ narratorw, co, tym samym,
wyklucza teksty z wskiej grupy autobiografii. Teoria Lejeunea uwzgldnia bowiem
wiksz ilo paszczyzn, na ktrych moe do do utosamiania si fikcji literackiej
z rzeczywistoci lub rzutowania rzeczywistoci na paszczyzn literack. W
zalenoci od stopnia utosamienia i jego funkcji wyrnia si rne rodzaje
autobiografii i tekstw autobioficznych.
Sowa kluczowe: autobiograficzno, powie, nowa literatura, Czarnogra,
Philippe Lejeune, Mimesis Andrej Nikolaidis, Privatna galerija Bala Brkovi
UDK 821.163.4.09-31
Poetizacija u romanu Mojkovaka bitka

amila Sijaria
Ivana Petrovi
Apstrakt: U ovom radu pokuaemo da nakon kratkog osvrta na roman kao

nezavrenu knjievnu vrstu i njegovu istoriju u crnogorskoj knjievnosti, ukaemo na
osnovna obiljeja romana Mojkovaka bitka pri emu e panja biti posveena procesu
poetizacije ovog narativnog teksta. Sredstva poetizacije su raznovrsna i mnogobrojna, a
u ovom romanu su dominantni: princip ponavljanja i variranja koji za sobom povlai
simbolizaciju verbalnih jedinica i lajmotivsku kompoziciju; kao i pauziranje na nivou
reenice i pasusa iz kojeg proizilazi promjena ritma i pribliavanje narativnog teksta
pjesnikom. U kasnijoj crnogorskoj knjievnosti e se kao sredstva poetizacije javljati
groteska (poetizacija deformisanog), simbolika redukcija junaka, metatekstualnost... to
dolazi sa autorima, koji su za razliku od starijih prozaista, raskinuli vezu sa
tradicionalnim usaivanjem epskog kulturnog koda i izvrili proces demitiziranja i
dezintegracije vizije epskog svijeta.
Kljune rijei: istorijski roman egzistencijalistikog tipa; epski, dramski i lirski kod;
poetizacija, simbol, lajt motiv, repeticija, pauziranje, ritam.
Roman je kao nekanonski prozni oblik sve do XIX vijeka smatran knjievnom
vrstom najnieg reda. Njegova istorija je obiljeena stalnim promjenama tako
da je iznova i iznova morao biti definisan. Danas je to najpopularnija knjievna
vrsta koja predstavlja konglomerat nespojivih naela oblikovanja. Iako zaseban,
on prisvaja, guta druge knjievne vrste, sve tipove diskursa, te je ta njegova
neuhvatljiva priroda izazov mnogima koji ele da ga na neki nain ukrote.
Uprkos protejskoj prirodi, slinosti i razlike u bogatoj istoriji romana proizvele
su razliite klasifikacije: poev od najstarije tematske, zatim one koja uzima u
obzir opti stav romana, preko Kajzerove (roman zbivanja, roman lika, roman prostora) i klasifikacije ruskih formalista (tipovi kompozicije), do tancla koji
uzima u obzir pripovjedaku situaciju, ali i mnogih drugih klasifikacija iji je cilj da
blie odrede prirodu romana i olakaju njegovu analizu. Iako je granice, kada je u
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pitanju roman, nekada teko postaviti, utvrivanje distingtivnih obiljeja je

stalni zadatak prouavaoca knjievnosti koji i danas trae odgovarajuu definiciju kako romana uopte, tako i njegovih tipova.
U crnogorskoj knjievnosti roman se javlja relativno kasno u odnosu na
evropske tokove, a novija prouavanja dovode u pitanje ustaljeno miljenje da je
Nevidbog Rista Ratkovia na prvi roman. U tom smislu analizira se roman Despa
Nikole Petrovia i Turska pisma Stjepana Zanovia to e poetke crnogorskog romana pomjeriti vie decenija, ili ak vjekova, dalje u prolost. Naa posljeratna
knjievnost je najvee domete ostvarila u prozi (roman i pripovijetka) nastavljajui bogatu knjievnu tradiciju meuratnog perioda u kojem zapoinje moderan
izraz. Izraziti fenomen kontinuiteta, tematskog i izraajnog, uoljiv je u crnogorskoj knjievnosti uopte, pa i u stvaralatvu amila Sijaria. Ipak, za razliku od
dominantne linije koja sa bavi tematikom II svjetskog rata, Sijari pripada onim piscima koji dosljedno umjetniki modeluju jedno podneblje, egzotian i naturalan
svijet u razliitim vremenima, ali sa istim egzistencijalnim problemima i pitanjima.
Budui da je bio regionalni pisac, njegovo stvaralatvo podjednako je bilo
predmet interesovanja prouavaoca crnogorske knjievnosti, ali i bosanskohercegovake i ire bonjake knjievnosti. U crnogorskoj knjievnoj kritici njegov
knjievni opus smjeten je u stilsku formaciju neorealizma to i jeste prava
odrednica ako se uzmu u obzir novi mitski, arhetipski i psiholoki elementi, djelimina dekonstrukcija patrijarhalnog modela svijeta i miljenja, pronalaenje
drugaijih tehnika pripovijedanja, traganje likova za identitetom i nezaobilazni
lirizam kazivanja sa bogatim sistemom simbola koji proima cjelokupno
stvaralatvo.
Zasnivajui svoje romane Mojkovaka bitka, Konak, Carska vojska i Raka
zemlja Racsija na lirsko-psiholokoj narativnoj strategiji, ovaj se pisac nalazi na
poetku dezintegracije klasinog tipa istorijskog romana. Njegovi su junaci zarobljeni istorijom, ne snalaze se u novim okolnostima, ne znaju kuda tano idu i
ta da rade, te traganje za sopstvenim, linim identitetom vide kao krajnju taku. Mojkovaka bitka je djelo koje je u knjievnoj kritici i istoriji knjievnosti
odreeno kao istorijski roman egzistencijalistikog tipa (etike i antropoloke
premise kao i razmiljanja o ivotu uopte, rijetko su eksplicitno data) i kao
takvo podrazumijeva epski knjievni kod. Kao narativni tekst, on predstavlja pripovijedanje neke prie, a retoriki naslov kazuje da je ona vezana za znaajan
dogaaj I svjetskog rata. I dok naslov stvara horizont oekivanja jer italac posjeduje pretpostavku: istorijsko predznanje i obrazac anra, tek proces itanja
stvara mogunost stvaranja fiktivnog svijeta izgraenog jezikom epskog,
dramskog i lirskog knjievnog koda. Vizuelnom opaanju lako je uoljivo smjenjivanje paragrafa i dijalokih partija koje ukazuju na postojanje dramskog elementa koji se sastoji i u napetosti, sukobu drami unutar svijesti junaka (roman
je vie drama doivljaja, nego drama dogaaja), a to se prepoznaje u njihovim
monolozima, solilokvijumima, rijeima, ponaanju.
ta bi bila poetizacija narativnog teksta? Sam pojam je izveden od rijei

poezija (pjesnitvo) koja je grkog porijekla i znai stvaranje. Ona (poezija) se
zasniva na izraajnim mogunostima jezika iji karakteristian izraz djeluje na
imaginaciju recipijenta svojim ritmom, sazvujem rijei i znaenjem, esto
simbolinim. Vremenom se mijenjala: od prvobitne koja je sa muzikom i plesom
(sinkretizam) imala obrednu funkciju, do one u kojoj je danas dolo do racionalizacije i intelektualizacije. Raznovrsna po tematici, motivima, formi, ritmu, idejama i drugim elementima koji su se mijenjali kroz prostor i vrijeme, a u skladu sa
linim preokupacijama, knjievnom tradicijom i uticajima, poezija je i danas obino prvi knjievni rod koji ujemo, pamtimo, pa i prvi knjievni tekst koji napiu
mladi knjievnici. Kao takva, poezija e i u proznim tekstovima nai svoje mjesto, te je poetizacija proze jedan od znaajnih procesa u knjievnosti XX vijeka.
Roman kao dominantna narativna forma esto je podvrgnut procesu poetizacije
razliitim sredstvima. Osnovna sredstva kojim je ovaj roman poetizovan su:
princip ponavljanja i variranja koji za sobom povlai simbolizaciju verbalnih jedinica i lajmotivsku kompoziciju; i pauziranje na nivou reenice i pasusa iz kojeg
proizilazi promjena ritma i pribliavanje narativnog teksta pjesnikom.
Dominantni narator u romanu ne intervenie tako to komentarie priu ili
eksplicitno iznosi svoj vrijednosni stav, ve razliitim stilskim sredstvima prianje
pretvara u lirsko sugeriranje, kako kae Enver Kazaz, a puku epsku dogaajnost preoblikuje u poetsku doivljajnost (230). Interesovanje za pojedinca,
njegov unutranji svijet i ljubav je u centru hronotopa rata koji se javlja kao okvir.
Na prolokoj granici romana nailazimo na sijarievski poetino opisanu jesen koja prevazilazi dekorativnu funkciju i iz ikonikog i indeksnog znaka prelazi
u simboliki:
Sa grana su padale jabuke na utu jesenju zemlju kroz no i tiinu, neviene ni od kog: tuk..., tuk...Olakane, grane bi se trgnule gore, i gdje god bi
opala koja jabuka, tu bi i grana zaumila: umile su grane svu no, jer svu no
su opadale jabuke...
Leale su na zemlji i bile su sada opadalice. Vjetar je raznosio njihov
miris, a nikog nije bilo da ga udahne, niti da vidi kako opadaju opadalice...
Tuk..., tuk... prekidali su se mali ivoti u velikoj noi, a zemlja je bila njihov
sanduk u koji e lei... One krupnije oglaavale su se jaim glasom s grane
na granu, pa na zemlju, u jednoj bai, pa u drugoj bai, pa u svim baama
na cijeloj zemlji, u ovoj noi i u Umkino uho, okrenuto prozoru i damu, dolazili umovi grana i jabuka glasniji umovi od veih jabuka, tii umovi od manjih jabuka. Zamiljala je da je i sam jedna jabuka opadalica, koja e isto ovako da opadne sa svoje grane tuk..., kroz tamu, kroz no, na ruku Radievu, i
brzo se okretala u stranu, otvarala oi i traila njegovu ruku. (Sijari 3)
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Inicijalni statini motiv jabuka opadalica poetino i simbolino anticipira, tj.

nagovjetava sudbinu glavne junakinje Umke, ali i crnogorske vojske; a postae i
lajt motiv ovog romana. U narodnoj knjievnosti simbol zdravlja i ivota, jabuka u
ovom romanu dobija atributiv opadalica ime se tradicijom prihvaeno znaenje
mijenja. U metaforikom smisli ta jabuka opadalica bie Umka, djevojka dorasla/sazrela za udaju i ljubav u ije se ime odrekla svoje porodice i predala
neizvjesnim putevima sudbine koji e je voditi zemlji, takoe znaajnom i vieznanom motivu romana. iri smisao ova uestala sintagma dobija u istom paragrafu kada se odnosi na crnogorske vojnike koji e tragino nastradati i konano
boravite nai na/u zemlji sanduku. Onomatopejski uzvik tuk, tuk snano
predstavlja kraj, konaan udar od zemlju, ali i nestrpljive udare Umkinog srca koja
iekuje Rebrena Memia (podzemni laar, nesvjesni skeledija na poetku
kraja?). Nijema no i vjetar koji raznosi mirise jabuka opadalica, a koje niko da
udahne, niko da vidi... osim Umke, posebna je atmosfera koja pojaava osjeanja
i ini ovaj opis ikonikim, indeksnim i simbolikim znakom. Opadanje jabuka se
kao stvaranje atmosfere straha javlja i u romanu Kuu kuom ine lastavice: A
onda su osjeali kako im iza zuba tee voda, jer su uli kako tamo u vonjaku
padaju na zemlju jabuke divljake, odozgo s grane na mjeseinom obasjanu ledinu,
uz jezu noi, i jezu mrtvaca: tup, tup,... jedna za drugom (Sijari 1994, 132).
Na epilokoj granici teksta Umku sahranjuju, te se u romanesknom prostoru
pojavljuju njena humka i planina kao visok i teak cilj vojnika. Na poetku Umka,
a na kraju njena humka...
Funkciju lajt motiva ima i ptica:
Osjeala se sasvim sitnom, u velikoj karadaikoj kui, u kojoj je soba
oko desetinu, vrata i prozora da im se broj ne zna, i jedva ekala da iz
nje prhne pustivi se na krilima ruku i rukava niz svijet (5)
Najprije joj je pola dua. Da se vine. U nemogue. Kao ptica (8)
Za nju svijet vie nije postojao. Ni ona na njemu. Ni ptica. Nita. Pomislila
je sada na pticu, pred svoj let na krila, na daljinu u koju e da odleti, da
ih ostavi, sve: majku, oca, brau, i odnese svoju mladinu i svoju sirotinju
njemu Radiu: evo ti, upaj ptici perje, oguli mi kou, posijeci me neim
tupim. (9)
Ptica u ovim, ali i u slinim primjerima simbolie slobodu, tj. oslobaanje. Oslobaanje u ovom sluaju ne znai izvjesnost, ve stradanje za ideju prave ljubavi
ili pak, egzistenciju u nekom neodreenom prostoru na nebu, izmeu smrti i
ivota. Ptica je karakteristian motiv cjelokupnog stvaralatva ovoga pisca.
Stavljena u razliite reenine kontekste auktorijalnog pripovjedaa ili junaka u
ulozi naratora, ona simbolie: smrt, nemo, lutanje, prolaznost, tugu, nesigurnost, usamljenost i slina stanja u kojima se nalaze likovi.
Roman ratne tematike neizostavno umjetniki oblikuje i motiv smrti. Sveznajui narator, prividno objektivan, esto lirski sugestivan, opisuje smrt poetizujui je donekle sveanim tonom i pripisujui joj kategoriju ljepote: pole su
ka onom redu mrtvih koji je eko, leden, nijem i crn, na inae istu snijegu, u kojem su leali kao u cvijeu (190). Na drugom mjestu se kae: Nita na toj glavi
nije se micalo. Liila je na suncokret, okrenut nekom nevidljivom suncu (194).
Sjetimo se Gorskog vijenca (Na groblju e iznii cvijee / Za daleko neko
pokoljenje) i Hajke gdje se Ivan Vidri smijeta u obasjani prostor to inicira
kretanje u uzviene moralne sfere. Poginuli vojnik iz Mojkovake bitke trai
sunevu svjetlost poput suncokreta, ali je sunce nevidljivo, svjetlosti nema, izlaza nema. Da li je opravdana borba? Hoe li mu se saznati ime? Smrt u boju je lijepa jer je junana. Takav stav je ukorijenjen u etici naeg ovjeka koji je moralna naela narodne epike doivljavao kao uzor, te je aktivnost usmenog
epskog koda svakako prisutna u oblikovanju fiktivne stvarnosti ovoga djela ne
samo kao postupak instaliranja epa, ve i kao dominantan sistem vrijednosti veine likova. U meteu rata smrt postaje svakodnevica u kojoj se ipak primjeuju
ljepota i tragina sudbina poginulog: unosili su mu se u hladno mrtvo lice,
slijegali ramenima i vraali se. Tako obueno i ureeno liilo im je na mladog
svata koji je pao s konja i umro (182).
U romanu Kuu kuom ine lastavice pijetao nevjeste svojom pjesmom ne
predskazuje sreu. Naprotiv, on postaje jedan od vinovnika njene nesrene i nesuene udaje. Pijetao kao element pojavnosti prerasta u romanu Mojkovaka
bitka u simboliki znak, u bie u ijem je glasu sudbina zarobljenika. On je
boiji izaslanik s ideoloko-psiholoke take gledita sujevjernih posmatraa:
Leao je na pajanti iznad sijena, ri i krupan. Osvijetljen fenjerom, liio je
na kakvo svetite pred kojim su zapaljene svijee [...] Crvena kresta stajala mu je pravo. Oi su mu gledale bludno. Kao da je ekao nekakvo
vrijeme, u koje e zaista da zapjeva. (208)
U opisu pomnog posmatranja pijetla sveznajui pripovjeda povezuje njegovu
ljepotu i humor, a njegova tragina smrt dovodi ovaj simboliki motiv narodnog
vjerovanja do besmisla, to je u duhu poetike savremenog romana:
Hitnuto snano iz ruke, drvo je fijuknulo kroz vazduh, okrenulo se dva-tri
puta na kratkom putu do svoje mete, i nekako svojom sredinom pogodilo
pijetla pravo preko vrata, tako da se dotle bijel i prav vrat, udjenuo od
udara u samo njegovo tijelo kao prekinut bijel cvijet u zemlju. (211)
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248
I uopte, atmosferu uasa i opteg stradanja intenziviraju smrti ivotinja: Svoj

uski krug oko koca kojim je gazio cijelog ivota, natapao je sada svojom krvlju.
Obojio je crveno snijeg, i u to crvenilo zarivao svoju njuku, njuio, rio (197).
Bogatim vizuelnim i akustikim slikama opisujui smrt psa i poetizujui stradanje pijetla, motiv smrti dobija ire znaenje prenosei se i na ostali ivi svijet
(vrana, ptica) te postaje znaajan lajt motiv romana.
Lajtmotivskim poreenjem vojnika sa seljacima narator kao da podsjea na
njihovu vezanost za zemlju koja je ne samo prostor koji brane ve i tlo koje ih
hrani. O ovome jasno svjedoe sljedei primjeri: Vojnici su sjedali na kundake, na
panjeve, na kamenje onako kao to kopai kukuruza na kraju postati sjednu na
vrh njive da se odmore (246); hrutale su im pri tome rapave i ko zna koliko
puta promrzle ake kao ake ratara poslije oranja kad skidaju s dlanova ilovau
(366); Gaze tromo. Kao kakvi orai (353). Stoga se i izrovana zemlja esto poredi sa vrajem. Stabla (bor, javor, mukinja, brekinja) u Sijarievim pripovijetkama
predstavljaju mjesta okupljanja, prostor zbliavanja, simboli su postojanosti,
tradicije, ali i prolaznosti. U romanu Mojkovaka bitka vojnici se porede sa
stablima tako da se njihovo simbolino semantiko polje proiruje: Stajali su pod
granama hrastova ukrueni kao kakva stabla, sa oima ubodenim u tamna daleka
brda u kojima su zamiljali Srbe (103); Leali su jedan pored drugoga kao
stabla polomljena vjetrom (319). Biti putnik jedan je od vidova egzistencije
likova u Sijarievim romanima, bilo da likovi pokuavaju nai bolji ivot (Zemko) i
vratiti se zaviaju (Alija), bilo da je to putovanje tua volja (Tahir) ili nunost
(bedeli). Putnici su u stalnom pokretu, pred njima je uvijek put (carski drum,
dada) i neki nedovren posao: Nita na njemu nije bilo neobino, sem to stoji u
umi kao kakav putnik na svome putu kojem se ne uri tamo gdje je poao
(260); Sjedjeli su na kabanicama, na injelima kao to ponekad posjedaju
putnici kraj puta da priekaju izostale (366). Putovati znai biti iv, traiti svoj
identitet, a u ovom romanu i boriti se (Neka bude borba neprestana).
Ekspresivnosti izraza doprinosi ponavljanje istih jezikih jedinica. Rapeticija
leksikih jedinica ini intonacijsku liniju zatalasanom, pojaava se komunikativni
efekat, skree se panja na semantiku date lekseme i doprinosi ritamskom organizovanju teksta. esto se na poetku pasusa nalazi pomoni glagol biti u perfektu treeg lica mnoine bili su. Rairena upotreba ovog glagolskog oblika u
narodnim priama dobija drugaiju funkciju u ovom romanu. U petom poglavlju, gdje se opisuju vojska i ene koje vojnicima donose hranu, ponavljanje
ovog glagola na poetku pasusa ukazuje na kolektivno, na ono sto jesu ti vojnici
i na ono to bi trebalo da budu. Rijetko se u ulozi narativne anafore nalaze druge rijei (ili su, imali su) pri emu ponavljanje uopte, doprinosi isticanju znaenja i ujednaavanju ritma u tekstu, osim ukoliko to nije odlika govora samog
junaka. U tom sluaju ponavljanje otkriva ono sto je duboko u njegovoj svijesti:
Maksim Tucanja lajtmotivski, nostalgino ponavlja priu o svojoj mladosti, esmi i
jednom dubu, te ona prerasta u simbol prolaznosti; Vidak se vraa kosovskom
mitu jer u borbi vidi jedini smisao egzistencije, a u junakoj smrti in rtvovanja za
vie ciljeva; Despina znalaki i u duhu narodne lirske poezije opisuje i ponavlja,
gotovo u stihovima, ljepotu snahe.
elei da istakne odreeni sadraj, Sijari to ostvaruje izdvajanjem dijelova
gramatike strukture u poseban iskaz koji je u direktnoj vezi sa jezikim jedinicama od kojih je razdvojen. I pored pauze, one se osjeaju kao produeci iskaza iz
kojih izviru. Takva jezika forma omoguava poiljaocu poruke da ostvari snaniju
semantiku izraajnost i da proiri intonacione mogunosti reeninog ritma: Poelje da umre. Tu na sanduku. Na svojoj opremi djevojakoj. Pod njihovim ipkama (17); Gledao ikone. are i boje. Vatru paklenu (31); I kao da vie niko nije
vikao. Ni zapomagao. Ni halakao (78); Nita na njemu nijesu vidjeli oficirsko. Ni
vojniko. Ni ta drugo. Bio je samo jedan ovjek. Koji tu stoji. Tako kao da barjak
dri (226); Cio svijet, velik i blistav, bio je sada negdje ieznuo. Zvijezde nou.
Sunani sjaj danju. Duga preko neba. Na nebu kola (229). Ulogu pauziranja imaju
i drugi interpunkcijski znaci od kojih bi, pored take i zareza, istakli tri take i crtu.
Izdvojene strukture mogu dobiti i funkciju pasusa ime se dodatno istiu, a prozni
tekst dobija drugaiji ritam i vizuelno izgled slobodnog stiha:
Uozbiljie se zbog svega toga.
Zautae.
Zbog te odjee. (342);
Nekakav laz.
Ili su mu.
Mrki.
I utke. Jer hvatala ih je neka tupa utnja kad su ili da skoe u uas.
(344)
Mogla je, s vremena na vrijeme, da tamo daleko meu vojnicima ugleda
glavu Radievu.
On se ne okrenu da nju pogleda.
Ni on.
Ni uro. (359)
Dok je u prvom primjeru izdvojena i time naglaena glagolska odredba za
uzrok koju Sijari esto izdvaja u posebnu reenicu, u drugom primjeru je pauziranjem i inverzijom istaknut nekakav laz kao cilj kojem idu vojnici; neodreena zamjenica nekakav je mnogo puta u romanu upotrijebljena i ukazuje na
nepreciznu prostornu taku gledita to i odgovara hronotopu rata. Izdvojen je
u iskaz i pasus pridjev mrki koji se odnosi na vojnike. U posljednjim reenicama koje logiki predstavljaju jednu, ponavlja se u prilogu i imenici osnova glagola utati ime se varira njegovo osnovno znaenje. Stvaranje pauze i repeticija
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rijei ni u treem primjeru pojaava kontrast meusobnog odnosa Despina

Radi, uro, a finalna pozicija ovog odlomka u poglavlju dodatni je signal.
Odsustvo glagola ili pomonog glagola u izdvojenim reenicama, tj. dekonstrukcija jezike norme, doprinosi eliminisanju suvinog materijala tako da nastala praznina postaje stilistika. Njihova kratkoa remeti mirnu narativnu intonaciju to je u suprotnosti od onog to se oekuje od naizgled neutralnog auktorijalnog pripovjedaa. Tekst na taj nain postaje tonski neujednaen, izlomljen i
dinamian.
Sloju zvuanja svakako doprinose i brojne onomatopeje koje odgovaraju
hronotopu rata, a sadrane su u brojnim glagolima i imenicama koji postaju
indeksni znaci: fijuknuti, zavijati, buati, kvocati, kripati, klamparati, burljati,
cijukati, graktati, kamutati, keftati, cviliti, zanjiskati, zarzati, krkljati, drhtati,
dahtati, klicati, mrcati, pufkati, huknuti, halakati, zakaljati, urlikati, zaplakati,
jeati, stenjati, lelekati, zapjevati, kukati, vikati, lom, zvek, tutanj, halak,,
hrutanje, poklik, cijuk, vrisak, kucanje, tresak, zuj, huj, fijuk, frkanje. U isto vrijeme uju se pla i pjesma, tubalica i uspavanka: Sablje mi se nanosio, sabljenie; djevojaka naljubio, ljubljenie; sanak te tvoj prevario, sanjenie. Tamo je
nekog postakla na lelek; muki, a krupan, glas se otisnuo niz tavnine: Zar da
sunce na ogrije, eljo bratska, lele, lele, Dimitrije! Podigni se, oj junae, hoe
ikad nee nikad, lele, lele, Dimitrije! (273-274) Kontrastni spoj u aktiviranom
lirskom usmenom kodu naglaava blizinu roenja i smrti, time i ritamske
ivotne promjene. I dok odlazak Umke odgovara godinjem periodu zasrijevanja, mnogobrojne smrti ljudi i ivotinja odgovaraju prirodnom zamiranju prirode, njenom zamrzavanju i hlaenju.
Pokuali smo da u najznaajnijim naznakama istaknemo osnovne principe
kojima je proces poetizacije ovog narativnog teksta postignut, kako bi se skrenula panja na ono to je u ovom romanu pri njegovim analizama ostajalo na
margini zbog zaokupljenosti epskim elementima.
Literatura:
Brajkovi, Dragomir. Lik i lirska slika u delima amila Sijaria. Priboj: Radniki univerzitet, 1979.
urovi, arko. Naracijski tokovi: o knjievnom stvaralatvu amila Sijaria.
Podgorica: CANU, 2008.
Kalei, Slobodan. Crnogorska knjievnost u knjievnoj kritici VI. Podgorica:
Univerzitet Crne Gore, 2003.
Kazaz, Enver. Bonjaki roman XX vijeka. ZagrebSarajevo: Naklada ZORO, 2004.
Lali, Mihailo. Hajka. Beograd: Nolit, 1965.
Lei, Zdenko, i Juraj Martinovi. Knjievno djelo amila Sijaria. Knj. 10. Sarajevo:
Odjeljenje za knjievnost i lingvistiku ANUBiH, 2003.
Lotman, Jurij. Struktura umetnikog teksta. Beograd: Nolit, 1976.

Milosavljevi, Petar. Teorija knjievnosti. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna
sredstva, 1997.
Muratagi-Tuna, Hasnija. Jezik i stil amila Sijaria. Novi Pazar: Damad, 1993.
Sijari, amil. Bihorci. Podgorica: Unireks, 1997.
Sijari, amil. Kuu kuom ine lastavice. Sarajevo: Veselin Maslea, 1981.
Sijari, amil. Mojkovaka bitka. Cetinje: Obod, 1994.
Sijari, amil. Konak. Sarajevo: Veselin Maslea, 1981.
Sijari, amil. Carska vojska. Sarajevo: Veselin Maslea,1981.
Sijari, amil. Raka zemlja Rascija. Sarajevo: Veselin Maslea, 1981.
tancl, Franc. Tipine forme romana. Novi Sad: Knjievna zajednica, 1987.
Uspenski, Boris, Poetika kompozicije/Semiotika ikone. Beograd: Nolit, 1979.
Zvrko, Husein. Nepriznato junatvo (Jedan pogled na roman Mojkovaka bitka .
Sijaria). Almanah 29-30. Podgorica: Udruenje Almanah, 2005. 41-46
POETICAL PROCEDURE IN THE NOVEL MOJKOVAKA BITKA BY AMIL SIJARI

After briefly reviewing the idea of the novel as an unfinished literary type,
as well as the history of novel in Montenegrin literature, I will analyze the basic
features of the novel Mojkovac Battle, focusing on poetical procedure in this
narrative text. In this novel Sajric uses diverse and numerous tools, the most
dominant of which in are repetition and variation involving verbal units,
symbolization, and leitmotif composition. The author also pauses on sentence
and paragraph levels where there is variation of rhythm, which causes the
narrative text to approach the poetic. In recent Montenegrin literature, writers
use the grotesque (poetical representation of the deformed), symbolic reduction
of the protagonist, and metatextuality. Unlike older prose writers, they
disconnect from the traditional implantation of epic code, and they carry out the
process of demythologizing and reveal the disintegration of the epic vision.
Key words: historic novel of existentialist type; epic, drama and lyric code;
poetical procedure, symbol, leitmotif, repetition, pausing, rhythm.
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UDK 821.163.4.09-31
U Tuem gnijezdu Huseina Baia
Olga Vojii Komatina

Apstrakt: Rad se bavi prouavanjem poetike Baievog romana U tuem gnijezdu, pri
emu su u poetike elemente ukljuene sljedee sekvence: tematsko-motivski opseg,
psiholoka konkretizacija protagonista, anrovski sinkretizam i bogatstvo naracije. U
okviru fenomenoloke interpretacije djela obuhvaen je i kontrast izmeu rodnog,
rustikalnog hronotopa i onog koji je nametnut ivotom glavnog junaka u Turskoj
carevini. Istie se da je regionalno motivaciono jezgro ujedno i lajtmotiv Baievog
romana. Iz opsjednutosti rodnim krajem proistiu svi dramski agoni junaka koji se ne
prilagoava u tuoj sredini, a opozitivan odnos junaka prema svijetu namee i
specifinog fokalizatora, kao i preplitanje epskog, lirskog i dramskog koda. Binarno
rasijavanje junaka predstavljeno je podesnom tehnikom- homodijegetikom naracijom
unutar koje su sve dogaajnosti osvijetljene iz emocionalnog vidokruga personalnog
medija.
Kljune rijei: fokalizator, homodijegezis, personalni medij, hronotop, semiosfera,
arhetip
Tradicionalni obrasci miljenja i ivljenja njegovani uporedo sa crnogorskim

kultno epskim autoritetima, promovisali su specifian i dugo vremena neopozivi
poetiki sistem sa mjerilima nastajanja knjievnog djela, ali i sa programom
vrijednovanja koji je bio validan i za budue generacije. Neprikosnoveni model
demonstracije uputnih i preporuljivih tematsko-motivskih aspiracija, ali i naratolokih smjernica, trajao je do zavretka socijalistikog realizma i bio u angaovanoj utilitarnosti apodiktian do sri, a sa postegzistencijom novorealistike
ere, dolazi i do dezaktuelizacije navedenih modela.
Knjievno djelo Huseina Baia genetiku strukturiranost vezuje sa duboko
ukorijenjenim regionalnim motivacionim voritima, jer iz antroponimskog i
multikonfesionalnog bogatstva njegove zemlje, evidentno proizilazi i cjelokupno
lajtmotivsko izvorite Baievog rada. Meutim, ono to predstavlja svojevrsnu
antitradicionalnu diferenciranost ove knjievnosti, svakako je osebujna naratoloka dimenzija, posve neprilagoena epskoj informativnosti, to jest, potpuno
opredijeljena za trijumf lirskog subjektiviteta. Baievo djelo sublimira elimina-
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ciju kolektivnog raunanja vremena i prostornosti i intenciju visokoindividualizovanog personalnog integriteta. Naracija sa jasno postavljenom konfliktnom
zonom junaka uperenoj, u jednoj simultanoj osi, i protiv sebe i svijeta, katkada
prelama i autorske pozicije na temelju kojih recipijent doivljava i autorovu
emocionalno-refleksivnu opservaciju. Pripovjedaka situacija u kojoj se prepliu
kreativno i autorsko ja i u kojoj pripovjedaki prioritet esto preuzme umetnuti
kaziva, nije neobina vrsta literarnosti u jugoslovenskoj knjievnosti, kao to
nije nesvakidanji ni tematoloki opseg koji Bai inkorporira u svoj modus kazivanja. ak nas tota iz Baievog stila moe direktno asocirati na Andria i Selimovia. Upravo su aksioloka obiljeja koja proistiu iz sentencijske ekspresije
neto to Baia pribliava pomenutim autorima, ali bi konana distinkcija poivala u nainu izraavanja pripovjedake emocije. Za razliku od Andrieve i Selimovieve kontemplativne naracije izale iz ve proivljenog vidokruga, Baieva
naracija je kontinuirano uzavrela i sa naglaenim svojstvima jezike deikse.
Dramska prenapregnutost potie od elje autora da sve predoeno dobije
ambijentalno-temporalne odrednice ovdje i sada, jer sve to je dato sa takvim
predznacima ima kauzalitet preispitivanja i futuristiku viziju recipijentovog horizonta (ne)oekivanosti. Sve to se desilo nekada, jeste reminiscentni podstrek
za adekvatnu prezentativnu ilustraciju dogaaja. A sve to je predmet aktuelnih
deavanja privilegovanog protagoniste, ima svoju konturu i u budunosti.
Proloka i epiloka omeenost romana Tue gnijezdo ukljuuju se u lirsku
interpretaciju dogaajnosti; sve izmeu poetka i kraja romana vezuje se sa
egzistencijom tuih prekomorskih realiteta, a samo poetna i zavrna granica
fabularnog toka obrazuju prstenastu kompoziciju iz koje potie sve i u kojoj se
naposljetku, sve i zavrava. Obiljeen hronotopom rodnog kraja, matice zemlje i
kunog praga, preambulni dio romana daje sugestivnu i psiholoki koloritnu sliku nagovjetavajue disolucije jednog drutvenog sistema u kojem ive, tijesno
upuene jedna ka drugoj, otro suprotstavljene drutvene klase. U nadolazeoj
socijalnoj revoluciji koja e se odvijati nakon raspada Otomanske imperije, ljudi
e se izboriti protiv raznih oblika anarhistiki profilisanog tirjanstva duha i tijela,
kao i za evoluciju koegzistentnih meuklasnih odnosa te za liberalizam misli i
svih drugih formi ovjekovog djelovanja. Meutim, dok to ne bude realnost, pa
makar fragmentarno primijenjena jer se reformistiki zahvati tako centralizovane autokratije kao to je Turska, ne deavaju preko noi, male sredine kao to je
plavsko-gusinjski region, jo dugo e ivjeti svoj halucinantni san o mitskoj predisponiranosti Turske imperije. Fantazmagorino predubjeenje plavsko-gusinjskih begova o neiscrpnoj moi Orijenta, nee ostaviti nimalo mjesta za ikakvu altruistiku primisao, a dok se ne dogodi oigledna poast Carevine, muslimanska aristokratija slovenskog porijekla ivjee upravljana vievjekovnim
somnabulizmom koje im potkrepljuje sopstveni kult umiljene odabranosti. Tako e ekskluzivna vrsta biti u stanju i poziciji da dugo vri nepoinstva i da ne
dozvoli malom ovjeku bilo kakvo samoospoljavanje, izuzev onog potkulturalnog, namijenjenog nioj rasi. Antropocentrizam malog ovjeka bie viedece-
nijski prolongiran, pa time i utopistiki koncipiran, a u dehumanizovanom meuvremenu predoenom u prolegomenskom dijelu romana, fakticitet e postati da mali ovjek, unien i ucijenjen, mora napustiti roditeljski dom i dati
tvrdu besu da e biti cjeloivotni bedel Zaimov, to jest, da e moda i poginuti
umjesto neijeg bogatunskog sina. Sve zbog sopstvene nemoi i tue frustracije
i preimustva plaanja.
Sam Ibrahim ioc, protagonista romana Tue gnijezdo imae godinama osjeaj identifikacione udvojenosti u intimno projektovanim dijatribama pitae se
ko je zapravo on sin oca koji je zbog prejake rijei zaklan po nalogu starog bega
Badera ili pak zamjenik u boju sina mlaeg bega Badera. Pitao se gdje zavrava
jedan, a poinje drugi i po ijoj to recepturi on ivi, ako se ivotom naziva nasilno
vojevanje u tuem gnijezdu. I da li je onoga dana kada je mlai beg Bader za
njega platio petnaest dukata, sutinski nestao autohtoni Ibrahim ioc,
sedamnaestogodinji djeak ovjek koji je mjerio svijet rustikalno-naivistikom
spoznajom gusinjskoga pejzaa, jer drugi do tada, teko da je mogao sagledati.
Treba da ode u Tursku, Ibrahime, ako misli da iko tvoj pretekne ovdje.
[...] Da slui, Ibrahime, pare da zaradi, puno para, bar toliko koliko ih
ima onaj ko je krenuo da te raskui. Ko ima pare, ima sve, Ibrahime. A ti si
sirotinja jedna. Najamnik, hamal si ti, Ibrahime. Moe te svako skinuti,
kao slinku s nosa. Evo, ovako, Ibrahime oapio je nos s dva prsta, tresnuo ih u budak iza sebe. (Bai 36.)
Interpoliranje prie za priom i to pod jurisdikcijom naratora koji sagledava
predmetnosti iz subjektivne perspektive, uslovljeno je upravo karakterolokom
dvojbenou primarnog lika priaoca. Mozaiki konsolidujui sebe preanjeg
i sebe sadanjeg, junak-kaziva bezuslovno utie i na organizaciju vremenskoprostornih jedinica. Prepliui prie iz djetinjstva sa priama iz vojevanja, skazini
pripovjeda tvori i osu preklapanja te dvije udaljene instance i na njoj sublimira
konanost binarnih rasijavanja djeaka-ratnika bedela Turina Bonjaka.
as sam bedel Ibrahim, as Zaim, sin mlaeg bega Bolidera. [...]
Tu je, u meni ili na meni, taj Zaim, osjeam ga svakim djeliem due i
tijela. Nije vie plaljiv i goljav kakvog sam ga znao i ostavio. Velik je i jak,
hoe da me smodi ogromnim trupom kojim me poklopio. Podie me i
razvre mrtve one kapke, tvrdim i otrim prstima, noktima, utiskuje po
tijelu vrele metalne ploe, okiva moju nepokretnost, moju nemo da se
usnrem i odbranim. (76)
Homodijegetika naracija, dominantna u ovom romanu, podrazumijeva katkad i element vanvremenskog zijeva, jer italac ostaje uskraen za odreene
informacije koje se tek u epilokom dijelu otkrivaju, kao to je sluaj sa razlozima Ibrahimove krivice i bjekstva. Iako hijatski organizovane, odreene sekvence
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romana utiu na anticipiaciju dogaaja, jer retorinost neizreenog ima esto

oekivanu konsekutivnost. S obzirom na to, ovaj roman obiluje i spoljanjim
analepsama u kojima trajanje drugostepene radnje prethodi trajanju osnovne
prie, tako da i ahronija spoljanje analepse prevashodi uvodu prve, primarne
prie, a sama amplituda se ne moe simultano pratiti sa tokom prekinute prie.
Sekundarne pripovijesti ili digresivni lirski diskursi lika koji pripovijeda jesu
logiki opravdane hibridne konstrukcije nastajale u cilju upotpunjavanja dogaaja iz kojeg treba da se nasluti uzrono-posljedina veza. Interesantno je da je
u ovom romanu teko odrediti ta predstavlja osnovnu, a ta nadograenu priu, jer se vezivno tkivo otkriva skoro na samom koncu romana, tako da svaka
naredna pria moe biti upotrijebljena kao dopunsko objanjenje onoj prethodnoj, ak iako su vremenski vrlo udaljene. Paradoksalno je i to to se u hotimino dezorganizovanom pripovijedanju dogaaja, prve dvije prie romana ne
moraju nuno uzeti kao proloki ambijenti, jer su po svojoj dramatskoj strukturi
poentirane kao kulminativno jezgro romana, a tek trea pria koja i sama pripada poetku romana, jeste otvaranje jedne nove fenomenoloko-antropoloke
dimenzije. Siejnost predstavljena tako da ono to izaziva najveu pozornost i
najburniju akumulaciju dramskog krvotoka bude stavljeno na samom uvodu u
radnju, rui horacijevsku metodologiju po kojoj uvod ne smije biti snaan, ali
nas uvodi u posmodernistiku literarnost koja uz formu pripovijedanja u prvom
licu i uz indirektno preplitanje autorskog i junakovog stava, obrazuje autoreferencijalnost fikcije. Prve dvije prie u kojima je Ibrahim ioc suoen sa svojim
muiteljem kreaturom deformisane psihofizike konstitucije, ak se i ne vezuju sa hronotopom rodnog kraja, ve su ambigvitetna interpretacija prostornosti
Otomanskog carstva. Meutim, to ne djeluje opstruirajue po nau tvrdnju da
proloki dio jeste prohod u matine hronotopske sfere; naprotiv, uvod je agens
za razumijevanje datosti predoene u treoj prii, prii koja otvara plavskogusinjski lokalitet i objanjava poticanje svega prethodno kazanog. Uvodne
prie bi ovdje predstavljale eksplicitne elipse sa ulogom ubrzanog pripovijedanja o neemu to je sutinski predmet interesovanja, ali i ulogom preutkivanja,
tj. izvanvremenskog izostajanja svoga to bi se ticalo prethodnog vremena i uzronosti. Tek trea pria jeste homodijegetika unutranja analepsa sa rasprostranjenou retrospektivne, ali i interspektivne difuzije.
Homidijegezis doputa subjektivno pripovjedako instanciranje, tanije,
sagledavanje dogaaja iz opaajnog polja jednog emocionalnog vidokruga.
enet nikada nije prihvatio uvoenje fokalizatora, ve insistira na tome
da je fokalizacija svojevrsno suenje polja ili postavljanje odreenog
fokusa informativnog grla koje proputa samo one delove informacija
koje situacija doputa. Kada je re o unutranjoj fokalizaciji dati fokus se
zaista poklapa sa pojedinim junakom kao subjektom fokalizacije.
(Popovi 224, 225)
U skladu sa homodijegetikim pripovijedanjem kompatibilna je i frazeoloka

taka gledita protagoniste-naratora kroz iji se sugestivan govorni modus naturalistiki reprodukuje esencijalno etnogenetsko svojstvo plavsko-gusinjskog
hronotopa koji prii daje formu kruga u njemu i zbog njega sve potie i u njemu se sve zavrava. Stoga je i opravdano da idiolekt pripovjedaa oblikuje bojom matinog kraja, nusljed ega recipijent ima mogunost sticanja i psiholingvistike atmosfere. Slika jezika je osobito konzistentna sa unutranjom
vizualizacijom onda kada u narativnom sinhrono-retrospektivnom pozicioniranju situacija dolazi do smjenjivanja ovog sada i onog ranije, jer je tada sveprisutna procesuacija emocionalnih mijena. Rekonstrukcija proteklih dogaaja se
ne odvija uvijek nuno sukcesivno, ve kada pripovjeda smatra da je neophodno da neto mora biti filtrirano kroz priu, a takoe i nema stalnih repetitivnih
retrospekcija, jer arbitrirajui kaziva ima preimustvo samosopstvenog tijesnog kontakta sa prolou, a bilo ije drugo samoispitivanje nije pretpostavljeno kao mogunost. Samim tim, dijaloki-intrasubjektivni monolog je najzastupljeniji u romanu; Ibrahim ioc je sam sebi paradigmatski model kako je neto
trebalo drugaije odivjeti, a nije se moglo zbog tragike okolnosti.
Je li eljeni ivot doao u najnezgodniji as, zatekao me nepripravna i
slaba, da bi mu se predao kako sam mislio? Sanjao sam o njemu godinama
sad zebem od pomisli da bi se mogao ostvariti. ekaj! Stani! Ustavlja me
drugi glas u meni. Da ekam? ekanje je posljednji posao. Nita se ne moe
svriti bez volje onoga koga ekamo.
ekao bih, ali mi ne da ona crna jazija da sklopi oi, makar u snu da
zaboravim ono to sam na javi inio. (Bai 74)
U monolokom istupanju ovog junaka frekventno je tautoloko nizanje
glagola koji ne podstiu ubrzanje dogaaja, ve naprotiv, njihovu stagnaciju. Ali
tako destiniran verbalni niz, iako u funkciji antiklimaksne gradacije, i te kako
psiholoki nijansira raznolije jednog ovako mnogostrukog karaktera.
Posredstvom mikrostruktura u liku demonstriraju se i makrostrukture u
drutvu, zato to su dominantni likovi dati kao dejstvujue binarne opozicije i tek
kad se sagleda razlikovno znamenje drugoga, dolazi se do spoznaje da likovi,
posve oneobieni Baievi fiktivni konstrukti, jesu i oznaitelji socijalnih funkcija.
Durmi nalije ovjeka i osobena kreatura jedne iaene stvarnosti, sutinski je
lik koji postaje nosilac degenerativnog utemeljenja i ujedno lik dat po uzusu Aristotelove poetike po kojoj ono to sainjava verbalnu oblikovnost svijeta, uslovljeno je principom vjerovatnosti i nunosti. Tako, jedan Durmi opalescentni uzorak satkan od kolektivne i mitski strukturirane predstave o neunitivom carstvu,
jeste enigmatska vizura kolanog odbljeska on je pajac, vizija budueg propadanja carstva, deformisana mustra neiste krvi i, zbog toga, opadajui genetski materijal, ali je i gospodar, Turin, vlastodrac i nenadmani konkurent u verbalnoapstraktnim operacijama. Postavljen je da u svemu bude takmac Ibrahimu iocu,
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njegova sjenka, pogubitelj i smrtonosni ejtan u iocevim onirikim magnovenjima u kojima, bjeei od sebe, postaje neko drugi. Stalna neoekivanost u junakovom ponaanju, postie se prvo time to se karakter ne izgradjuje kao jedna
unaprijed poznata mogunost djelovanja,nego kao paradigma-skup mogunosti
(Lotman 96). Dakle, mikrokosmos Ibrahima ioca se daje na nivou svih binarnih
struktura, to znai da iocevu semiosferu osvjetljavamo tek u zoni uporedivosti
sa drugim likovima; jedan Durmi fikcija, oivljava stvarnije od realne egzistencije i omoguava iocu da bude varijativan na nivou teksta, ali mu istovremeno, gotovo trajno onemoguava revitalizaciju idejnog profila, makar na teritoriji
Turske imperije. Meutim, takva situiranost e se odvijati u oba smjera i na planu
teritorijalne udaljenosti bie plodvorna intenzivna telepatska veza progonjenog i
progonitelja, a sutina tako zgusnute relacije, oitae se na polju kontrapunktirajuih previranja protagoniste i njegovog antipoda.
Arhetipski obrasci simboliki dati u ovom romanu, ne odstupaju osobito od
uobiajene tematsko-motivske sfere i u taj, po nekim mjerilima, i mitski dijapazon, spada pria o sukobu dva brata, o sukobu eksploatora i eksploatisanog, o
grenom zaeu, eni nedostinoj a sveprisutnoj, o vidovitom Zulfikaru itd. Ono
to odvaja ove prie od optespoznatih i ini ih antiredundaniskim jeste specifina
lirska tehnologija kojom su obuhvaene sve, a jedna od njih je ak pripovijedana
drugaijom vrstom naracije pria o Nuku i Noju je simbolizovani i nadasve afirmativni dijalog sa prototekstom u kojem su akteri mitske linosti, a pria o njima
je data u kombinaciji ekstradijegezisa i interdijegezisa. Pria ima i kosmopolitsku
koncepciju obojenu tragikim humanizmom, ak i fatalizmom, jer pripovijeda o
ugrusuznom spajanju dva ovjeka Grka i Turina, o njihovom zajednikom
animozitetu prema nepravdi i o nemogunosti razdvajanja do kraja vijeka.
Lirska pripovjedaka metodologija osobito je razvijena u segmentima o eni. Jedino identifikaciono obiljeje eljene ene je ime Mejrema, a sve druge naznake ostale su u preutnim naratorovim insinuacijama te se i pretpostavlja da
je ovakva literarnost nastala zbog tendencije da pria o Mejremi vie nalikuje
poetskom kodu. Cjelokupni ivistijan Ibrahima ioca oscilira oko take na kojoj
je Mejrema, ali e linija ljubavnog spajanja doivjeti konanost, jer se ena-san
pojavila na vrhuncu iocevog progonstva u kojem je iskljuivost znaila neprikosnoveno pitanje opstanka.
Cijelog sam ivota sanjao i eznuo da je makar u prolazu nazrem, jednim
treptajem oiju da je zatvorim za dane i godine koje su ispred mene, sad
se snebivam i muim kako da se to prije otresem dosadnog Maza vjetice i njegove prozirne igre pribliavanja, da pobjeem ispred Mejreminih
oiju koje kao da pojaavaju onaj plamen i ne daju mi da odem. Kao da
od dana kad sam je prvi put vidio do danas nije proao ni jedan trenutak
u kom nijesmo bili zajedno. Sad treba da se izgubimo, zauvijek. (Bai 70)
Islamski mentalitet koji sjedinjuje istrajnu toleranciju, etiki kodeks

dugotrajnog ekanja i izmiriteljstva, a katkad i gordost izazvanu neplemenitim
istupanjem pojedinca ili kolektiva, u ovom romanu je saobraen sa usmenim kodom crnogorske sredine netolerantne prema kategorijama izdajstva i neovjetva. Ponikao na tako otrim plimnim bujanjima ljudskosti i na bipolarnim rasplinuima na individualnom i drutvenom planu, ovaj roman je morao biti kontekstualizovan kao dijalog sa prolou, ali i kao antikonvencionalni oblik jedne
drugaije literarnosti. Odabir inovativne metode upuuje na svojstvo transtekstualnosti koju ovakva literatura dobija kao prilog univerzalnom knjievnoteorijskom tumaenju.
Literatura
Bai, Husein. Tue gnijezdo. Podgorica: Almanah, 2000.
Bahtin, Mihail. O romanu. Beograd: Nolit,1992.
Lotman, J. M. Semiosfera. Novi Sad: Svetovi, 2004.
Lotman, J. M. Struktura umetnikog teksta. Beograd: Nolit, 1976.
enet, erar. Figure. Beograd: Nolit, 1985.
HUSEIN BAIS NOVEL IN ANOTHERS NEST

The paper deals with the poetics of Bais novel In Another's Nest. The
novels poetic elements include the following segments: thematic-range motives,
psychological concretization of the protagonists, and genre syncretism. A
phenomenological interpretation of the work includes a contrast between the
native, rustic chronotope, on one, and the chronotope imposed by the main
character who had lived in the Turkish Empire. The regional motive nucleus is, at
the same time, the main motive in Bais novel. All dramatic agons of the main
character, who isnt adapted to an unfamiliar milieu, come from an obsession
with his homeland. The main characters relationship with the world imposes a
specific focalizer and also interweaves epic, lyrical and dramatic codes. A binary
spread of the main character is presented with an appropriate technique
homodiegetic narration in which all events are explained from the emotional
perspective of the personal medium.
Key words: focalizer, homodiegesis, personal medium, chronotope, semiosphere, archetype
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Svijet teatra
The World of Theatre
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UDK 821.111.09-2
Tennessee Williamss Plastic Theatre
Esmeralda Subashi
Tirana University
Abstract: This article addresses the main features of Tennessee Williams

expressionistic drama The Glass Menagerie as an example of plastic theatre, a concept
introduced by the author himself in his preface to his most experimental play. The most
obvious elements of plastic theatre employed by Williams in The Glass Menagerie were:
the use of a screen on which themes, titles and pictures were shown at critical moments;
the use of a recurring musical motive as leitmotiv; the use of cinematic techniques; the
use of lighting that appears unreal to allow for the memory-based format of the play; and
the use of an unrealistic set and set pieces in a symbolic way. These techniques focus not
on realism but on the truth of the human emotions.
Key words: plastic theater, use of a screen, cinematic techniques, memory play,
expressionistic drama, figure of the narrator, extra-literary effects, Hollywood, male
gaze, bold symbolism, popular dramatist.
Introduction
At the beginning of the 21st century, the idea of plastic theater is no longer
new. What Tennessee Williams created in the 1940s has become common
especially since the avant-garde era of the 1960s. Even traditional theater is often
treated in a plastic manner by stage directors and designers for artistic purposes
or budgetary reasons. When Williams described his new concept in the preface
to The Glass Menagerie, his most innovative drama, which opened to critical
acclaim at the Playhouse Theatre in New York on March 31, 1945, marking thus a
new period in the history of American drama and in that of world theater, he was
providing guidelines to the manner in which his plays were to be interpreted and
produced so they would be understood. This style became a signature of
Williams.
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A new kind of theatre

Williams (1946) outlined his concept of this new kind of theater, a form
capable of giving effective expression to the changing shape of human
experience, which he described as plastic in the Production Notes to The
Glass Menagerie:
Everyone should know nowadays the unimportance of the photographic in
art: that truth, life, or reality is an organic thing which the poetic
imagination can represent or suggest, in essence, only through
transformation, through changing into other forms than those which were
merely present in appearance. These remarks are not meant as a preface
only to this particular play. They have to do with the conception of a new,
plastic theater which must take the place of the exhausted theater of
realistic conventions if the theater is to resume vitality as part of our
culture. (7)
One of the most obvious concepts of plastic theater employed in The Glass
Menagerie is Williamss use of a screen in which themes, titles, and pictures
were supposed to be shown at critical moments. This idea was abandoned by
the director, but remains in the script. This appears to be an early attempt at
the bold symbolism which is used in a more refined manner in his next two
plays, A Streetcar Named Desire and Summer and Smoke. Also, Williams (1946)
calls for the use of a recurring musical motif to be employed in the manner of a
leitmotiv. He described it as weaving in or out of your preoccupied
consciousness [] and returns as reference to the emotion (7). This is a
cinematic and operatic gesture of Williams. He suggests the use of lighting that
appears unreal to allow for the memory-based format of the play. Combined
with this element he uses an unrealistic set and symbolic set pieces so that the
focus is not on realism but on the truth of the human emotions.
Williamss use of language and dramatic style are more like that of a short
story than of a play. He combines a southern, musical and poetic language with
the contemporary language of the mid-twentieth century to create a lyrical
style of dialogue that is uniquely Tennessee Williamss. In his plays the
dramatist abandons traditional dramatic action in order to give the audience a
gripping internal look into his characters complex emotional lives.
Earlier ideas and evolution of Plastic Theater

Actually, the idea of form that Tennessee Williams described was not entirely
new. Eugene ONeill (1961), writing in the twenties, had described a form he
called supernaturalism and described Strindberg as an early interpreter of it

(108).
The idea of a plastic theatre as defined by Williams corresponded to
notions of form shaped by European artists in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. But Williams differed from European playwrights in an
important way; that is, in his common focus on the creation of a dramatic form
expressive of social, political, intellectual, and cultural patterns evolving in
American life. To that end, the American dramatist engaged in comprehensive
patterns of experimentation, designed not only to treat new themes, but also to
explore new and different techniques of theatrical exposition, techniques shaped
not only in the theater itself, but also in the related arts of poetry, fiction, music,
dance, painting, sculpture, architecture, and the developing art of film.
The idea of a plastic form as interpreted in The Glass Menagerie could also
be described as having evolved through the pattern of nineteenth and twentiethcentury American arts and letters: in the visual, tactile, and architectural forms of
American painters, sculptors, and architects, as well as in the verbal imagery of
essayists such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau; writers of
fiction such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Edgar Allan Poe; and
poets such as Walt Whitman who embodied it in his poetic volume Leaves of
Grass. In his New World epic, Whitman sought to image America, that is, to
bring the totality of its meaning- past, present and future within the contour of
a single plastic form.
In her article Tennessee Williams: The Idea of a Plastic Form, Esther M.
Jackson (1977) suggests that it can be argued that Walt Whitman anticipated
Tennessee Williamss view of American life itself as the primary mode of art
(192). In the preface to the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass, Whitman (1892)
wrote: The United States themselves are essentially the greatest poem (434). In
this revolutionary work, the poet interpreted America itself as a creation closely
imitative of nature, that is, as a dynamic form in which the search for individual
identity is the dominating motif in what is, in effect, a massive work of art.
Although he was a poet, Whitman saw drama as the medium most capable
of giving expressive form to the unique character of American Experience; that is,
of translating the linear patterns of a conventional historical record into plastic
forms (Whitman 460). He called for a dramatic poetry that could have the
same expressive relationship to American life as Shakespeare had to English life.
He wrote that such a dramatic poetry should not be a mere expression of surface
melodies. Rather, it should aim at the free expression of emotion [] it should
arouse and initiate, rather than define or finish (481). Significantly, Whitman did
not conceive dramatic poetry as a mode of language invented by individual
artists. Rather, he saw such poetry as a concretion of patterns originating in the
public consciousness; that is, as a mode of expression not limited in meaning to
the historical epoch in which the work is created, but one that gives assurance of
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its roots in the past and its promise for the future. It can be argued that
Whitmans career as a poet was devoted to the preliminary codification of just
such a poetic language as Tennessee Williams sought to develop.
Williams sought in The Glass Menagerie to project images organized within
this pattern against a background that could be described as philosophical in
intent. For purposes of this theatrical inquiry, the playwright undertook to modify
the structure of the family drama, extending it with elements of form adapted
from the American arts of poetry, fiction, dance, and music as well as from the
visual arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Significantly, he used as a
unifying device the faculty of memory, a faculty he represented in this and other
works through the aesthetic of film.
Cinematic techniques in The Glass Menagerie

Williamss interest in filmic devices was not merely technical. Throughout
much of his career, the playwright used the motion picture camera as a symbol
of poetic vision. In his plastic theater, poetic images were composed by
montage. But film had other uses for the playwright- both rhetorical and
practical. It offered both a logic for the fusion of elements drawn from a wide
range of sources and a rationale for manipulations of time, place, and
circumstance. In The Glass Menagerie, film served as a symbol of both the
creative consciousness and the processes by which film transforms ordinary
events taking place in life into forms of art.
The cinematic influence in The Glass Menagerie is most clearly evident in
the figure of the narrator. With the aid of this device, Williams duplicates the
motion- picture cameras organizing point of view, adapts the shot-to-shot
formation for the theater (fostering identification with a fictional character and
replicating the cinematic process of suture), and adopts the patriarchal look
that characterizes many of Hollywoods classic films: a man gazing at a woman.
Although the cinema and theater differ in many fundamental respects, the
importance of the narrators cinematic function in The Glass Menagerie becomes
readily apparent if we consider some of the connections between the two media,
as Barbara Freedman (1991) suggests: Theater theorists might profitably
examine how various aspects of the cinematic machinery for example the
voiceover, and the shot-to-shot formation are fulfilled differently in theater
(68-69). If we add the motion-picture camera to Freedmans list of machinery,
and consider its theatrical equivalent in The Glass Menagerie, we see that
Williamss narrator functions in ways analogous to those of the camera in film.
Most obviously, the narrator and the camera both operate to provide the
spectator with an orienting point of view, one with which the spectator is then
compelled to identify. The narrator also serves as a stand-in for the spectator in
the theater, assuming a subject position within the dramatic narrative, a function
accomplished in film by means of the camera and the shot-to-shot formation.
Thus, as George W. Crandell (1998) points out, In his dual role as both narrator
and character in the play, Tom Wingfield- similar to the camera- performs not
only as the cinematic eye, but also as the cinematic I who sees ( and speaks)
within the fictive narrative of The Glass Menagerie (3).
By making the narrator an integral presence in the play, Williams not only
facilitates identification with a particular point of view, thus duplicating one of
the important functions of the camera in the film, he also anticipates and
addresses one of the difficulties inherent in theatrical production: the
organization and control of both identification and point of view. Unable to
reproduce exactly the effect of the camera, Williams nevertheless envisions a
cinematic solution to a theatrical problem substituting in the place of the camera
a narrator who organizes and orchestrates what happens on stage. Although
each of the characters in The Glass Menagerie appears to be an autonomous self,
each representing a differing point of view, each is actually but a memory, a
product of the narrators vivid imagination. Thomas L. King (1973) observes that
in effect Tom is the only character in the play, for we see not the characters
but Toms memory of them- Amanda and the rest are merely aspects of Toms
consciousness (208). To the extent that Williamss audience accepts Toms point
of view as its own, Williams duplicates the function of the camera and the
process of identification in cinema as described by Jean-Louise Baudry (1986):
the spectator identifies less with what is represented, the spectacle itself, than
with what stages the spectacle, makes it seen, obliging him to see what it sees;
this is exactly the function taken over by the camera (395). By subsuming all
points of view under one, and by facilitating identification with single gaze,
Williams approximates the cameras singular and authoritative point of view, at
the same time limiting the possibilities of identification and point of view
generally characteristic of the theater.
As a further means of strengthening the sense of identification between
the narrator and audience, Williams adapts another cinematic technique, the
shot-to-shot or shot/reverse shot formation, to establish a clearly defined
subject position for the viewer within the fictive narrative. Kaja Silverman
(1983) provides a concise explanation of this cinematic technique:
The shot/reverse shot formation is a cinematic set in which the second
shot shows the field from which the first shot is assumed to have been
taken [] The viewing subject, unable to sustain for long its belief in the
autonomy of the cinematic image, demands to know whose gaze
controls what it sees. The shot/reverse shot formation is calculated to
answer that question in such a manner that the cinematic illusion
remains intact: Shot 1 shows a space which may or may not contain a
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human figure (e.g. the wall of a building, a view of the ocean, a room full
of people) [] Shot 2 locates a spectator in the other 180 of the same
circular field, thereby implying that the preceding shot was seen through
the eyes of a figure in the cinematic narrative. (201-202)
Without the device of the narrator, Williams would not be able to
approximate the shot/reverse shot formation in the theater; however, the
narrators presence makes possible the cinematic effect of alternating shots. To
illustrate, viewers of the play are initially confronted with the scene of the
Wingfield apartment, corresponding to what Silverman calls Shot 1. While the
theater audience may, for a while, take pleasure in witnessing this scene, it, too,
like most cinematic audiences, begins to wonder, whose gaze controls what it
sees. The answer, corresponding to Silvermans Shot 2 is revealed when the
narrator appears on stage and announces: The play is a memory. Being a
memory play, it is dimly lighted, it is sentimental, it is not realistic (Williams
145). At this point, viewers realize that what they see on stage is the narrators
vision. It is the narrator, acting as stage manager, who is responsible for and
controls everything that happens on stage. During the course of the play, the
audience observes a stylized view of what Tom Wingfield himself recalls, subject,
of course, to all the imperfections of his memory and the exaggerations of his
imagination, as when Tom remembers scenes he could not possibly have
witnessed (at the beginning of scene six, for example, Tom describes what goes
on between Laura and Amanda even before he and the gentleman caller, Jim
OConnor, arrive for dinner).
When viewers identify with the narrator and consent to observe the events
on stage as if through the eyes of Tom Wingfield, they necessarily adopt the
narrators point of view, a way of seeing that corresponds in two ways to the look
presented in many Hollywood films. First of all, as Silverman observes, the
classic cinema abounds in shot/reverse shot formations in which men look at
women (225). Obviously, in The Glass Menagerie, Tom Wingfield focuses his
gaze upon the two women in his life, his sister, Laura, and his mother, Amanda.
Tom not only directs his gaze upon women, he accentuates their lack- most
importantly, their lack of a husband. Of course, Tom directs most of his attention
to the exquisitely fragile Laura, whose inadequacies shes crippled, shes
not popular, she needs a man to provide for her- are all the more apparent
because of the Toms focusing gaze. Until the final scene, The Glass Menagerie is
structured to complete Lauras lack by securing for her a gentleman caller, a man
who will then (Tom and Amanda hope) marry her and provide for her every need.
As much then as the structure of The Glass Menagerie resembles the
organizational pattern typical of the classic cinema, it also reflects the
established ways of seeing characteristic of a patriarchal society in which the
roles are assigned, as Laura Mulvey explains, according to an active/ passive
heterosexual division of labor (12). Mulveys characterization of the mans role

as the active one of forwarding the story, of making things happen has an
obvious parallel in The Glass Menagerie. Tom Wingfield, functioning as both
narrator/stage manager, literally makes things happen. In addition to prompting
what we see on stage, the narrator also controls how we see by manipulating the
extra-literary effects of the play, the music and the lighting, for example. When
Tom wants to direct the viewers gaze to the figure of his mother, he simply
motions for music and a spot of light on Amanda (Williams 149).
In contrast with the mans active role in film, the womans role is typically
that of the passive recipient of the male gaze. As Silverman explains, reiterating
and clarifying Mulveys argument:
The male subject is defined in terms of his capacity to look (i.e. as a
voyeur) and the female subject in terms of her capacity to attract the
male gaze (i.e. as an exhibitionist). This opposition is entirely in keeping
with the dominant cultural roles assigned to men and women, since
voyeurism is the active or masculine form of the scopophilic drive,
whereas exhibitionism is the passive or feminine form of the same
drive. (222-223)
As the objects of Tom Wingfields gaze, the women in The Glass Menagerie
offer surprisingly different responses to it, ones that conflict with the
conventional view of Amanda as active and Laura as passive. On the one hand,
Amanda passively accepts without question the culturally defined role of the
exhibitionist. She even expresses delight at the prospect of being, once again,
the object of a mans attention. In scene six, she joyfully announces: Im going
to make a spectacular appearance. Observing a distinction similar to
Silvermans division of men and women according to the capacity to look or to
attract the male gaze, John Berger (1972) points out how relations between
men and women may also be defined in terms of vision. More specifically he
notes: Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at (47).
In the scene from The Glass Menagerie just described, Amanda hopes that
Laura, by looking at herself, will take note of how she appears to men, the
better to be able to secure a husband and provide for her future security. As
Amanda implicitly suggests, her success in life depends upon her appearance,
giving credence to Bergers conclusion: the woman has to survey everything
she is and everything she does because how she appears to others, and
ultimately how she appears to men, is of crucial importance for what is
normally thought as the success of her life (46).
On the other hand, Laura actively resists both the role that society
prescribes for women as well as Amandas insistence that she conforms to it.
More often than not, Lauras resistance takes the form of a refusal. She refuses
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to believe that any gentleman caller will call for her. She refuses to attend
Rubicams Business College, spending her time instead at the art museum or at
the zoo. She refuses to open the door for her brother and the gentleman caller
when they arrive. When forced to do so, she quickly absents herself. As much
as Amanda seeks to be the focus of attention, Laura actively avoids it. As much
as possible, she refuses to be seen.
Unable to avoid altogether the presence of the gentleman caller, Laura
actively resists him by trying to elude his gaze. For one brief moment, she
succeeds. When Jim first enters the dining room and places the lighted
candelabrum on the floor, Laura intentionally takes a seat opposite the burning
candles, making it difficult for Jim to see her. I can hardly see you sitting way
over there, he says. For once the roles of observed and observer are reversed.
Assuming the unfamiliar and typically male role of viewer, Laura speaks with
hesitation: I can- see you. Jims response, thats not fair, Im in the
limelight, betrays no indication that Jim understands the point that for the
woman to be in the limelight is also unfair. Of course, the reversal of roles is
not sustained for long. Recognizing that Jim is uncomfortable as the object of
her gaze, Laura moves within the circle of light. As a result, Jim expresses both
relief and satisfaction with what constitutes for him the comfortable norm:
Good! Now I can see you! As much as Jim wants to see, Laura prefers to
remain invisible, but given that impossibility, she becomes like a transparent
piece of glass, both resisting and succumbing to Jims penetrating gaze.
Despite Lauras courageous efforts to resist the male gaze, ultimately,
Williams depicts her as lacking the power to subvert it. Her silence in the final
tableau and her obedience to Toms command, Blow out your candles, Laura,
are but the final indicators of the narrators greater strength, and the
playwrights superior control over characters, narrator, and audience. The three
organizational structures that Williams appropriates from the cinema the
cameras point of view, the shot/reverse shot formation, and, finally, the
patriarchal gaze all function to control the audience and its way of seeing the
characters and events depicted on stage. At the same time, these devices
operate to conceal the plays cinematic structure and the extent to which
Toms vision and recollection of events are spoken by the language and the
ideology of a patriarchal society.
The Experimentation with The Glass Menagerie the Use of the Screen
In The Glass Menagerie, his most experimental work, Williams undertook to
synthesize elements of form drawn from stage and screen, as well as from the
conventions of literature, within a complex theatrical imagery (Yacovar 26-30).
Significantly, in this drama he assigned the primary function of establishing reality
to the language of the stage. He proposed to use the screen as the metaphor for
the consciousness, a consciousness lyrical and philosophical- personal and publicin nature. But for Williams the artist, the screen served another critical function.
It symbolized the process by which life is transformed into art. In The Glass
Menagerie, it was the point of effective contact, linking the spectator to the
protagonist- and both to the playwright in the creation of the play.
The Glass Menagerie, as performed, is composed of seven component
figures, images that surface in the memory of Tom, the poet figure. While the
events themselves appear realistic, the framework in which they are set the
memory is subjective. Thus the essentially philosophical motive of the exercise
alters events of the play, transforming their identity in the course of the drama.
Williams originally planned that the visible symbol of this transformation
would be a screen. He described this screen in the following terms:
The purpose of this will probably be apparent. It is to give accent to
certain values in each scene. Each scene contains a particular point (or
several) which is structurally the most important. In an episodic play,
such as this, the basic structure or narrative line may be obscured from
the audience; the effect may seem fragmentary rather than
architectural. The legend or image upon the screen will strengthen the
effect of what is merely allusion in the writing and allow the primary
point to be made more simply and lightly than if the entire responsibility
were on the spoken lines. Aside from this structural value, I think the
screen will have a definite emotional appeal, less definable but just as
important. (14)
In the published version of the play the screen was eliminated, because it
appeared in production to be superfluous. The source of the problem lay in the
difficulty of integrating elements of these two theatrical formats stage and
film In a single expressive language. The critical problem in this, as in later
instances in Williamss career, appears to be related to style. The device Williams
planned to use was a component of a different filmic vocabulary that was
developed by the German director and teacher Irwin Piscator, an artistic
collaborator of Bertolt Brecht and in the 1940s, director of a workshop at the
New School for Social Research in New York- a workshop in which Williams was
for a time a student.
The setting of The Glass Menagerie established a precedent that
characterized Williamss plastic form. The setting itself was conceived as an
element of his poetic language; that is, as a poetic configuration characterized by
the capacity to alter its location in time, space and sensibility, without loss of
dramatic continuity. Against this poetic setting, Williams sought to project a
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pattern of images reconstituting the memory of the poet-figure (Tom) in the

vision that is the play.
Later Developments in Williamss Plastic Theater

If The Glass Menagerie established the form of Williamss plastic theater,
the plays produced from 1945 to 1955 saw the playwright seeking to both
refine this form and enrich it with historical, cultural, and mythic materials. Two
plays of this period A Streetcar Named Desire and Summer and Smoke
represent the height of Tennessee Williamss success in shaping a theatrical
language characterized by realism, poetic beauty, and dramatic power.
A Streetcar Named Desire seems to represent the maturation of Williamss
style because he employs his plastic elements in a more refined manner. The
set is used in a suggestive and evocative manner rather than in an overtly
symbolic fashion. Although he uses set pieces and music symbolically, the play
as a whole is less symbolic and more harshly realistic in nature. The characters
are less poetic but are more believable dramatically.
Williamss most effective use of the plastic elements occurs in his dual use
of music and the symbolic use of props and set pieces. The most important
symbol in the play is Blanches paper lantern which represents her need to
cover up the truth, or light, from herself with a colorful faade. This is
elemental in her nature. It symbolizes her use of antiquated flowery speech,
her need to cover bright lights which would show her true age, and the prim
and proper faade she uses to hide her true nature, especially from Mitch.
When the paper lantern is snatched from the light by Mitch, and when it is
given to Blanche by Stanley as she leaves for the asylum, it represents the fact
that Blanche can not accept the exposure of the raw truth. It then becomes a
symbol of her flight to insanity. The shattered mirror also symbolizes the
shattering of Blanches faade and consequently the shattering of her mental
state. There are numerous other symbols such as Blanches frequent baths
which are not only cooling, but symbolize her desire for cleansing. Blanche
dresses in light, white, virginal clothes while Stanley dresses in bold, primary
colors. The streetcars, which are not seen but referred to in dialogue, are
named Desire and Cemetery. Williams is using symbolism in a bold manner
similar to his use in Summer and Smoke. It is desire that takes Blanche to her
demise and ultimately destroys her mental illusion.
If A Streetcar Named Desire represents a development over The Glass
Menagerie in terms of the texture of its imagery, Summer and Smoke can be seen
as the playwrights refinement of the theatrical language of the plastic theater. In
this work, Williams achieved an exceptional level of aesthetic integration in his
imagery. Summer and Smoke reflected Williamss ability not only to integrate
verbal and visual components within his plastic form, but also to employ an
integrated language to achieve specific theatrical effects of an exceedingly lyrical
quality.
The Influence of Film

In his idea of plastic theater, Tennessee Williams gave both theoretical and
practical expression to an idea of form that had evolved through the pattern of
the American arts of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: an idea that
reflected correspondences to notions of form given realization in the pattern of
European arts, but that also reflected differences related to the unique
character of American experience. William sought in his plastic form to give
expression to social, psychological, aesthetic, and moral dimensions of
American life. But there was another important sense in which the idea of form
Williams sought to develop could be described as plastic. That involved the
close affinity of his drama to a related art-film. In his article Tennessee
Williams at the Delta Brilliant, Albert Kalson (1977) commented on the
influence of the film on the playwrights vision of reality, as well as on his idea
of form (774- 794).
Kalson, in a close analysis of Williams techniques of dramatic exposition,
documented the influence of film on both the theory and practice of the
playwrights dramaturgy. He noted that Williams had had an opportunity to study
film techniques in the workshop established in New York by Irwin Piscator. He
concluded, however, that the influence most clearly evident in his work was one
associated with another approach to film, that of Hollywood. As Kalson observes,
Williams found in Hollywood an important element of his theatrical vocabulary,
as well as components of his technique. Most significantly, he found a poetic
vision of popular definition.
Conclusions
Perhaps because of this interest in the cinema both as a spectator and later
as an apprentice scriptwriter Williams became the first American playwright of
the twentieth century to earn the title popular dramatist. The most successful
of his works were those in which the attributes of stage and film were balanced
to create a genuinely plastic form. Williamss plastic form reached the most
advanced point of development between 1945 and 1960. During this period, the
playwright had the benefit of interpretative artists capable of translating the
texts of his plays into language, conventions, and styles that were both effective
and appropriate for interpreting his works in a plastic theater.
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Tennessee Williamss achievement as one of the major American artists of

the 20th century was significant. His comprehensive pattern of experimentation
served both to consolidate the theatrical vocabulary of the American drama
and to refine its spoken language. Over the course of his career, Tennessee
Williams offered treatments of language, action, theme, and setting that are to
this time unmatched for their expressive quality in the literature of the
American theater. Whereas Eugene ONeill can be said to have established the
identity of the American drama as a distinctive genre, its achievement of the
status of a mature form may be attributed in significant measure to Tennessee
Williams and his development of the idea of a plastic theater.
Bibliography
Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. 1972. London: British Broadcasting Corporation,
Penguin, 1988.
Baudry, Jean-Louise. Ideological Effects of the Basic Cinematographic
Apparatus.Trans. Alan Williams. Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology: A Film
Theory Reader. Ed. Philip Rosen. New York: Columbia UP, 1986.
Crandell, George W. The Cinematic Eye in Tennessee Williamss The Glass
Menagerie. The Tennessee Williams Annual Review, 1998.
Freedman, Barbara. Staging the Gaze: Postmodernism, Psychoanalysis and
Shakespearean Comedy. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP, 1991.
Jackson, Esther Merle. Tennessee Williams: The idea of a Plastic Form.
Tennessee Williams: A Tribute. Ed. Jacque Tharpe. Jackson: UP of Mississippi,
1977.
Kalson, Albert E. Tennessee Williams at the Delta Brilliant. Tennessee Williams:
A Tribute. Ed. Jacque Tharpe. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1977.
King, Thomas L. Irony and Distance in The Glass Menagerie. Educational
Theater Journal 25 (1973).
Mulvey, Laura. Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. Screen 16.3, 1975.
ONeill, Eugene. Strindberg and Our Theater.ONeill and His Plays: Four Decades
of Criticism. Eds. Oscar Cargill, N. Bryllion Fagin and William S. Fisher. New
York: New York UP, 1961.
Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. New York: Oxford UP, 1983.
Williams, Tennessee. The Glass Menagerie, New Classics Edition. New York: New
Directions, 1949, 1966.
Williams, Tennessee. The Glass Menagerie, The Theater of Tennessee Williams.
Vol.1. New York: New Directions, 1971.
Whitman, Walt. Preface to Leaves of Grass (1855). Prose Works. Vol.2. 1892.
Ed. Floyd Stovall. New York: New York UP, 1963-64.
Whitman, Walt. Preface to As a Strong Bird on Pinions Free. Prose Works. Vol.2.
Ed. Floyd Stovall. New York: New York UP, 1982. 1963-64.
Whitman, Walt. Poetry Today-Shakespeare the Future. Prose Works. Vol.2. Ed.
Floyd Stovall. New York: New York UP, 1892. 1963-64.
Yacovar, Maurice.The Film Version of The Glass Menagerie (1950).Twentieth
Century Interpretation of The Glass Menagerie. Ed. R.B. Parker. Englewood
Cliffs-N.J: Prenriet Hall, 1983.
TEATRI PLASTIK I TENESI UILIAMSIT

Ky artikull synon t trajtoj karakteristikat kryesore t drams ekspresioniste
t Tenesi Uiliamsit q e bjn at pjes t teatrit plastik- nj koncept q u paraqit
pr her t par nga vet autori n parathnien e shkruar prej tij t drams
Koleksioni i kafshve prej qelqi, vepra e tij m eksperimentale e cila sht br
mjaft e njohur q nga epoka vangard e viteve 60. Elementet m t rndsishme
t konceptit t teatrit plastik t prdorura nga Tenesi Uiliamsi n dramn
Koleksioni i kafshve prej qelqi ishin: prdorimi i ekranit n t cilin n astet me
kritike shfaqeshin tema, tituj dhe fotografi t ndryshme, ka ishte nj prpjekje
pr nj simbolizm t spikatur; prdorimi i nj motivi muzikor t prsritur i cili
merrte formn e nj lajtmotivi; prdorimi i teknikave t ndryshme
kinematografike; prdorimi i nj ndriimi t veant q duket joreal n mnyr
q t lejoj formatin e drams s kujtimeve; prdorimin e nj skenografie
jorealiste n nj mnyr simbolike duke e vn theksin tashm jo mbi realizmin
por mbi t vrtetn e emocioneve njerzore; etj.
Fjalt kye: teatr plastik, prdorim i ekranit, teknika kinematografike, dram
kujtimesh, dram ekspresioniste, figura e rrfimtarit, efekte jasht-letrare,
Hollivudi, vshtrimi mashkullor, simbolizm i spikatur, dramaturg popullor.
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UDK 821.112.2.09-2
Samuel Becketts Plays: Creating an adequate

aesthetic
Loran Gami
Tirana University
Abstract: The article endeavors to describe the main features of Samuel Becketts
aesthetic and traces some of the contemporary artistic and social developments that
influenced the creation of a new aesthetic, a new aesthetic which reflected a new world.
The article emphasizes that Surrealism is an evident impetus in the creation of Becketts
aesthetics. The emphasis that Surrealism put on the hegemony of the inner life over the
outer life, is important to understand the frequent use by Beckett of the proceedings of
the unconscious thought. The impact of this aesthetic premise can be discerned in every
dramatic work of Samuel Beckett. Becketts aesthetic in some of its important aspects
recalls the aesthetic of cubist and abstract expressionist painters, naturally, keeping in
mind the distinctions between the modes of expression of various forms of art. There are
no minute stage details in his stage directions. This article also juxtaposes Brechts epic
theater and Becketts dramas and shows how the results of Becketts plays seem
equivalent with the Verfremdungseffekt of the epic theater.
Key words: new aesthetic, Surrealism, unconscious thought, abstract painters, epic
theater, Verfremdungseffekt.
Samuel Beckett did not put forward his aesthetic views in a systematic way.
We can catch a glimpse of these views in the introduction to Joyces Work in
Progress, Dante Bruno Vico Joyce, in his essay on Proust, in Disjecta, in few
interviews, etc. Carefully reading these works and, more importantly, following
the action in Samuel Becketts plays, we manage to grasp some of Becketts
viewpoints on art. On the other hand, he has not devised a defined aesthetic
system.
It is no easy task trying to comprehend the fundamental aspects of Becketts
aesthetics, especially if we keep in mind that in spite of the above-mentioned
writings, the author himself remains hermetic in this regard. However, the
polysemy characterizing artistic creation breaks the aesthetic shell and assists us
in reaching some conclusions, albeit not always and not wholly crystallized.
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The attempts to interpret Becketts plays started early. Several of the initial
studies examined his work from the perspective of literary and philosophical
legacy. Some others focused on his (anti)heroes. Almost all scholars first and
foremost saw the philosopher in Beckett. His aim to treat the problematic of la
condition humaine was interpreted by the critics in a plethora of ways. His
dramatic creations were considered as pieces with a Christian, existential,
gnostic, mythical, parodic, ironic, Jungian, and, even, Marxist tendency. To these
content interpretations other categorizations regarding the form and genre were
added. The Beckettian comic was subjected to varied explanations, from the
vaudeville to scatological humor, from the fantastic to the grotesque.
Probably since the first decades of the 20th century we are confronted with
a curious phenomenon. On the one hand, there is the accelerated development
of technical innovations and the profit people derived from them as well as the
support that the destructive social and political forces found in these
innovations; on the other hand, the multiplication of the possibilities to spread
culture and art which, however, was accompanied by the overwhelming nature
of mass culture whose extremely banal quality disturbed real intellectuals.
Beckett, too, was worried by the spread of that mass culture. In Dante
Bruno Vico Joyce he opposes the audiences demand for an easily digestible
literature and declares that an artists obligation was the expression of the
complex totality of his experience. He creates a hermetic art that could not
satisfy everyone, and as every innovative phenomenon in art in the beginning
it could not even be easily accepted by a large part of the intellectuals. This
obviously constituted a great risk. Samuel Beckett understands and accepts this
danger and, since his first creations, alongside other writers and artists, decides
to cross the Rubicon, which meant either the victory of assertion or the defeat
resulting from unintelligibility and the throwing out in the bin of oblivion, which
has happened to many original talents. Not adhering to any cultural clan
established in his times either to that of the massive culture or to that of
traditional, mainstream literature the writer could be refused by either. That
is why Beckett himself has said: To be an artist means to fail, as no other dare
fail (Beckett 1984: 145). The horizon of expectation was still blocked for him.
He had to break through it with the violence of stubborn novelty.
The writer was convinced that a new world that which influenced the
creation of his artistic and spiritual world called for a new aesthetic. Of course,
as it is shown by the existence of several masterpieces even in the literature of
the 20th century, this is not a conditio sine qua non. Nevertheless, a new aesthetic
system enabled him to achieve an adequate representation of the worlds
quintessence and its phenomena.
The emphasis that the editor of the Surrealist magazine transition, Eugne
Jolas, put on the hegemony of the inner life over the outer life, is important to
understand the frequent use by Beckett of the proceedings of the unconscious
thought. For instance, in his novelistic trilogy the writer creates a transcendental
self but, instead of identifying a unifying self, Beckett focuses on the final
dissolution of that self, at the very moment that it seems to find a balance.
Considering their aesthetic views it appears that the surrealists were convinced
that the unconscious recreates external reality and, conversely, the external
world continually supplies the inner world. The impact of this aesthetic premise
can be discerned in every dramatic work of Samuel Beckett.
Likewise, Becketts aesthetic in some of its important aspects recalls the
aesthetic of cubist and abstract expressionist painters, naturally, keeping in mind
the distinctions between the modes of expression of the various forms of art. He
shares with the surrealists the fascination with the world of dreams and their
interest in the power of unconscious thought, although he rejected several of
their conclusions and their artistic objectives. He refused to accept their belief
that the revelations of the universal unconscious would create a unifying
mythos which would create a new world over the ruins of the decaying
civilization of plutocratic materialism (Lois 113). Similarly, despite the
numerous innovations, Beckett would avoid blurring the dividing line between
the author and reader or spectator, characteristic of some later playwrights. On
the other hand, Beckett and, in general, the Theatre of the Absurd, is more
involved in shaping a modernist aesthetic than Existentialist literature with the
works of its distinguished writers, while the input of these two literary trends has
an almost equal weight in the creation of modern mentality.
Therefore Surrealism and modernist painting exerted an obvious influence
in molding the Beckettian aesthetic, an influence which left its traces even in
the way Beckett structured his plays. There are no minute stage details in his
stage directions. We can even say that, on the whole, the chronotopic data are
compressed to an extreme level.
This does not mean that in Becketts plays the character is deprived of any
kind of environment. Such an aesthetic circumstance could be exemplified with
a relative ease in prose, for instance, in the novel by Nathalie Sarraute Entre la
vie et la mort, whose major theme might be open to endless interpretations
and that only through a direct indication given by the author herself do we
understand that the novels major theme is the progression of the creative
process. Considering its character, a dramatic work will have some pickets of
environment. Becketts plays are not an exception in this regard, not even a
piece like Breath. The latter begins with these stage directions: Faint light on
stage littered with miscellaneous rubbish (Beckett 1984: 211). Not as rarely as it
may seem, Beckettian settings remind us of lifelike, even social, environments.
However, this is not their primary aesthetic significance as is the case in a play or
generally in the work of a realist writer. The essence of the Beckettian
environment has a transcendental character. The stage settings acquire the
attributes of a symbolic, overreal setting.
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The setting of Becketts plays is a projection of the spiritual state of bleakness

and absurdity. Sometimes it is outlined by the stage directions as, for instance,
the mound of Happy Days. At other times the spectator hears it through the
words of a character, as in: There is no more tide (at sea L.G) (Beckett 1996:
2543) in Endgame.
The dramatic works of Samuel Beckett, beginning with what is considered his
masterpiece and up to his radio and television plays, are characterized by
scarceness, the truncation of the plot, as the plot is conventionally understood.
At the same time each of his works leaves a complete aesthetic impression on
the audience. If we borrow John Deweys idea that the nectar is in the journey
and not in its final destination, we could say that the aesthetic pleasure obtained
by each of Becketts plays is not to be found in the compliance with the elements
of Freytags pyramid but in the soft undulations of the itinerary followed by the
plot, which in most cases does not have a conspicuous denouement and lacks a
climactic point. The missing is as tempting as the complete.
The tendency to draw portraits of isolated beings or the image of an absurd
cosmos stimulates the quarrel between the thought and the object. It seems
as if either tries to trap the other, hampering it instead of supporting it. The
result is different from what might be expected. The first does not get
perplexed; neither is the second destroyed. Both of them continue to exist and
to interact, pulling the other down into its own vortex the first trying to
identify, to verify the essence of the other, the second vigorously protecting the
shell that keeps itself locked inside. This aesthetic symbiosis shapes Samuel
Becketts style.
The key to understanding art, as well as any other thing, Harold Pinter says, is
that confirmation remains impossible. Moreover, an absurdist writer like
Samuel Beckett does not intend to verify the reality of objects, people or any
other aesthetic spaces that he produces. Hence the quarrel between thought
and object, both of which have different modes of existence, if not different
realms of action. That is why Becketts work manifests similarities with the works
of his contemporary modernist painters who, likewise, endeavor and manage, in
a special manner by means of figures of individual objects to reach
generalizations of a transcendental character. Avant-garde painters
experimentations with opacity and the blurring of the clearly delineated line were
projected in Becketts style into the sfumato portrayal of the characters images,
as we see them in Happy Days, the radio play Embers, the pantomime Act
without words, or in that indefinite, highly surprising, impression that the
spectator gets from the beginning-end of Breath, whose action all in all lasts
thirty seconds.
***
There has been a theory in the traditional psychology according to which
people are able to get rid of a mental state that causes them trouble by reviving
all the phases of the process that have led to that condition. Modifying this
view, we can say that Beckett makes his reader or audience member aware of
the state they are in by reformulating that state and, as a result, he succeeds in
making his patient not feel persecuted by the angst of the unknown unsaid and,
at last, get rid of its great burden. That is the essence of black humor in postwar literature some of whose well-known examples are the works of Evelyn
Waugh in prose and Samuel Beckett in drama. That is the disturbance caused
by the presence of illusions that are visibly out of sync with reality, a
disturbance that is dissolved and released through the liberating laughter that
comes as a result of the awareness of universes fundamental absurdity. Hence
the success of Waiting for Godot at San Quentin penitentiary. It was a release
for the inmates precisely because they recognized the almost hopeless
situation of the waiting for the miracle in the tragicomic circumstances of
Becketts hoboes (Esslin 304).
It has been rightly noticed that the theatre of the absurd, like the classical
theatre and, later, the mystery plays and auto sacramentales, without
excluding the medieval allegorical moralits, seeks to make man aware of his
precarious and uncertain situation in a cosmos whose bounds in time and space
are measureless. So it achieves a ritual, if not a religious, mission. And it is a
known fact that since early times the rituals were chiefly staged to carry out
certain religious functions.
Becketts theatre too acquires a metaphysical and almost religious
significance like the earlier plays. But if the classical tragedies and comedies or
the medieval plays staged authentic religious content, largely mythical, biblical
or evangelical plots already established and accepted by the audience,
Becketts plays staged unknown and, at first sight, non-mythical subjects,
although the writer intended them as substitutes for the myth as subject and,
partly, as content. Before him, apart from the risk of an obstructed horizon of
expectation, there emerged another equally serious risk. If the earlier pieces
earned part of the applause thanks to the goodwill of the believer, Becketts
plays first had to create that goodwill now a skeptics goodwill which was
not so easy. The skeptic is not necessarily an atheist. But he doubts what he is
being said and the way it is being said. Therefore, above all, Samuel Beckett had
to persuade the unpersuadable by addressing them with plays that
overwhelmed them primarily with their artistic quality. By teasing man, by
calling into question his way of thinking, as well as his beliefs, he forces the
reader or scholar to ponder from time to time what he had asserted or denied
in his plays. The assertions the author makes but, more importantly the
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denials that he pounds the readers with in order to annihilate even those ruins
of old beliefs that are left to them exasperate them since, being in that kind
of situation that the modern man is, they become quite dear to them.
Since classical times the audience of a tragedy, and, later, of a piece of the
serious genre, have spontaneously entered the atmosphere of the theatrical
pieces they attended. Gradually, during the show, corresponding reactions are
evoked in the audience. Because of its nature that is spurred by the authors
purpose to scourge social or human vices, comedy does not fit in that rule. This
happens in all comic literary genres where characters that have vices are
portrayed. The reader cant empathize with a swindling crook and make that
crooks emotions his own, nor can he sympathize with a bum like Estragon in
Waiting for Godot when the poor fellows pants drop in front of us. We crack
up by what he does but we fail to sympathize with the difficult condition he is
in. Perhaps the aesthetic attribute of the audiences Verfremdungseffekt
(strange-making effect) from Becketts characters derives precisely from the
comical ingredient of several of his theatrical pieces. Besides, the more the
actions on stage are illogical or mysterious and the less human, ordinary the
characters and situations unfolded before the audience, the less do the
audience feel them as their own. Therefore identification with them becomes
increasingly impossible.
There has existed in literature the opinion that a character you cant
identify with is inevitably comical. This idea is worth considering although we
would not accept it as an undisputed aesthetic declaration. It would be more
sensible, although coming after the reasoning made before this seems an
unexpected idea, that the absurdity of being should be regarded as one of the
premises that endorses the Verfremdungseffekt Becketts work has on the
audience or reader. Stupefied by a stupefying, absurd world, the reader would
not surrender to the idea that he too participates in the creation of an insane
world as one of its exemplary representatives.
Unlike Brechts epic theatre, Beckett does not put forward any drama
theories; nor does he wish to give us any useful lessons by distancing himself
from the audience. He has distanced himself from us the moment when the
lights of the stage are turned down and the curtain is lifted. The audience
members have immediately distanced themselves from what they see on stage.
As far as results are concerned this seems equivalent with the Verfremdungseffekt of the epic theater, achieved by starting from another point of departure,
and realized in an even more spontaneous way than in the case of the epic
theater.
In Beckett, too although very indirectly this Verfremdungseffekt contains
the element of societys critique. However, unlike late Brecht, this is not a
critique against a specific social system but a critique against the dissolving
character of the contemporary society. The sudden encounter with that society
that surrounds man and which is so familiar to him from the outside, but which is
now displayed in its illogical interior, makes him not recognize it as his milieu,
view it as strange and, consequently, makes him feel distanced from it. Without
miraculous illusions, taking into account that philistine nature of most of his
audience, the writer cunningly utilizes it precisely to attain this condition of
distancing as a premiss, if not the only one, that would serve him as a
cornerstone to stop this audience from identifying with the real contents of the
stage milieu, which would wipe away any possible hope of making him aware of
his condition.
If Brecht achieves his Verfremdungseffekt by generating a critical attitude
on the part of an audience of a largely intellectual character, Beckett provokes
the psychical strata of its subconscious, which produces not only anxiety and
stiffness from the unfolding of those disintegrating tableaus that appear to the
audience that is watching one of his pieces or to the reader that has in mind his
dramatic oeuvre, but also such feelings that stir up an opposite reaction, an
inward tendency which has a reunifying character. Without parti pris, we would
say that both writers, each in his way, accomplish that goal.
***
Becketts theater occupies a different position not only from the realist
theater of, say, mile Augier, but also from that of Gerhart Hauptmann. When
we compare Samuel Beckett with the latter we have in mind not only a realistnaturalist play like The Weavers but also a symbolist play like The Sunken Bell.
Nevertheless this play is closer to the dramaturgy of Samuel Beckett on account
of the poetic character that thoroughly permeates it as well as the shy,
ephemeral position the logical element has in it. In the broad sense of the
word, the aesthetics of Beckett is not contrary to the true-to-life representation
that is demonstratively displayed in the realist theater. In the first place, it
embodies the truth of the worlds vision as it is perceived by the author.
Secondly, Becketts oeuvre, too, wants to utter a truth a transcendental truth.
Furthermore, that excavation that Beckett does in the psychological reality, in
its substrata, cannot be seen as a departure from the truthfulness but a
precious contribution that seeks to fulfill the attempt of art to create the
comprehensive tableau of life. To achieve this it is not indispensable to
represent life in the forms of life itself. Modernist writers and artists, as well as
scholars that support modernism, assert that the essences of life can be more
effectively penetrated into by obtaining all-inclusive visions.
Impressive it is the ascertainment of a realist writer like Flaubert. Analyzing
Don Quixote he reaches a sudden conclusion: the reader sees the stony and
parched roads in which the two heroes of Cervantes peregrinate but these
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roads are never described in the novel. Could that be the reason they appear so
real to the reader? The same happens with the character. It looks like Cervantes,
and Flaubert too, by avoiding the description of details, attempt to give the
readers fantasy more chances of action and create a more stable artistic vision,
which is not watered down by details. As far as aesthetic truth is concerned, a
Beckettian image challenges a naturalist image, which insisted on achieving the
truth of the scientific concept precisely through exact presentation of details. A
creation of the objective realism, such as one of Shaws plays, a creation of the
subjective realism, such as one of Flauberts novels, as well as a creation of
the theatre of the absurd, such as one of Becketts plays, all of these literary
works cannot be called wholly true or wholly untrue. The degree of
truthfulness would go hand in hand with the degree of the artistic truth of a
given work, conceived as the degree of its authenticity of falsity. The
authenticity of a work would thus coincide with what a scholar has named its
inner reality or, put it differently, its ability to communicate the experiences
reality of its characters both of them together as an expression of the creative
skill of the writers creative imagination. This accounts for the fact that,
aesthetically, the border between a play having an existential character and
another having a political character is crossed more easily than an
indoctrinated scholar or reader would imagine. That character is by no means
an aesthetic criterion. It would at most be considered as one of the less
important substrata when the work is analyzed in detail.
Bibliography
Beckett, Samuel. Breath. Collected Shorter Plays of Samuel Beckett. London:
Faber and Faber, 1984.
Beckett, Samuel. Disjecta: Miscellaneous Writings and a Dramatic Fragment. New
York: Grove, 1984.
Beckett, Samuel. Endgame. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 6. ed.
New York-London: W.W.Norton, 1996.
Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. New York: Doubleday, 1961.
Gordon, Lois. Reading Godot. New Haven- London: Yale UP, 2002.
PJEST E SAMUEL BEKETIT: DUKE KRIJUAR NJ ESTETIK ADEKUATE

Artikulli orvatet t prshkruaj tiparet kryesore t estetiks s Samuel
Beketit dhe t ndjek disa prej zhvillimeve artistike e shoqrore bashkkohore
t cilat patn ndikim n krijimin e nj estetike t re, nj estetike t re e cila
reflektonte nj bot t re.
Artikulli thekson se surrealizmi sht nj shtys e qart pr krijimin e

estetiks s Beketit. Theksimi q i bnte surrealizmi hegjemonis s jets s
brendshme mbi at t jashtme ka rndsi pr t kuptuar prdorimin e shpesht
q Beketi do tu bnte n veprn e vet procedimeve t t menduarit t
pavetdijshm. Ndikimi i ksaj premise estetike mund t gjendet n do pjes
teatrore t shkrimtarit. Estetika e Beketit n disa aspekte t saj t rndsishme
t sjell ndr mend estetikn e piktorve kubist dhe ekspresionist abstrakt,
kuptohet, duke mbajtur parasysh dallimet midis mjeteve t shprehjes t llojeve
t ndryshme t artit. Nuk ka detaje skenike t hollsishme n udhzimet
skenike t tij. Ky prezantim krahason teatrin epik t Brehtit me pjest e Beketit
dhe tregon se si rezultati i pjesve t Beketit duket t jet i barasvlershm me
efektin e distancimit t teatrit epik.
Fjal kye: estetik e re, surrealizmi, pavetdija, piktort abstrakt, teatri
epik, efekti i distancimit.
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UDK 791:821.111-2
Hamlet komparativna analiza filmskih

adaptacija Olivijea, Kozinceva i Brane
Zoran Koprivica
Apstrakt: Generike specifinosti knjievnosti i filma s gledita transpozicije

heterogenih elemenata jednog od njih, u ovom sluaju knjievnosti, odreuju i sam
model i tehniku adaptacije. To, drugim rijeima, znai da upravo strukturalne razliitosti
dva umjetnika medija uslovljavaju odreeni tip adaptacije, a ne antecedentne
vrijednosti jednog od njih. Stoga se u veini sluajeva, to se uvijek ne pokazuje kao
ispravan pristup, ne postavlja pitanje da li je neki film nastao na osnovu literarnog
originala sa etabliranim estetskim vrijednostima, ve da li je iskoristio kontingentni
potencijal vlastitog medija u kinematografskoj transpoziciji ponuenog sadraja. Kao
najbolji primjer za to, ak i u sluaju da apstrahujemo izuzetne estetske i umjetnike
vrijednosti literarnog originala, mogu posluiti filmske adaptacije Hamleta, ne samo kao
najznaajnijeg, ve i najee i najuspjenije ekranizovanog ekspirovog dramskog
djela.
Kljune rijei: adaptacija, transpozicija, generike specifinosti, originalni dramski
tekst, estetske i umjetnike vrijednosti
Gruba komercijalizacija kako savremenih tako i klasinih knjievnih djela, kao

primarno opredjeljenje filmskih autora, scenarista i adaptatora, u veini sluajeva
ponitava njihove kontingentne umjetnike i estetske vrijednosti. Jedino oni
filmovi u kojima izraajne konstituente i jednog i drugog modela umjetnikog
oblikovanja, u ovom sluaju knjievnosti i filma, zadravaju sutinske estetske
vrijednosti svojih generikih struktura, mogu biti /ili bi sensu stricto trebalo da
budu!/ predmetom kompleksne i sveobuhvatne analize. Pri tom, specifinosti i
jednog i drugog oblika umjetnike komunikacije s gledita transpozicije
heterogenih elemenata jednog od njih, u ovom sluaju knjievnosti, odreuju i
samu formu i tehniku adaptacije. To, drugim rijeima, znai da su generike
specifinosti, samim tim i strukturalno-dijegetike razliitosti dva umjetnika
medija, ma koliko se to u prvi mah inilo paradoksalnim, jedan od bitnih uslova
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uspjene transpozicije, a ne antecedentne estetske vrijednosti literarnog

predloka. Upravo iz tog razloga se najee ne postavlja pitanje da li je neki film
nastao na osnovu literarnog predloka sa etabliranim estetskim vrijednostima,
to je u svakom sluaju poeljno, ve da li je iskoristio kontingentni potencijal
vlastitog medija u kinematografskoj transpoziciji datog sadraja. Kao najbolji
primjer za to, ak i ako apstrahujemo izuzetne umjetnike vrijednosti literarnog
originala, mogu posluiti filmske adaptacije Hamleta, ne samo kao najznaajnijeg,
ve i najee i najuspjenije ekranizovanog ekspirovog djela. Od vie desetina
adaptacija na filmu i televiziji, po svojim izuzetnim umjetnikim dometima
izdvajaju se one britanskog glumca i reditelja Lorensa Olivijea, ruskog reditelja
Grigorija Kozinceva i savremenog amerikog glumca i reditelja Keneta Brane.
Iz opsene komparativne analize kojom je u posebnoj studiji u cjelosti obuhvaena ova ekspirova tragedija,109 kao egzemplaran izdvajamo trei in, u
kojem se na najbolji nain reflektuju sve naznaene karakteristike temeljno izvedenog postupka filmske adaptacije, uz potpuno uvaavanje naratolokih osobenosti dva nezavisna, iako ne i dijametralno razliita, sistema umjetnike
izraajnosti. Jedan tako zamiljen analitiki prosede neizbjeno ukljuuje i sve
izmjene u odnosu na izvorni tekst, izostavljanja ali i dopune kojima su Olivije,
Kozincev i Brana u svojim transpozicijama pribjegavali, uvijek s jasnim, i u
zavisnosti od idejne koncepcije i opravdanim ciljem (sa neznatnim izuzecima na
koje posebno ukazujemo).
Olivije
Izmjene u odnosu na originalni dramski tekst:
- Susret Hamleta i Ofelije i njihov razgovor, the nunnery scene, Olivije
stavlja ispred monologa Biti il ne biti,110 suprotno od njihovog redosljeda u
ekspirovom dramskom tekstu.111 (III, 1)
- Hamletove rijei uo sam o vaem mazanju! Bog vam je dao jedno lice,
a vi sebi pravite drugo, Olivije stavlja ispred: Ako ba hoe da se uda, poi
za budalu. Jer pametni ljudi znaju kakva udovita pravite od njih, dok je u
izvornom tekstu obrnuto. (III, 1)
- Kod Olivijea Prolog se, za razliku od izvornog teksta, pojavljuje prije
scene pantomime. (III, 2)
- Umjesto Rozenkranca i Gildensterna, Polonije je taj koji obavjetava
Hamleta da je kralju loe i da bi njegova majka htjela da govori s njim. (III, 2)
109
Zoran Koprivica, Dramaturki problemi filmske adaptacije ekspirovog Hamleta, neobjavljeni

magistarski rad, Fakultet dramskih umetnosti, Beograd, 2002.
110
U ovom radu koriten je prevod Hamleta ivojina Simia i Sime Pandurovia, Rad, Beograd, 1964.
111
Nadalje: u izvornom tekstu.
Izostavljanja iz originalnog dramskog teksta:

- Razgovor Polonija, Rozenkranca i Gildensterna sa kraljem i kraljicom o
dolasku glumaca na dvor i Hamletovom prijateljskom odnosu prema njima. (III, 1)
- Ofelijine rijei poslije Hamletovog odlaska: O, kakav divan tu posrnu
duh! (III, 1)
- Polonijeva ideja koju izlae kralju, da se Hamlet poslije predstave uputi
majci, koja e ispitati uzroke njegove pometnje, a on e se sakriti da bi sve to
uo. (III, 1)
- Dijalog glumakog kralja i kraljice (Triest puta Feb je obio/u
letu/Neptunov val i sfere naem svetu), kraljevo pitanje upueno Hamletu:
Kako zovete taj komad?, i Hamletov odgovor: Miolovka, kao i Hamletovo
pitanje upueno kraljici: Kako vam se, gospoo, dopada ova stvar? (III, 2)
- Polonijevo nareenje da se prekine Ubistvo Goncaga. (III, 2)
- Hamletove rijei nakon predstave: Nek ranjen jelen suze lije: nek igra
jelen zdrav! (III, 2)
- Hamletovo ubjeivanje Gildensterna da svira na fruli. (III, 2)
- Kraljevo saoptenje Rozenkrancu i Gildensternu da e Hamleta pratiti u
Englesku. (III, 3)
- Rozenkranc i Gildenstern. (III, 1, 2, 3)
Dopune originalnog dramskog teksta:112
- Dok razgovara s Ofelijom Hamlet pogleduje u pravcu gdje se nalaze
skriveni kralj i Polonije, upire prstom u zastor, tri prema njemu, stavljajui joj
tako do znanja da je otkrio spletku u koju je i ona uvuena (Hamlet je u
Olivijeovoj verziji uo ta mu Polonije priprema, ali takvih nagovjetaja u
ekspirovim didaskalijama nema).
112
Praksa dopunjavanja i korigovanja ekspirovih dramskih tekstova stara je koliko i sami ti tekstovi.
U ekspirovo doba to je uspjeno radio Viljem Davenant, potkraj sedamnaestog vijeka Natum Tejt,
iji Kralj Lir ima srean zavretak, a u vrijeme nijemog filma Ferdinand Zeka. Zeka je u poetku, to
nije bila neuobiajena praksa u eri nijemog filma, viva voce objanjavao dogaanja u prikazivanim filmovima, a potom je i sam poeo da ih snima i adaptira djela klasika. Na pitanje kako mu to polazi za
rukom kada je veliki Bard sa Ejvona u pitanju, Zeka je bez zadrke odgovorio: Popravljam ekspira.
udno kako je taj tip propustio najbolje stvari (preuzeto iz: Fedor Hanekovi: Shakespeare i film,
Filmska kultura br.20, 1960, str.77). Nastavlja takve prakse u prvim godinama zvunog filma bio je
Sem Tejlor, koji je adaptirajui Ukroenu goropad ekspira zaduio ovim natpisom: sa dodatnim dijalogom Sema Tejlora (With additional dialogue by Sam Taylor natpis na najavnoj pici Tejlorovog
filma Ukroena goropad, The Taming of the Shrew, USA, The Pickford Corp./The Elton Corp., 1929).
ekspira nisu mogli da zaobiu ni brojni eksperimentatori, koji u namjeri da promoviu nove forme
filmskog izraza neizostavno poseu za njegovim dramskim tekstovima. Oni u potpunosti dekonstruiu originalni ekspirov tekst, najee odstupajui od njegove osnovne narativne niti. Iako takvi poduhvati katkad mogu da donesu neke rezultate na polju specifino kinematografske stilizacije, oni u
veini sluajeva ipak ostaju samo vjeto izvedeni eksperimenti.
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- Hamlet stavlja periku na glavu djeaku-glumcu; perika je plava, ima

pletenice i podsjea na Ofelijinu kosu; zbog te asocijativne slike Hamlet u
magnovenju ostaje zateen i zbunjen, a njegov pogled odsutno odluta.
- Kraljica sklanja Polonija iza zastora prije nego Hamlet ue u njenu
odaju.
Kozinev
Izmjene u odnosu na originalni dramski tekst:
- Polonijeve savjete Ofeliji u vezi sa susretom s Hamletom Kozincev je
stavio poslije monologa Biti il ne biti. (III, 1)
- Razgovor Polonija, Rozenkranca i Gildensterna o dolasku glumaca na
dvor i Hamletovom prijateljskom odnosu prema njima. (III, 1)
- Kraljeva odluka da Hamleta poalje u Englesku, poslije njegovog
razgovora s Ofelijom u the nunnery scene. (III, 1)
- Polonijevo obavjetavanje Hamleta da dolaze kralj i kraljica. (III, 2)
- Hamletova pohvala Horacijevih vrlina. (III, 2)
- Scena pantomime. (III, 2)
- Ofelijine rijei poslije Hamletovog odlaska: O, kakav divan tu posrnu
duh! (III, 1)
- Dolazak Polonijev da saopti Hamletu da bi kraljica eljela da razgovara
s njim, kao i Hamletovo ismijavanje Polonijeve revnosti i licemjerja (Vidite li
onaj oblak koji gotovo/ima oblik kamile?). (III, 2)
- Hamletov monolog: Avetno doba ponoi je sad/kad groblje zja, a pako
razvejava/zarazu svetom (III, 2).
- Hamletovo iznenadno pojavljivanje i dilema da li da ubije kralja ili ne,
dok se ovaj moli. (III, 3)
Dopune originalnog dramskog teksta:
- Glumaka kraljica sa glasom koji podsjea na glas djeaka; takvom
ilustracijom Kozincev oigledno eli da skrene panju na enske uloge koje su na
elizabetanskoj pozornici tumaili djeaci.
- Kraljiina replika upuena Hamletu, Zna da u radije umreti nego
pristati da te izdam, u izvornom tekstu ne postoji.
- Hamlet odvlai Polonijev le uz smijeh.
Brana
- Hamletovi savjeti upueni glumcima. (III, 2)
- Hamletova pohvala Horacijevih vrlina. (III, 2)
- Polonijevo obavjetavanje Hamleta da dolaze kralj i kraljica. (III, 2)
- Dolazak dvorske svite na predstavu (Olivije i Kozincev tome poklanjaju
posebnu panju!) (III, 2)
- Razgovor Hamleta i Polonija o Polonijevom glumakom iskustvu. (III, 2)
- Scena pantomime. (III, 2)
- Rijei Prologa, Klanjajui se pred milou sviju,/molimo za panju
strpljivu i tiju,/za nas i nau tragediju (III, 2).
- Hamletov monolog: Avetno doba ponoi sad je (III, 2).
- Kraljevo saoptenje Rozenkrancu i Gildensternu da e Hamleta pratiti u
Englesku, dolazak Polonijev da obavijesti kralja da e prislukivati razgovor
izmeu Hamleta i kraljice, kraljeva molitva, Moj zloin truli: do neba mu
smrad/die se, nose najstariju kletvu/bratoubistva, i Hamletova dilema da li
da ga ubije dok je na molitvi [trea scena treeg ina u potpunosti je
izostavljena].
- Hamletovo podsjeanje kraljice na njegov put u Englesku. (III, 4)
Dopune originalnog dramskog teksta:
- U didaskalijama u izvornom tekstu nigdje se ne pominje da se Hamlet
pojavljuje na sceni; kod Brane on je od poetka na sceni, silazi sa nje i iznova se
vraa.
- Hamlet dotrava na scenu, iz Lukijanovih ruku uzima boicu s otrovom,
govorei: Truju ga u vrtu zbog njegovog imanja.
- Na kraljevo, Osvetlite mi!, Rozenkranc i Gildenstern uzvikuju:
Svetla! (u izvornom tekstu uzvikuju svi: Buktinje, buktinje, buktinje!).
Najvie izmjena u odnosu na redosljed deavanja na globalnom nivou ovog
ekspirovog djela prisutno je u Olivijeovoj adaptaciji, a najmanje u Braninoj; u
izostavljanju odreenih segmenata izvornog teksta, dijalokih replika i dramskih
likova razlika je neznatna, iako Olivije i u tom pogledu prednjai. No, kada su u
pitanju dopune i intervencije u odnosu na izvorni tekst, Kozincev i Brana su
skoro ujednaeni, a Olivije je iza njih. S druge strane, najvie izmjena u odnosu
na redosljed deavanja u izvornom tekstu u sva tri filma vezano je za V in, a
najmanje za III i IV; izostavljanje odreenih segmenata izvornog teksta najvie je
izraeno u IV, a najmanje u I inu; dopune i intervencije u odnosu na izvorni
tekst najprisutnije su u IV, a najneznatnije u I inu.
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Sva tri reditelja su, oigledno, ekspirov tekst koristili kao literarni predloak par excellence, s tim to su njihove intervencije najee bile u slubi poetne ideje. Za Olivijea je to bio Esej o Hamletu. Stoga ne treba da udi to je u
njegovoj adaptaciji prisutno najvie izmjena u odnosu na redosljed deavanja u
izvornom tekstu, kao i izostavljanje odreenih segmenata, dramskih likova i
dijalokih replika. Olivije je ekspirov dramski tekst podredio svojoj (filmskoj!)
vizuri, u kojoj psiholoka karakterizacija, Hamletova vizuelna harizma i esejistiki prikaz stiu prevagu nad njegovom ostentativnom epskom dimenzijom.
(Najvie iz tog razloga, a ne zbog funkcionalnosti kostima ili sjenke koju je obod
kaketa napravio na Hamletovom licu u momentu kada se susreo s norvekom
vojskom i otpoeo razgovor s kapetanom, kako je Olivije imao obiaj da pravda
ovaj svoj propust, lik Fortinbrasa se nije uklapao u jednu tako zamiljenu koncepciju.) Kozincev se, meutim, nije odrekao epske dimenzije ekspirovog komada,
ali je njegov primarni cilj bio da iz njega izvue faistoidne konture jednog u nizu
totalitarnih i represivnih sistema vladavine. (Ono to Olivijea, konano, i nije interesovalo, kako je isticao sam Kozincev.) Otuda su dopune i intervencije u odnosu
na izvorni ekspirov tekst izraenije kod Kozinceva nego kod Olivijea. Kenet Brana
je u svojoj adaptaciji, ini se, pokuao da pomiri ove dvije suprotnosti, izdvajajui
epsku dimenziju ekspirovog komada, u kojoj lik Fortinbrasa ima dominantnu
ulogu, kao i specifinu psiholoku karakterizaciju glavnog lika (Brana odrie svaku
primisao da je njegov junak rastrojen). Ali Brana je, takoe, iz realma Olivijeove
edipovske problematike i na filmu najuvjerljivije ljubavne scene na daljinu,
prihvatio uzuse transparentne erotske simbolike, svodei Hamletovu i Ofelijinu
ljubav na, kako on kae, u bti fiziki odnos. No i Brana, jednako kao i Olivije i
Kozincev, znatno skrauje izvorni ekspirov tekst.
Literatura:
Ball, Robert Hamilton. Shakespeare on Silent Film. London: George Allen and
Unwin, 1968.
Barker, Felix.The Oliviers (A Freudian Hamlet/ An Oscar for Henry/ An Essay in
Hamlet). London: Hamish Hamilton, 1953.
Beja, Morris. Film and Literature (Henry V, 1944/ Hamlet, 1948). New York:
Longman, 1979.
Branagh, Kenneth. Hamlet: The Making of the Movie (Screenplay). New York: W.
W. Norton, 1996.
Cross, Brenda. The Film Hamlet, A Record of its Production. London: Saturn, 1948.
Davies, Anthony. Filming Shakespeares Plays: The Adaptations of Laurence
Olivier, Orson Welles, Peter Brook and Akira Kurosawa. Cambridge UP, 1990.
Dent, Alan. Hamlet. The Film and the Play. London: World Film Publications,
1948.
Donaldson, Peter. Shakespearean Films/ Shakespearean Directors. Boston: Unwin

Hyman, 1990.
Dover, Vilson Don. Sutina o ekspiru. Beograd: Kultura, 1959.
Eckert, Charles W. Focus on Shakespearean Films. New Jersey-Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, 1972.
Eliot, T. S. Hamlet. Selected Essays. London: Faber and Faber, 1958.
Frojd, Sigmund. Uvod u psihoanalizu. Novi Sad: Matica srpska, 1979.
Hanekovi, Fedor. Shakespeare i film. Filmska kultura, 20, 1960.
Jones, Ernest. Hamlet and Oedipus. New York: Norton, 1949.
Jorgens, Jack J. Shakespeare on Film. Bloomington-London: Indiana UP, 1977.
Kot, Jan. I dalje ekspir. Novi Sad: Prometej, 1994.
Kozintsev, Grigori. Shakespeare: Time and Conscience. New York: Hill &Wang,
1996.
Leaming, Barbara. Grigori Kozintsev. Boston: Twayne, 1980.
Morley, Margaret.The Films of Laurence Olivier. Secausus: The Citadel, 1948.
Olivier, Laurence. Confessions of an Actor. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
1982.
Petri, Vladimir. ekspir i film. Beograd: Jugoslovenska kinoteka, 1964.
HAMLET: THE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FILM ADAPTATIONS OF OLIVIER, KOZINTSEV AND

BRANAGH
Since film has different generic characteristics from literature, the literary
text cannot be the model for the techniques of adaptation. In other words, the
structural diversity of literature and film determines the type of adaptation.
Therefore, the question is not whether a film was made on the basis of a literary
original with established aesthetic values, but whether the adapter used the
contingent potential of the new media in the cinematic transposition of the
content. The best example of this is film adaptations of Hamlet, the most often
and most successfully adapted dramatic work of Shakespeare.
Key words: adaptation, transposition, generic characteristics, the original
play, aesthetic and artistic values
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UDK 821-2.035
Challenges and Practice in Theatrical

Translation
Iris Klosi
Tirana University
Abstract: This paper focuses on some practical aspects of theatrical translation and
some of the challenges translators encounter. Ortrun Zuber suggests that a play is
dependent on the immediacy of the impact on the audience (92). Therefore, theatrical
translators should get equal billing with authors; they should not remain invisible. What
is more, Patrice Pavis argues that the translator is a dramaturg who must first of all
effect a macrotextual translation, that is, a dramaturgical analysis of the fiction conveyed
by the text (27). Though often neglected, those who translate for the theatre use their
instincts as professionals. I will discuss some of the recurring problems in translating for
the theatre, as well as some of the immediate solutions to these problems.
Key words: theatrical translation, challenges, practice, performance, theatre
practitioners.
Theatrical Translation: Challenges and Solutions

Theatrical translation is a new trend. Those translators who want to try their
hands at that need to study not only theory books on translating plays, but also
the other rules of performability and speakability, rhythm, and breathability (cf.
Zatlin 23). They work for the stage and have to meet the audiences expectations.
Havign the target audience in mind, Eaton thus says about the challenge and
uneasiness a translator is facing: the playwright challenges the translator, the
translator challenges the actors, the actors challenge the translator, until the
sounds are liberated from page (56).
Theatrical signs are abundant. Translators need to distinguish between verbal
and non-verbal signs. According to the French semiotic critic Patrice Pavis the
theatre text was described as one that merges into a dense pattern of
synchronic signs, and the staging of a written text, equated the mis en scene,
with a mis en signe (138). The written dramatic text intended to be spoken by
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actors on stage, the one that represents the verbal text is not a whole (cf.
Bassnett-McGuire 117). Non-verbal language is more complex and it does not
comprise only gestures, mime or facial expressions. It also has other components
such as intonation, rhythm, tempo, voice timber, as well as the distance of one
actor from others and his movement on stage. Stage directors may be tough and
energetic and they know to direct in a sportsmanlike way. As Eaton recalls one of
her theatre director saying Its a play, lets play!, practicing a lot during
rehearsals sets out rules for everybody engaged in the performance.
In her Theatrical Translation and Film Adaptation, a book on the mastery of
translating for theatre, Phyllis Zatlin considers at length the challenges that
theatrical translators encounter while working with dramatic texts. She bases her
studies on her own experience as a previous theatrical translator and as an editor
and playwright. Almost the same approach is used by the English theatre
practitioner Kate Eaton who lists a number of challenges in front of theatrical
translators. The task is not that easy. Zatlin starts her research with the matter of
the right version of the play before acquiring permission and investigating the
copyright. But before troubling about such matters translators first have to
consider practical matters. They should identify the appropriate version of the
play (Zatlin 67). It happens that a play may have different versions. Those who
work with contemporary playwrights sometimes learn that the author is still in
the process of creating a play.
If they translate the first manuscript they receive they will end up
retranslating to keep pace with the authors rewriting. Even though the
translators manage to identify the appropriate version of the play this
problem does not disappear after plays have already been staged
successfully. (Zatlin 67)
There are a lot of tricks that theatrical translators learn throughout their
work as they closely cooperate with theatre professionals. They should
familiarize with terminology and style for stage directions in the target language.
They should recognize the terms for upstage and downstage and use those
English words, not source language expressions like foreground and background
(Zatlin 68). This is very useful for acting purposes because the directors and
actors know what to do in a particular situation. They find it easier to cooperate
and this is important even for stage-hands to get the stage ready for the play.
Practice and difficulties, warnings and precautions, make theatre business
look gigantic. Nothing should fail. Everything should be well-connected.
Collaboration in the production team is a necessity. Translators are encouraged
to suggest changes when there are classic texts to be performed. Many classic
texts are written in verse, but can one imagine the stage translator adapting
them in verse in the corresponding language and the corresponding era? What
about the actors parroting every line in a language distant from our modern
times? Louis Nowra is against translating verse plays into verse: Unless one
has a poetical genius similar to Kleists, then all one will end up with is bad
poetry (18). Updating a text or modernizing it is not always the ideal solution.
For Edney the pleasure of being transported to a different time and place is
indeed one of the great attractions of theatre (67).
Translation of puns and other word play is a very difficult task in theatre.
The spectator has to catch the double meaning on the fly (Zatlin 92). Eaton
has been a traveler in Pineras absurdist play Siempre se olvida algo, and she
has provided a theatre translation of it entitled You always forget something.
She says that her
own English recreation of Pineras playful Havanese had been rendered
in bloody British [] As the translator and dramaturgist I mediate
between two languages and two cultures; my target text becomes the
actors source text, that source text becomes my next target text, and so
on ad infinitum. The actors and director give me their voices, give me
their ideas and give me the physical embodiment of the text. (Eaton 59)
As Chiaro (83) maintains, it is particularly vital for the translator of humorous
text, as for their theatrical equivalent, to be up-to-date in their knowledge of the
day-to-day affairs of both the source and target culture. Another element that
is equally important to the success of the joke is style. While explaining the
importance of lexical choice in the translation of a joke, Chiaro underlines the
inextricable link between the successful delivery of a joke and the use of the right
style. As Chiaro (96) suggests, it is not just the punchline in a joke or the gag in a
comedy scene that makes the audience laugh; the success of a joke or a gag
depends on the style of the text as a whole. In her essay on translation of
comedy, Cristina Marinetti, provides us with three translation versions of Carlo
Goldonis Italian play Il Servitore di due padroni. The one she likes best, which
brought success to the British stage, was the third translation of Hall and
Pandolfi:
The success of Hall and Pandolfis total acculturation approach is,
visible in their tackling of Goldonis Lu-sior no passage. In their
recoding process the translators took into account not only textual, but
contextual and theatrical elements. (Marinetti 39)
Let us consider some of the lines in this comedy:
TRUFFALDINO: Qua gh una locanda quasi quasi anderia a vedere se
ghe fuss da divertir el dente [] Voi andar, ma adess che ghe penso,
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gh un altra piccola difficolt che non me arrecordava; no ho gnanca

unquattrin. Oh Povero Truffaldin! (Goldoni 19)
TRUFFALDINO: I mean the first thing you do when you get into town is
put your feet up and get some decent scran down your neck, dont you?
But oh no, not Lord Anorexia, here. No, hes pissed off down the quay to
get his trunk, et cetera, et cetera [...] If I only had some dosh Id sod the
skinny sod, nip in there and give me gnashers a bit of training out of me
own back pocket. But have I seen any wages? Have I buggery. (Hall and
Pandolfi 14)
Translation of titles is not always that easy. There are, of course, titles that
pose no problem to carry over. But there are cases when the title needs to be
changed in the target language. Peter Newmark identifies descriptive titles, the
ones that describe the topic of the text, and allusive titles, the ones that
have some kind of referential or figurative relationship to the topic (57).
When Tennessee Williamss The Glass Managerie was performed in Tirana two
years ago, it was not at least successful in comparison with A View from the
Bridge. It was not the fault of Williams play; his play is extraordinary in every
aspect. The problem was that the production team was pleased with a haphazard
and faulty translation without considering the risk of failure. The title was
unattractive to Albanians because the second part of the title Managerie which
means something close to a glass collection in English was wrongly translated in
Albanian. The first part, glass was translated well. But the word managerie' is
completely a false correspondence; that word does not exist in that meaning in
our mother tongue. The Albanian version Menaxheria is approximate in
meaning to the word female manager (Alb menaxherja Engl. a female
manager). The majority of the spectators unfamiliar with Williamss plays
content expected to see a woman manager full of authority on stage and not
the crippled Laura symbolizing her fragility and solitary world.
Another illustration is the translation of The Crucible by Arthur Miller into
Albanian. The play was translated under an allusive title Shtrigat e Salemit
(Salems Witches). The word crucible has been defined as a pot in which
metals are melted (OALD 287). A second meaning defines the word crucible
as severe test or trial (OALD 287). The translator of the play did not use either
of the two meanings of the word crucible as Miller had done because in
Albanian these two meanings did not produce any attractive title. The word
shtrigat (witches) was more intriguing and it did not blur the context of the
whole play that deals at length with witch-hunting.
Plays contain regional dialect, slang, and proverbs. Link advises that the
play must always be translated into the dialect which is recognized by the
audience as being used by the corresponding social group in their part of the
country (29). Patrice Pavis is against translation into dialect because total
adaptation to the target culture can betray a condescending attitude to the
source text and culture (38). Aaltonen agrees on the idea of generalizing
somehow the translation process as a complete translation will always be a
reflection of the receiving culture rather than of its source text (114).
Translation of slang may pose greater difficulty. Zatlin explains that one of
the first plays she translated was Alonso de Santoss box office hit Bajarse al
moro (Going Down to Marrakesh), a script featuring young characters who use
colloquial language and, starting with the title, drug slang. At the time she
translated it she used colloquial language from New York metropolitan area.
The original Spanish text makes frequent use of Madrid slang of the 1980s. Her
translation was not accepted unless she removed all of the offensive language.
When the play was intended to be performed it was very difficult for the time
being because censorship could not allow such references to the use of bodily
orifices for smuggling drugs to be uttered in front of people who were church
goers. She further comments:
Helms, an influential and conservative US Senator from the South, had
recently expressed impassioned opposition to culture he considered
erotic or sacrilegious. And First Lady Nancy Reagan had popularized her
Just say no to drugs solution to a social crisis. For Going Down to
Marrakesh, censorship in the United States was alive and well. (Zatlin 8)
In the case of slang translation there is room for many illustrations but one
extraordinary example Zatlin brings is with the performance of Ernesto
Caballeros Auto in September 2003 at the municipal theatre in Giessen for
Aufgefahren in Germany. The worst thing of all was that the author was
present at the premiere. Zatlin comments on the literal translation of the idiom
ha pasado un angel (Caballero 32).
Literally the words say that an angel passed by, but any fluent native
speaker of Spanish or good bilingual dictionary will define the expression
as signifying a break in the conversation. Unfortunately, the translator
failed to recognize the challenge. The literal rendering in German, like
English, misses the basic meaning and seems to refer only to an actual
presence of an angel (Zatlin 86).
Translation of idioms is very difficult. Translators should be very careful.
Zatlin continues with her suggestions on the translation of idioms with their
appropriate meaning by trying to avoid the literal translation of them:
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Whenever an expression translated literally is meaningless in context, it

probably does not mean what it says on the surface. The lexical unit will
comprise the idiom in its entirety; the words cannot be translated one by
one. Translators are well advised to invest in slang dictionaries and to
consult native speakers of their source language who keep abreast of
colloquial language. The possibility of misinterpreting isolated colloquial
expressions is true in all translation and is one reason why it is always
wise to have someone with appropriate expertise read over ones work.
Better yet is being able to do that reading with the author present, to
clarify any doubts. (Zatlin 85)
There are so many things to be considered. Plays change a lot from each
other. Dramatists belong to different times. They vary a lot in style. There are
traditionalists, realists, existentialists, modernist, post-modern dramatists. Not
to mention that stage directors at times are obliged to experiment and turn a
play into a musical comedy. What else should a translator do in this case but
consider the paralanguage elements of nonverbal language. Songs generally
must be maintained and lyrics made to fit both sense and music (Zatlin 91).
Courtesy titles, as well as proper names, may cause problems. Susan
Bassnett quotes a flippant remark from Robert Adams about how Paris must be
Paris and our hero must be Pierre, not Peter, but that it would be silly to have
him say, I am enchanted, Madame (119). Edney advises to avoid the use of
madame and monsieur because they are hard to pronounce. If the dialogue
calls for it, he recommends the use of madam and sir. For dialogue between
intimate friends, he recommends dropping titles altogether and switching to
first names (Edney 66).
One of the interesting practices of theatrical translators is pruning. This is
a phenomenon that occurs when the target play texts are longer than the source
ones. Zatlin, for example, observes that acting styles in the Mediterranean
countries (Spain, Italy, Greece) like the corresponding languages are more
passionate than in Northern Europe or the United States (76). In her analysis of
A Streetcar Named Desire in German, Zuber argues: If a speech in the target
language is longer than in the original play, those involved in staging it will have
to decide whether to slow down the corresponding action, incorporate additional
gestures or motion, or shorten the text (Zuber 96).
There are a lot of debates about the difference between a mere translation
and an adaptation. We have all seen different versions of the same play being
performed or even televised. Adaptation is a concern of many theatrical
translators. Although at times it is a necessity, in general it is unwanted. J. C.
Santoyo has developed a wide range that includes definitions of translation as a
faithful, literary rendering into another language (Santoyo 97), version as a
translation that takes performance requirements into account (102), and
adaptation as a term that has been used to disguise all manner of unacceptable
textual and staging manipulations (103). Adaptations, even ones that involve
few textual changes, may radically alter the underlying meaning of a play.
The most interesting practice in theatrical translation is with comic titles that
may require major adaptations. Landers shares with us the solutions that
Norman R. Shapiro has created for farces by Georges Feydeau.
Adept at word play, Shapiro transforms Feydeaus Un Fil a` la patte into
Not by Bed Alone and Dormez, je le veux! into Caught with His Trance
Down. He performs his magic as well on farces by Euge`ne Labiche: La
Main leste becomes A Slap in the Farce and La Lettre chargee, A Matter
of Wife and Death. (Landers 105).
Indeed Shapiros titles are more likely to get a laugh than the originals.
Conclusions
The work of stage translators is more than a literary one. This has been
emphasized by thee experts in this field:
Between the translated text and the staging thereof, is there the space to
measure the ingenuity of the translator via the application of theory-or is
theory what should be applied later on, to analyze the translation once
the marks on the page and the marks on the stage have found (or
missed) their target? (Eaton 54)
Many theatrical translators are completely committed to their art. (Zatlin 17)
Theatrical translation is by no means art in its art form as theatre as an
institution itself is art in its art form. Translators are artists that make miracles
out of stage texts. They should be congratulated on their demanding work. They
are the first contact with the source text and they deconstruct every underlying
theme or idea. They decode every play on word and every single theatrical sign.
They prepare the target text for the actors who are dependent on what serves
their purposes. Translators have to worry if a song in the play does not rhyme
well in the target language. They make abrupt changes, and cut or add parts.
They make us travel into another era by depicting carefully the events, the
costumes, and the scenery. They make us cry; they make us laugh. Eaton ends
her article on stage translation this way: I like to refer to these translations as
performance-ready like oven-ready chickens, they can be picked off the
shelves or scooped from the freezer and cooked or micro-waved instantly to the
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pitch of performance perfection (Eaton 60). The audience has to judge the taste
of this delicious food.
Bibliography
Aaltonen, Sirkku. Time-Sharing on Stage. Drama Translation in Theatre and
Society. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2000.
Bassnett-McGuire, S. Translation Studies. London-New York: Methuen, 1980.
Bonino, G.,ed. Il Servitore di due Padroni; La famiflia dell antiquario; La bottega
del caff. Milan: Garzanti, 2002.
Caballero, Ernesto. Auto. Rehen. Madrid: Sociedad General de Autores de
Espaa, 1994.
Chiaro, Delia. The Language of Jokes: Analysing Verbal Play. London-New York:
Routledge, 1992.
Eaton, Kate. You Always Forget Something: Can Practice Make Theory? New
Voices in Translation Studies 4 (2008): 53-61.
Edney, D. Moliere in North America: Problems of Translation and Adaptation.
Modern Drama 41.1 (1998): 60-76.
Goldoni, Carlo. Il Servitore di due Padroni, Trans. and ed. Hall, Lee and Gwenda
Pandolfi. London: Methuen. 1999.
Landers, C.E. Literary Translation. A Practical Guide. Clevedon Buffalo Toronto
and Sydney: Multilingual Matters. 2001.
Link, F. H. Translation, Adaptation and Interpretation of Dramatic Texts. OxfordNew York: Pergamon Press, 1980.
Marinetti, Cristina. The Limits of the Play Text: Translating Comedy.New Voices
in Translation Studies 1 (2005): 31-42.
Newmark, P. A Textbook of Translation. New York- London: Prentice Hall, 1988.
Nowra, L. Translating for the Australian Stage. Oxford-New York: Pergamon,
1984.
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. 4.ed. Oxford UP: 1989.
Pavis, P. Problems of Translation for the Stage: Interculturalism and Post-Modern
Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Print.
Santoyo, J. C. Traducir a los clsicos Traducciones y adaptaciones teatrales:
ensayo de tipolog a. Ed.Lorenzo, L.Garcia: 1998, 95-112.
Zatlin, P. Theatrical Translation and Film Adaptation. Clevedon: Cromwell, 2005.
Zuber, O. The Languages of Theatre. Problems in the Translation and
Transposition of Drama. Oxford-New York: Pergamon, 1980
SFIDA TEORIKE DHE PRAKTIKE N PRKTHIMIN E VEPRAVE DRAMATURGJIKE

Ky artikull prqndrohet n disa aspekte t prkthimit pr teatrin dhe n
disa sfida me t cilat prballen prkthyesit e ktij lmi. Ortrun Zuber sugjeron
se nj shfaqje teatrale varet nga shpejtsia e impaktit mbi spektatorin (Zuber,
1980: 92). Prkthyesit e teatrit duhet t trajtohen njlloj me autort e dramave.
Ata nuk duhet t jen t padukshm. Patrice Pavis argumenton se prkthyesi
sht nj dramaturg I cili pikspari duhet t ndikoj tek nj prkthim makrotekstor, domethn, nj analiz dramaturgjike t pjess letrare q prohet
nprmjet tekstit (Pavis 27). Teoria e prkthimit shpesh mund t neglizhohet.
Praktika e ktyre prkthyesve shpesh drejtohet nga instinkti i tyre profesionist.
Do t prpiqem t prmend disa nga problemet m t hasura n prkthimin pr
teatrin si edhe disa zgjidhje t mundshme ndaj ktyre problemeve.
Fjalt kye: prkthimi i teatrit. sfida, praktika, interpretimi skenik,
prakticient e teatrit.
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Jezika pitanja
Language Issues
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UDK 81127
Jezici u kontaktu i kontrastu
Aleksandra Banjevi
Saetak: Prouavajui istoriju ljudskih jezika moemo zakljuiti da nema jezika koji
tokom svog istorijskog razvitka nije bio izloen dodiru s drugim jezicima. Razlozi
jezikih dodira su razliiti, kao i rezultati tih dodira. Preuzimanje neke rijei zavisilo je,
a zavisi i danas, kako od spoljanjih tako i od unutranjih faktora. Ralanjivanje procesa
prilagoavanja posuenica, u ovom radu je najveim dijelom utemeljeno na teoriji jezika
u kontaktu Rudolfa Filipovia.
Jezini dodiri prouavaju se u tri smjera: usvajanje jezika, b) jezino posudjivanje, c)
prevoenje. Proces jezinog posuivanja analizira se na etiri nivoa: fonolokom,
morfolokom, semantikom i sintaksikom. Adaptacija modela pokazuje primarne i
sekundarne pojave koje se javljaju na sva etiri nivoa. Adaptacija prema nivoima vri se
prema tipovima transfonemizacije, transmorfemizacije i stepenima promjene znaenja na
semantikom nivou.
Kljune rijei: jezici u kontaktu, jezino posuivanje, primarna i sekundarna adaptacija,
posredno posuivanje, neposredno posuivanje, strana rije, tuica, posuenica
Romanski jezici rezultat su prirodnog razvoja latinskog jezika, odnosno vulgarnog latinskog, to znai da pripadaju latinsko-faliskikoj grani indoevropskih
jezika. Kao nauna injenica njihova je genetska veza s latinskim jezikom utvrena
tek u XIX vijeku (F. Diez).
Diezovi interesi bili su ogranieni na velike nacionalne i kulturne jezike
panski, portugalski, francuski, provansalski, italijanski i rumunski ime je veliki
dio romanskog jezinog prostora ostao zanemaren. Prouavanje dijalekata u romanistiku je na velika vrata uveo Graziadio Isaia Ascoli (1829-1907) sa svojim slavnim lankom Saggi ladini objavljenim 1873. U asopisu Archivio glottologico
italiano.
Ako posmatramo jezik kao sistem znakova koji ljudi upotrebljavaju u jezikoj
djelatnosti i tome dodamo da je jezik po svom karakteru, kao i svaki sistem
apstraktan, onda je govor njegovo konkretno ostvarenje u nekoj materiji. Na taj
je nain jezik organizacija govora.
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Jezik i govor su dva aspekta jednog fenomena koji smo nazvali jezika
djelatnost. Iz ove njihove interakcije proizilazi jezika kreativnost tj. sposobnost
jezika i govora da se prilagoavaju stalno novim potrebama jezike prakse.
Tokom itave ljudske istorije jezici su dolazili u meusobne dodire. Posljedice tih dodira mogu biti razliite seu od leksikog posuivanja, preko strukturalnog posuivanja pa sve do nestajanja jezika ili stvaranja novih.
Svaki jezik je podloan leksikim uticajima drugih jezika i iz njih preuzima rijei i unosi ih u svoj renik. Neke od njih se efemerno zadravaju u jeziku primaocu da bi poslije izvjesnog vremena iezle, dok se druge ustaljuju i postaju
sastavni dio rjenika, do te mjere da se u svijesti veine govornika vie ne osjeaju kao rijei stranog porijekla.
Od svih velikih civilizacija koje su se razvijale i propadale, nijedna nam nije
tako bliska kao rimska. Rimsko Carstvo se prostiralo, na svom vrhuncu, sa istoka
na zapad na teritoriji od pet hiljada kilometara i sa sjevera na jug tri hiljade
dvjesta kilometara. Teritorija Balkanskog poluostrva na kojoj ive Juni Sloveni
bila je gotovo pet vjekova pod direktnom politikom vlau rimske imperije.
Dugo vremena postojale su dvije hipoteze:
1) socioloka hipoteza: rez izmeu latinskog i romanskih jezika ima svoje
korijene u razlikama izmeu njegovanog latinskog jezika i pukog jezika Rima;
2) istorijsko-etnografska hipoteza: romanski jezici raaju se s poetkom germanskih najezdi, budui da Germani nisu u stanju nauiti dobar latinski.
Hrvatski romanist arko Muljai (1998) upozorava na opasnost baratanja
datumima, naglaavajui da nijedan romanski jezik nije nastao od danas do sjutra, ve da su svi oni posljedica vrlo kompleksnih i postupnih procesa konvergencije. Prvobitno ilirsko-trako stanovnistvo promijenilo je svoja obiljeja u
dodiru sa naprednijom osvajakom civilizacijom kontinentalnog tipa s one strane Jadrana, tako da su, kako navodi P. Skok, Rimljani relativno veoma brzo
postigli ono sto grka civilizacija pomorskog tipa ponikla ba na Balkanskom poluostrvu i u njegovom neposrednom susedstvu (Jegejskim ostrvima, primorskim
naseljima Male Azije i June Italije), nije mogla a nije ni elela da postigne (Cf.
Skok, 1934, i Novak, 1962).
Slovenizacija Romana u dalmatinskim gradovima trajala je do kraja srednjeg
vijeka.
Proces diferencijacije latiniteta koji je urodio nastankom razliitih
romanskih jezika tumaio se razliitim razlozima (autori tih teorija esto su im
davali iskljuiv karakter):
1) Razlike u latinskom koje su govorili naseljenici u razliitim dijelovima
Carstva. Te razlike mogu imati veze s:
a) hronolokim razlikama u kolonizaciji;
b) regionalnom provenijencijom naseljenika (R. Menndez Pidal 1950 teza
o oskikoj i umbrijskoj kolonizaciji u Hispaniji koju su kritikovali Meier, Baldinger,
Rohlfs);
c) karakterom kolonizacije (npr. urbanitet : ruralitet) koji nalazi svoj odraz u

kvalitativnoj diferencijaciji latiniteta po regijama (H. Meier 1941, 1996; Ch.
Schmitt 1974).
2) Uticajem supstratskih jezika (G. I. Ascoli 1881-1886 [1887]; Morf 1911).
3) Marginalnim ili sredinjim poloajem pojedinih podruja u Romaniji
(arealne norme, M. G. Bartoli 1945).
4) Razlikama izmeu drutvenih slojeva (E. Lfstedt 1959).
5) Germanskim najezdama, dakle uticajem superstrata u veem dijelu
Romanije (Wartburg 1967 [1971]). Tako su, prema Wartburgu alemanske
najezde odgovorne za odvajanje Galije od Recije, odnosno ol dijalekata od
retoromanskog, dok se individualizacija frankoprovansalskog duguje burgundskom adstratu, a razvoj francuskog vokalizma franakom adstratu.
6) Slabljenje jezine tradicije (kriza kolstva, pismenosti itd.).
Prema Skoku pretslovenski jezici na Balkanu su:
a) vulgarno-latinski, od koga se ouvao rumunski do danas,
b) iliro-traki, od koga je dananji albanski (arnautski) i
c) staro-grki, koji se u dananjoj svojoj fazi zove novojelinski ili
novogrki.
U osnovi postoje dva tipa klasifikacije:
1) genetika ili genealoka i
2) tipoloka.
Tradicionalni modeli genetike klasifikacije u naelu se svode na postupak
grupisanja srodnih jezika, dakle jezika koji su istog porijekla, a mogu se grosso
modo podijeliti na sinhronijske i istorijske (dijahronijske). Istorijska klasifikacija
ima izrazito snanu tradiciju u romanistici: njen plod su dobro poznate romanske
jezike grupe: iberoromanska, galoromanska, retoromanska, italoromanska i
balkanoromanska. Nasuprot tome, tipoloka klasifikacija uzima kao kriterij samo
odreeni broj lingvistikih kriterija, ne i zajedniko porijeklo. Naravno, u tipolokoj klasifikaciji romanskih jezika zajedniko se porijeklo podrazumijeva pa ona
spada u modele tzv. parcijalne tipoloke klasifikacije.
Diezova klasifikacija romanskih jezika zasniva se na morfolokim kriterijima:
istona grupa (vlaki = rumunski, italijanski), sjeverozapadna grupa (francuski,
provansalski), jugozapadna grupa (panski, portugalski). No, njegov izbor jezika
zasniva se na sasvim eksternim kriterijima: sardski i retoromanski izostali su iz
njegove klasifikacije jer nisu Schriftsprachen. Dalmatski, istriotski i frankoprovansalski u tom trenutku jo nisu otkriveni.
Asturijsko-leonski i aragonski smatraju se panskim dijalektima, a katalonski
provansalskim dijalektom.
Ostajui pri tradicionalnim terminima, C. Tagliavini je katalonskom namijenio politiki korektnu ulogu jezika-mosta izmeu Iberoromanije i Galoroma-
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nije, a dalmatskom jezika-mosta izmeu Italoromanije i Balkanske Romanije.

Njegova klasifikacija ve ukljuuje neke elemente tipoloke klasifikacije, naroito u sluaju dalmatskog.
Refleksi lat. -s u Zapadnoj i Istonoj Romaniji

(Rohlfs, Romanische Sprachgeographie... , Mnchen: Beck (1971): 245)
Latinski jezik, odnosno romanski govor zadrao se skoro 2000 godina,

uprkos laganom, ali ustrajnom naseljavanju Slovena, uprkos kasnijem snanom
venetskom uticaju koji se poeo iriti istovremeno sa ekspanzijom politike i
privredne vlasti Mletake republike nekako od 1000 god. pa nadalje.
Klasini jezici nijesu sasvim izbrisali traka i ilirska narjeja, ali su izvrili
snaan uticaj na njihovu strukturu i leksiku. Od narodnog, tzv. vulgarnog latiniteta su se razvili balkanski romanski dijalekti. Upotreba germanskih najamnika u
rimskim trupama dovela je, ve od II-III vijeka, do prodora izvjesnih germanskih
rijei u latinitet ilirskih podruja.
Svaki jezik je podloan leksikim uticajima drugih jezika. Neke od preuzetih
rijeci se efemerno zadravaju u jeziku primaocu da bi, poslije izvjesnog vremena
iezle, dok druge postaju sastavni dio rjenika i ustaljuju se do mjere da se u
svijesti onih koji ih koriste vie ne osjeaju kao rijei stranog porijekla. Meujeziki leksiki uticaji nijesu znaajni samo za lingvistiku, vec i za druge humanistike nauke. Oni govore o prirodi odnosa izmeu razliitih jezika i civilizacija.
Pored komunikacijske funkcije jezik ima i simboliku funkciju preko koje postaje simbol kolektiva, simbol nacionalnog, kulturnog ili vjerskog identiteta.
Preuzimanje rijei se vri uvijek pod vrlo odreenim uslovima i uz izvjesna

ogranienja. Sve rijei podlijeu fonetskim, sintaksikim i morfolokim pravilima
preuzimanja i prilagoavanja jezikom korpusu.
Pored osnovnog leksikog fonda slovenskog porijekla crnogorski jezik sadri
i leksike naslage iz drugih jezika. Tokom svog razvoja on je takoe preuzimao
rijei iz grkog, latinskog, turskog, italijanskog, francuskog, ruskog, njemakog
jezika
Najstarije posuenice vode porijeklo iz balkanskog vulgarnog latiniteta. To
su rijei raun (lat. rationem), koulja (lat. casula). Od VII vijeka grki postaje
zvanini jezik Istonog rimskog Carstva (Vizantije), dok se u primorskim
gradovima na Jadranu zadrava jedna varijanta balkanskog latiniteta. Ta varijanta postepeno prelazi u starodalmatski jezik. To bi bio drugi period prodiranja
romanizama ili tzv. dalmatski period. Dalmatski, ili jezik dalmatinskih Romana
iz predmletakog razdoblja prema Skoku, je izumrli romanski idiom dalmatinske
obale prvih vjekova nae ere koji je sluio kao sredstvo komuniciranja dalmatinskim Romanima odvojenim od matice. Prije svega ovdje je potrebno razdvojiti
stari romanski jeziki sloj, dalmatski od venetskog superstrata. Ono to je karakteristino su dalmatski relikti (ostatak sauvan iz davnih vremena), u kojima je
ouvan izgovor velarnih suglasnika k i g ispred palatalnih vokala i i e, zatim
latinska grupa ti, -te koja je pred vokalom dala (lat. petium u znaenju komad
pea). Venetski sloj je postepeno istisnuo dalmatski jezik, najprije iz javnog
ivota. Narastajui slovenski uticaj je bitno pripomogao da venetski govori
potpuno ugue dalmatski jezik. Stari dalmatski jezik kojem romanistika danas
priznaje status posebnog romanskog jezika, poznat je po dokumentima i
trgovakim pismima s kraja XIII vijeka. Veoma je teko odvojiti posuenice
mletakog porijekla od posuenica toskanskog porijekla koje od XIII vijeka
prodiru na jadransku obalu. Apsolutna predominacija venecijanskog elementa
moe biti prihvaena kada je u pitanju Korula koju je V. Vinja ispitivao, ali ne i
crnogorski krajevi u kojima nailazimo na mletaki i turski uticaj. Preuzimanje
rijei se vri uvijek pod vrlo odreenim uslovima i uz izvjesna ogranienja. Sve
rijei podlijeu fonetskim, sintaksikim i morfolokim pravilima preuzimanja i
prilagoavanja jezikom korpusu.
Ovi leksiki uticaji su bili stupnjeviti i neravnomjerni i zavisili su od istorijskih
i kulturnih okolnosti. U pojedinim periodima bi jedan strani jezik imao dominanatan poloaj i iz njega bi se pozajmljivao veliki broj rijei, a zatim bi taj uticaj
slabio i kao glavni leksiki izvoznik bi se pojavljivao neki drugi jezik.
U odnosu na romanske govore slovenski govori bili su preteno zemljoradnikog tipa i nedostajala im je terminologija za itave vrste djelatnosti. Romanske posuenice u Crnoj Gori pripadaju gotovo svim gramatikim kategorijama. Prirodno je da se meu njima nalazi najvei broj imenica, jer one se
najlake pozajmljuju, a i njihov broj je u jeziku najvei, ali ni ostale vrste rijei
nijesu nezastupljene. Najmanje su zastupljene zamjenice i brojevi koji se najte-
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e i prenose iz jednog jezika u drugi. Na osnovu velikog broja pozajmljenih pridjeva, glagola i priloga, Taljavini je formulisao svoju teoriju o lingvistikoj predominaciji italijanskih jezika na dalmatinskim obalama, ne vodei rauna o
stvarnim dometima znaajne slovensko-romanske jezike simbioze. Da bismo
ukazali na veliki broj imenica koje su iz romanskih jezika i dijalekata apeninskobalkanske aree prodrle u govore u Crnoj Gori, posluiemo se Taljavinijevom
podjelom na apstraktne, konkretne i tehnike imenice.
Broj apstraktnih termina koje smo uoili je veliki, naroito onih koji se
odnose na duhovne osobine ovjekove, kulinarstvo, sudsku i administrativnu
terminologiju, izvjestan broj termina iz oblasti medicine.
U konkretne imenice spadaju nazivi biljaka, ivotinja, djelova tijela.
Iz oblasti tehnikih posuenica meu imenicama imamo primjere iz pomorske terminologije i brodogradnje u kojoj je romanski uticaj posebno doao
do izraaja na itavoj crnogorskoj obali a i ire. Veliki je broj opisnih pridjeva
romanskog porijekla iz svih oblasti prodro u govore u Crnoj Gori.
Geografija, meteorologija i turizam znaajno su zastupljeni meu romanizmima u Boki. Ribarska terminologija na Jadranu uopte obiluje pozajmljenicama iz romanskih jezika.
Kroz upotrebu rijei mogu se vidjeti narodni obiaji, odnos prema porodici i
drutvu, sadraj porodinog i seoskog ivota i niz drugih. Danas je tih rijei neuporedivo manje zahvaljujui raznim unifikacijama i reformama.
Ulazei u jedan drugaiji sistem, rijei su morale da u njemu trae svoje
mjesto, da se prilagoavaju njegovim pravilima, ali i da ih pomalo remete.
Najee se suoavamo sa uvanjem duine vokala romanskih posuenica.
U odnosu na crnogorski jezik i promjene koje su se desile u jezikoj interferenciji je i ta da je starije romansko predakcentno a dalo u slovenskim jezicima
o. To je jedna od najstarijih fonetskih promjena u crnogorskim posuenicama iz
romanskih jezika i see do u preddalmatski period. U najveem broju sluajeva
romansko a daje nae a u svim poloajima. Najea samoglasnika promjena
koja se javlja prilikom prelaska romanskih rijei u crnogorski govor je zamjena
samoglasnika o samoglasnikom u (npr. pirun < ven. piron itd). Romansko u u
rijeima na koje smo naili daje gotovo iskljuivo isti refleks, tj. u, i to u svim
sluajevima (npr. lumer < it. numero).
Romanski samoglasnik e u najveem broju sluajeva uva svoju vrijednost u
svim svim poloajima. Kod odreenih rijei je izvrena promjena samoglasnika i u
e u naglaenom slogu, kao i u nenaglaenom slogu prije i poslije akcenta. Ta je
promjena, prema Skoku, izvrena ve u dalmatsko-romanskom periodu (pr.
incerka< it. in circa). Nepostojano a se redovno javlja u romanskim posuenicama
(banak< it.banco).
Diftong se odrao samo u zatvorenom slogu, a u otvorenome je bio monoftongiran (slivanje dva samoglasnika u jedan) na osnovu zakona asimilacije.
Nastao je monoftong iz naglaenog prvog elementa diftonga u otvorenom slogu:

ou>u.
Diftong uo dao je u naglaenom slogu dugo o: koprifoko< it.coprifuoco.
Vulgarni latinski je poznavao dvije vrste konsonanata, duge i kratke. Ovu razliku su uvali i romanski jezici. Kvantitet konsonanata je pojam koji je nepoznat
fonetici slovenskih jezika. Proces ozvuavanja bezvunog labijala p Skok smatra
pojavom koja karakterie stare romanske govore. Tragovi te promjene su malobrojni (it. privilegio > breveladj). Promjena labiodentala f u zvuni labijal p, kao i
proces ozvuavanja bezvunog labijala p, smatra se takoe za jednu od najstarijih
promjena koja se desila romanskim posuenicama: prigat<lat.frigere.
Izmeu ostalih promjena istai emo este sluajeve metateze u romanskim
posuenicama. Zabiljeili smo primjer stare metateze (izmjena redosljeda elemenata u reenici, obino glasova ali ponekad i slogova, rijei ili drugih jedinica)
likvida (apiko-alveolarni, tipa r i l) za koju Skok takoe kae da predstavlja jednu
od najstarijih promjena i da vodi porijeklo iz ranog romanskog perioda
(klak<it.calce)
Istraeni romanizmi dati su posredstvom etiri osnovna elementa:
preuzetim pojmom, njegovim znaenjem, izvornim oblikom i primjerom govorne
upotrebe.
Neizbjene i oigledne promjene koje nastaju u tom procesu posmatraju se
sa dva stanovita koja se meusobno dopunjuju:
1. U odnosu na rijei romanskog porijekla odakle dolaze
pozajmljenice treba utvrditi kakva je razlika (u obliku i sadrini) izmeu
rijei koje su pozajmljene i prihvaene u jeziku primaocu, dakle, jednog
elementa koji funkcionie u crnogorskom jezikom sistemu, i izvorne
rijei, elementa koji funkcionie u stranom jezikom sistemu.
2. U odnosu na crnogorski jezik koji pozajmljenicu prihvata treba
objasniti kako se pozajmljenica uklapa u pravila naeg jezika i do koje
mjere se asimiluje, tj. koliko podlijee tim pravilima, a koliko ih naruava.
Prilikom opisa fonoloke adaptacije pozajmljenica nastojimo da ustanovimo
regularnost formiranja fonikog oblika pozajmljenice i utvrdimo kakve promjene oblika nastaju u dodiru izmeu dva razliita fonoloka sistema.
Morfoloka adaptacija opisuje uklapanje romanskih pozajmljenica u morfoloki sistem crnogorskog jezika. Semantika adaptacija govori o klasifikaciji
odstupanja znaenja pozajmljenica od znaenja izvorne rijei, o semantikim i
leksikim uticajima na crnogorski jezik i o mjestu romanskih pozajmljenica u
leksikom sistemu crnogorskog jezika. Podjela je u sutini samo metodoloka,
poto na nivou jezikog znaka postoji nerazdvojivost tri jezike ravni, koje i kad
je rije o integraciji leksikih pozajmljenica, stoje u odnosu meusobne zavisnosti i interakcije. Konana adaptacija strane rijei je rezultat adaptacionih procesa na svim jezikim ravnima.
313
314
Jednu od najpreciznijih definicija pojave pozajmljivanja rijei daje . ReDebov:

Leksikim pozajmljivanjem u uem smislu naziva se proces kojim jezik
L1, iji je rjenik formiran i utvrdjen u trenutku T, stie rije M2 (izraz i
sadrinu), koju nije dotle posjedovao i koja pripada rjeniku jezika L2,
(isto tako, formiranom i utvrenom u trenutku T). Taj proces se odvija
od trenutka T do trenutka T1; vrijeme proteklo izmeu T i T1 veoma je
promjenljivo i zavisi od brzine kojom se jedna pojava iz ravni govora
kodifikuje. (Re-Debove 109)
U uobiajenoj terminologiji L1 je jezik primalac (u naem radu crnogorski), a
L2 jezik davalac (romanski jezici). M2 je rije koja pripada jeziku davaocu
model. Preavi u jezik primalac i pretrpjevi promjene uslovljene adaptacionim
pravilima, ona postaje M1 replika.113
Prouavanje pozajmljenica se nalazi na raskru puteva sinhronijske i
dijahronijske lingvistike, opte lingvistike i filologije.
Problem pozajmljenica privukao je panju leksikografa 18.vijeka. Oni su prikupljajui i obraujui leksiki materijal jednog jezika u njemu otkrivali elemente stranog porijekla.
Tek u 19. vijeku, s naglim razvojem istorijske lingvistike, etimoloka i genealoka prouavanja jezika ustanovila su za ovaj period veoma bitno razlikovanje
pozajmljenice i naslijeene rijei. Dominantan termin koji obiljeava meujezike uticaje je mijeanje jezika. Na pitanje da li uopte postoje mijeani jezici,
daju se vrlo razliiti odgovori. Dok R. Rask (R. Rask), A. lajher (A. Schleicher) i
M. Miler (M. Mler) smatraju da do mijeanja jezika moe doi samo u oblasti
leksike, Vitni (W. D. Whitney) i uhart (H. Schuchardt) istiu da se ono moe
oitovati i na gramatikoj ravni. uhart pokree znaajna pitanja razlikovanja
pozajmljenice i strane rijei i bilingvizma.
H. Paul postavlja neka veoma vana naela za prouavanje meujezikih
uticaja: razlog pozajmljivanja, proces unoenja strane rijeci, fonoloka i morfoloka adaptacija, uloga jezika posrednika, znaenjske promjene.
Izuavanje pozajmljenica je bilo veoma znaajno za komparativnu lingvistiku. Tako su Hibman (Hbschmann) i Meje (Meillet) zahvaljujui identifikaciji
velikog broja persijskih pozajmljenica, dokazali da jermenski jezik ini zasebnu
grupu indoevropskih jezika.
Pojava strukturalizma u lingvistici i orijentacija ka sinhronijskim istraivanjima postavile su probleme pozajmljivanja stranih rijei na marginu interesova113
Model i replika su termini koje je uveo E. Haugen The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing,
Language, 26, 1950, p. 210.
nja. To se naroito osjea u Americi, gdje praktino nema nikakvih studija o pozajmljivanju kod predstavnika bihejvioristikog pravca u lingvistici.
Evropski lingvisti, meutim, nijesu potpuno napustili ovu vrstu istraivanja.
Termin mijeanje jezika se postepeno zamjenjuje preciznijim terminom pozajmljivanje. Poetkom 20. vijeka problemom meujezikih uticaja bave se naroito holandski lingvisti i otvaraju novi pravac u prouavanju pozajmljenica (Cf.
De Grave). Pozajmljenice se posmatraju kao svjedoanstva istorijskih kretanja i
dodira razliitih kultura. Izmeu dva svjetska rata ovaj pravac slijedi Gisenska
skola ija je osnovna preokupacija meusobni uticaj civilizacija putem jezika i
koja unosi izvjesnu deskriptivistiku strogost u ovu vrstu prouavanja.
Na osnovu istraivanja uticaja amerikog engleskog na norveki jezik u
govoru iseljenika u SAD, E. Haugen (E. Haugen), 1950. godine rediguje i objavljuje znaajni teorijski lanak The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing, u kome daje
preciznu klasifikaciju pojava vezanih za pozajmljivanje rijei. On se posebno
interesuje za promjene koje se uoavaju izmeu pozajmljene rijei, asimilovane
u jeziku primaocu (replike), i originala iz jezika davaoca (modela) tako da uvodi
razlikovanje izmeu pojava importacije i supstitucije jezikih jedinica.
J. Vajnrajh, 1953.godine objavljuje studiju Languages in Contact, u kojoj
obrauje pojave jezike interferencije na fonolokoj, morfolokoj i leksikoj
ravni. Posebnu panju Vajnrajh poklanja problemima bilingvizma te drutvenih i
kulturnih meujezikih uticaja. Znaaj ovog djela je ukazivanje na brojnost i
raznovrsnost faktora koji uestvuju u procesu meujezikih uticaja i upuivanje
na iroki pristup prouavanju jezikih dodira.
Detaljni sintetiki pregled problema meujezikih uticaja daje R. Filipovi u
knjizi Teorija jezika u kontaktu (Uvod u lingvistiku jezinih dodira, Zagreb,1986).
Filipovi prihvata Haugen-Vajnrajhovu teoriju, ali je dopunjuje uvodei podjelu
na primarnu i sekundarnu adaptaciju i insistirajui na vanosti razgranienja posrednog i neposrednog pozajmljivanja.
Relativno veoma rano poeli su da se izuavaju ostaci romanizama u gradovima Dalmacije i Primorja koji su se sastojali od starodalmatskih ostataka i venecijanskih i italijanskih rijei koje su prodrle u te govore. Prouavanje dalmatskog jezika je skoranjeg datuma i znatno je ogranieno skromnou materijala
kojim se raspolae. Ovaj jezik zanima romanistiku prije svega zbog njegove
izuzetne sudbine, dalje, zbog uticaja venetskog, sjevernoitalijanskog dijalekta, a
za nas je zanimljiv zbog prouavanja romanskih uticaja na obalske dijalekte u
Dalmaciji i Crnoj Gori.
Prvu studiju koja se bavila iskljuivo problemom romanskih posuenica napisao je Kurelac. Prouavanjem ovog problema bavili su se Budmani, uhart,
Zore, Mareti, Bartoli, Reetar, Skok, Bari, Mileti, Mavera, od lingvista novijeg
vremena Taljavini, Aleksi, Tomanovi, Deanovi, Jernej, Vinja, Muljai.
Izuzetno znaajan problem u svakom radu o pozajmljenicama je njihova
identifikacija.
315
316
Kako navodi Deroa u svojoj knjizi Lemprunt linguistique, Paris, 1956 (4756), postoji nekoliko kriterijuma za identifikaciju porijekla rijei:
1. Istorijski kriterijum. Pisana svjedoanstva o istoriji jedne rijei,
o njenoj pojavi i upotrebi u jeziku primaocu su veoma vani podaci na
osnovu kojih se mogu ustanoviti porijeklo i put odreene rijei. U
istorijski kriterijum bi trebalo uvrstiti i podatke o kontaktima izmeu dvije
nacije u odreenom iskustvenom podruju.
2. Fonetski kriterijum. L. Deroa za ovaj kriterijum kae: fonetski
kriterijum je za lingvistu neosporno najpouzdaniji i najznaajniji.
3. Morfoloki kriterijum. Neki prefiksi ili sufiksi mogu da ukau na
porijeklo rijei. Npr: oblik prefiksa dez- u rijeima: dezartikulacija, dezinfekcija, dezintegracija, dezorganizacija upuuje na francusko porijeklo
ovih rijei. Morfoloki kriterijum se koristi mnogo ree nego fonetski.
4. Semantiki kriterijum. Ukoliko neka rije ima vie eventualnih
izvora, ona najvjerovatnije potie iz jezika u kome ta rije ima isto znaenje kao u jeziku primaocu. L. Deroa pak s pravom primjeuje da je ovaj
kriterijum najmanje pouzdan. Rijei lake mijenjaju znaenje nego oblik.
Proces integracije strane rijei odvija se u vie faza i sa dva stanovita: sa
stanovita enkodera i sa stanovita dekodera. On traje od pojave strane rijei pa
do njene potpune kodifikacije.
U prvoj fazi, govorno lice koje upotrebljava stranu rije potpuno je svjesno
da ona predstavlja nepoznati elemenat u jeziku i osjea potrebu da je objasni
radi razumljivosti iskaza. U ovoj fazi se esto javlja metalingvistika upotreba
rijei i izraza. Sledea etapa iste faze je jukstapozicija objanjenja ili prevoda
izmeu zagrada. U ovoj fazi uopte nije izvjesno da li e ona postati pozajmljenica, to jest da li e biti prihvaena.
U drugoj fazi, strana rije se vie ne osjea kao potpuno strani elemenat u
jeziku tako da se njeno tumaenje ne daje, ali se istovremeno uvia i da nije
potpuno integrisana, to se posebno oznaava grafikim sredstvima. Najee
se pie kurzivom.
U treoj fazi se moe govoriti o pozajmljenici. Vie se ne oklijeva u upotrebi
strane rijei niti se ona grafiki izdvaja. Ona je fonoloki, morfoloki i semantiki
adaptirana i potpuno je kodifikovana u jeziku primaocu. J. Emble smatra da je
integracija potpuno zavrena kada se ne moe vie zamijeniti nijednom drugom
rijei. Ne bismo se sloili sa ovim miljenjem koje potpuno iskljuuje sinonimiju.
Treba takoe razlikovati ksenizam i pozajmljenicu. Ksenizam je strana rije
koja oznaava vanjeziku realnost koja ne postoji u iskustvu nacije primaoca.
Ksenizmi su rijei bez referenta u jeziku primaocu, ili one koje odraavaju
posebna obiljeja nekog naroda, folklor ili lokalnu boju.
Ksenizam je strana rije koja nije potpuno integrisana u jezik primalac, budui da u njemu nema adekvatni referent. No, ukoliko se ovaj pojavi, ksenizam
lako prelazi u pozajmljenicu (Popovi 21).
Distinkciju izmeu dvije vrste jezikih uticaja, kulturnih i intimnih uvodi L.

Blumfield (1933, 444). U nedostatku adekvatnijih, preuzimamo Blumfildove
termine koji su prihvaeni u terminologiji kontaktne lingvistike. Moda bi bolje
odgovarali termini neposredni i posredni jeziki uticaji, no njih zadravamo za
odreivanje uloge jezika posrednika.
Prema Bloomfieldu (1970: 444-460), kulturnim posuivanjem preuzimaju se
rijei za nove stvari i pojmove, dok do intimnog posuivanja dolazi kada se dva ili
vie jezika upotrebljavaju na istom geografskom podruju ili unutar iste politike
zajednice, pri emu tzv. vii jezik postaje izvorom posuivanja za jezik iji je
sociolingvistiki status nii. U novije doba, slinu distinkciju uvodi Carol Myers
Scotton (1997: 169), koristei se terminima kulturno i temeljno posuivanje
(cultural and core borrowing). Kulturnim se posuivanjem popunjavaju leksike
praznine u jeziku primaocu, dok se kod temeljnog posuivanja (core borrowing)
esto preuzimaju rijei za koje postoje domai ekvivalenti, to u krajnjem sluaju
moe dovesti do releksifikacije, zamjene domaeg fundusa rijei stranim. U uslovima stabilne dvojezinosti na nivou jezine zajednice moe doi do razvoja
kontaktnih sinonima koji pripadaju razliitim registrima ili su stilski obiljeeni.
Posrednici u procesu kulturnog posuivanja u pravilu su obrazovani dvojezini
govornici, dok kod posrednog posuivanja obrazovanje dvojezinoga govornika
nema naroitu ulogu. Kulturno se posuivanje najee odvija pismenim, a intimno usmenim putem. Dok kulturno posuivanje utie samo na periferiju jezinoga sistema, intimno posuivanje moe uticati na sve njegove aspekte, ukljuujui
fonologiju, sintaksu i morfologiju. Pri tome jezini dodiri na sinhronijskom nivou
mogu dovesti do varijacija u jeziku, a na dijahronijskom do jezikih promjena.
Intimno pozajmljivanje nastaje u neposrednom dodiru dvije jezike zajednice koje koegzistiraju na istoj teritoriji. Ova vrsta dodira srijee se u graninim
podrujima izmeu dva jezika, izmeu jezika nacionalnih manjina i jezika ire
zajednice, ili izmeu jezika iseljenikih grupa i jezika zemlje u koju su se iselili.
Blumfild ovdje razlikuje vii ili dominantni i nii jezik i smatra da je uticaj jednosmjeran, od vieg ka niem jeziku.
Osnovni razlog pozajmljivanja stranih rijei je potreba da se imenuje neki
dotad nepoznati referent, koji prema tome nema naziv u odreenom jeziku.
Drugi razlog je potpuna leksika praznina u jeziku primaocu. Ponekad je
strana rije jeziki ekonominija jer je odgovarajua leksika zamjena sloena
jezika jedinica.
Raspravljajui o uzrocima pozajmljivanja, L. Deroa ih dijeli na dvije grupe:
la ncessit pratique i les raisons de coeur, to A. Bonar naziva denotativnim i konotativnim pozajmljenicama.114
114
H. Bonnard Lemprunt, GLLF, t. 2, pp. 1584 -1585.
317
318
Houp osporava ovu podjelu: Ona je ostatak iz vremena kada je glavni cilj
lingvistikih studija bio normativan, a istraivanja leksike interferencije podreena purizmu.
Strane rijei koje imaju domai ekvivalent, mogu biti eufemizmi ili se pak
mogu koristiti sa pejorativnom konotacijom.
Bilo da je rije o intimnom ili kulturnom dodiru izmeu dva jezika, gotovo je
uvijek, u odreenoj eposi, uticaj jednog jezika jai a pozajmljivanje u jednom
smjeru mnogo intenzivnije nego u drugom.
Romanski leksiki uticaj na mnoge evropske jezike, pa meu njima i na
crnogorski, posljedica je njihovog vjekovnog prisustva na ovim prostorima, kao i
njihovog ogromnog uticaja u razliitim epohama.
Za razvoj jezika je znaajno da li su jezici koji jedan na drugi utiu, slini ili
ne; iz iskustva znamo da su jezike interferencije lake meu srodnim, a manje
brojne i ree izmeu meusobno stranih jezika; jedino leksika nije toliko pod
uticajem srodnosti.
Rije pozajmljena iz stranog jezika uklapa se u domae morfoloke kategorije i pri tom poprima morfoloka obiljeja relevantna za jezik primalac, ili gubi izvorna obiljeja ukoliko ona u njemu nijesu relevantna.
Za istraivanje morfoloke adaptacije pozajmljenica vano je definisati
oblik rijei od kojeg polazimo u morfolokoj analizi. To je osnovni oblik
rijei, koji je s morfolokog stanovita neutralan. (Filipovi 1986: 117)
Osnovni oblik je onaj koji se u renicima nalazi kao odrednica (oblik
nominativa jednine za imenice, nominativa jednine mukog roda za pridjeve,
infinitiva za glagole). Osnovni oblik trpi dvije vrste promjena. S jedne strane, on
ulazi u sistem fleksije, a sa druge, u sistem tvorbe rijei.
Fleksioni i derivacioni procesi sa stanovita proizvodnje oblika rijei imaju
dosta slinosti: oba pretpostavljaju formiranje jezike zajednice od jedne osnove i jednog vezanog morfema. Znaajne su i razlike izmeu ova dva procesa:
fleksioni proces ne mijenja oznaenik, dok derivacioni proces mijenja odnose
izmeu oznaenika i oznaitelja. Rezultat derivacionog procesa je stvaranje novih leksikih jedinica (Cf. Lyons 3-4). Fleksioni oblici omoguavaju sintaksiko
uklapanje rijei u ire jedinice, a oni nastali derivacijom i kompozicijom, pri emu svaki ima svoju fleksionu paradigmu, predstavljaju leksiku ekspanziju osnovnog oblika rijei.
Iako je osnovni motiv pozajmljivanja strane rijei njeno znaenje, semantiki aspekt je dosad najslabije istraeni dio opte problematike leksikog pozajmljivanja. O adaptaciji znaenja pozajmljene rijei govorimo kada se pozajmljuje
cjelokupni jeziki znak, i izraz i sadrina.
O pozajmljivanju znaenja govorimo kada se ne pozajmljuje cjelokupni jeziki znak, ve samo njegova sadrina. Pozajmljivanje znaenja je prenoenje sa-
drine iz jezika davaoca, dok izraz pripada jeziku primaocu, bilo da se znaenje
strane rijei prenosi na neku domau (semantika pozajmljenica), bilo da se
pozajmljuje odnos izmeu izraza i sadrine strane rijei (kalk).
L. Deroa (L. Deroy 1956: 261-269) iako ne pravi formalne podjele, ukazuje
na neke promjene znaenja:
a) znaenje replike je jednako znaenju modela u trenutku pozajmljivanja,
no znaenje modela je vremenom evoluiralo te na sinhronijskoj ravni dolazi do
pojave lanih prijatelja;115
b) prilikom prelaska u drugi jezik, znaenje rijei esto gubi specifine
nijanse, naroito ako prelazi iz specijalizovanog u opti renik;
c) pojednostavljenje znaenja modela: pozajmljuje se samo jedno znaenje
rijei koja u jeziku davaocu ima vie znaenja;
d) vlastite imenice iz jezika davaoca mogu postati zajednike imenice u
jeziku primaocu.
R. Filipovi (1968: 161-168) u znaenjski nivo takoe uvodi podjelu na
primarnu i sekundarnu adaptaciju i ona moe biti veoma koristan metodoloki
postupak za analizu znaenja pozajmljenica. On najvie panje posveuje promjenama u semantikoj ekstenziji i razlikuje:
1. nultu semantiku ekstenziju, to jest potpunu podudarnost znaenja
modela i replike;
2. suenje znaenja i to a) suenje broja znaenja i b) suenje znaenjskog
polja;
3. proirenje znaenja: a) proirenje broja znaenja i b) proirenje
znaenjskog polja.
Za razliku od semantike pozajmljenice, gdje rezultat jezikog uticaja nije
stvaranje nove rijei u jeziku primaocu, ve se znaenje strane rijei prenosi na
postojeu domau, kalk je reprodukcija jedne strane leksike strukture pomou
domaih elemenata. Ishod kalkiranja je nastanak novog leksema ili frazema u
jeziku primaocu. Kalkirati se mogu samo polimorfemski leksemi i vie jezike
jedinice iji su elementi znaenjski transparentni. Drugim rijeima, kalkiraju se
samo leksemi koji su motivisani (Unbegaun 19). Teorijski, prilikom postupka
kalkiranja strani model se najprije ralanjuje, a zatim se novi leksem stvara po
istom obrascu, ali od domaih morfema.
115
Napomena: u procesu znaenjske adaptacije nekih rijei semantemi replike i semantemi modela
toliko su se udaljili da se njihova znaenja ne podudaraju ni u jednom kontekstu. Prevodei ove rijei
sa jezika primaoca na jezik davalac i obrnuto, nikad neemo dobiti odgovarajui model, odnosno
repliku. Ove rijei imaju dakle slian izraz u jeziku primaocu i jeziku davaocu, ali im je sadrina
razliita. est slucaj lanih prijatelja srijee se medju internacionalizmima, rijeima najee grkog
i latinskog porijekla, ali se njihovo znaenje moe razlikovati u pojedinim jezicima. Na primjer, cr.
agitovati (fr. militer, faire de la propagande) i fr. agiter (mahati, protresti, uzrujavati)
319
320
Najvaniji razlog pozajmljivanja rijei je, ponoviemo, popunjavanje

leksikih praznina. U najveem broju sluajeva strane rijei se preuzimaju radi
leksike realizacije specifinih razlika koje ne iskazuju domae rijei.
Strani jeziki uticaji ne mogu se izbjei ni u jednom jeziku. Oni proistiu iz
procesa internacionalizacije jezika. Strani jeziki uticaji su podrani sve veom
privrednom, politikom, kulturnom i drugom vrstom komunikacije i jezikih
meukontakata. Osamdeset procenata meunarodne komunikacije odvija se
na engleskom u oblasti kompjuterske informacije. Takodje se pokazuje da je
tempo jezikih promjena esto jako ubrzan u razdobljima intenzivnih kulturnih
promjena.
U toku govora, govornici stalno prilagoavaju svoje lingvistike i kulturne
navike kako bi se obezbijedilo to bolje razumijevanje i prihvatljivost, vri se
dakle aproksimacija produktivnog i receptivnog iskustva, s tenjom da se postigne to vea jedinstvenost komunikacije.
Iz prethodne analize proizilazi da se sociokulturni elementi manje ili vie
preslikavaju u jeziku. U tom pogledu vokabular je od prvorazrednog znaaja.
Budui da svaki pojedinac cijeli zivot komucira, njegova se sociokulturna situacija neprestano mijenja, zbog ega se i njegov jeziki repertoar neprestano
modifikuje i proiruje. Jezicki polisistemi i repertoari odraz su i rezultat drutvenih stanja i procesa. Interakcija koja rezultira povezivanjem pojedinaca i/ili grupa, jednako kao i razne drustvene promjene, podstice medjusobni uticaj komunikacijskih sistema. Jezik je dakle slozen, otvoren i dinamican sistem, determinisan i utemeljen na sociokulturnim parametrima.
Referencijalno znaenje odraava objekte u univerzumu i ono daje sadrinu
lingvistikoj komponenti, a to istovremeno znai vezu izmeu lingvistike i sociokulturne komponente. Ali vokabular pored referencijalnog znaenja obuhvata i
pojmovno znaenje, dakle, znaenje projicirano kroz prizmu govornika. Odavde
se vidi povezanost vokabulara i sociokulturnih inilaca. Otuda, dok se obrauju
strukture i vokabular, istovremeno se implicitno odreuju elementi drutva i
kulture jer je kultura kompleks koji ukljuuje znanje, vjerovanje, umjetnost,
moral, obiaje, navike i mnoge druge elemente koje prima ovjek neke zajednice
(Finocchiaro 58-59).
Literatura:
Bammesberger, A.,and T. Vennemann. Languages in Prehistoric Europe.
Heidelberg: Winter, 2001.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1970.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. Genes, Peoples, and Languages. Penguin, 1993.
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LANGUAGES IN CONTACT AND CONTRAST

Language contacts can be studied in three directions: language acquisition; b)
language borrowing; c) translation. This paper presents a research in all the three
directions. The process of language borrowing is analysed on four levels:
phonological, morphological, semantic, and syntactic. The adaptation of a model
(a foreign word) shows primary and secondary changes that take place on all four
levels. The adaptation on the quoted levels is carried out according to the three
types of transphonemization (zero, compromise, and free), three types of
transmorphemization (zero, compromise, and complete), and in accordance to
the degree of the change of meaning on the semantic level.
Keywords: languages in contact, linguistic borrowing, primary and secondary
adaptation, indirect borrowing, direct borrowing, foreign word, foreign loan,
loan-word.
UDK 811'371
Kognitivni pristup znaenju
Gordana urkovi
Apstrakt: Kako se ispoljava mnogostruko znaenje u razliitim kontekstima? Koje su to

znaenjske jedinice, koji su njihovi potencijali i ogranienja? Kognitivni pristup
tumaenju znaenjskih jedinica podrazumjeva potencijal koji obuhvata sve informacije,
kako one dobijene iz upotrebe jezika, tako i one dobijene iz iskustva, doivljaja svijeta,
koja ne moraju biti lingvistike prirode.
Alvud, Lajons, Redi, Koveces, Lejkof i Donson blie razvijaju tu ideju znaenjskog
potencijala, to je u ovom radu ukljopljeno u posebnu vrstu znaenjskog potencijala
metafore. Konceptualna metafora objanjava znaenje kroz dva domena, ciljni i izvorni,
koje osim aktiviranja potencijalnih znaenja, kroz univerzalna senzorna i motorna
iskustva u kojima je jedan od tih domena ukorijenjen, neizbjeno sadri i znaenjska
ogranienja koja su najee kulturoloki i iskustveno uslovljena.
Kljune rijei: znaenje, potencijali, ogranienja, rije, znaenjska jedinica, kanalisana i
konceptualna metafora, ciljni domen, izvorni domen, iskustvo
Kada govorimo o znaenju u jeziku injenica je da smo ga svjesni, ali nijesmo

svjesni njegove mnogostruke prirode, ni toga kako je ono predstavljeno u umu.
Nijesmo svjesni ni svih mehanizama koji se mogu primijeniti na to znaenje. to
se tie znaenja rijei, tradicionalan pogled na znaenje rijei smatra da rijei
imaju fiksna i odreena znaenja, naravno, u sluaju polisemije i homonimije
vie znaenja. Same rijei u rjeniku su navedene i strukturirane polazei od ove
pretpostavke. Meutim, obini govornici nekog jezika e imati potekoa da
objasne znaenje rijei, prije svega zato to se znaenje rijei uobliava u
kontekstu, u reenici, ali i zbog toga to je veina reenica znaenjski jedinstvena.
Prije nego to nastavimo sa daljom razradom znaenja i znaenjskih potencijala i ogranienja koji se javljaju u raznim jedinicama sadraja jezikog sistema, treba istai da pojedini autori svjesno odstupaju od upotrebe termina
rije prilikom oznaavanja osnovne znaenjske jedinice jezikog sistema, smatrajui ga tradicionalnim i nedovoljno preciznim. Tako F. de Sosir (1983), zaetnik moderne lingivstike, govori o jezikom znaku kojeg ini veza izmeu
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oznaitelja oblika rijei u smislu niza glasova ili slova i oznaenika predstave
koja se javlja u naem umu na koju oznaitelj upuuje. On dalje razdvaja govorni in (la parole) od jezikog sistema (la langue), gdje govorni in predstavlja
slobodni izraz pojedinca, dok jeziki sistem predstavlja strukturu sa tano
utvrenim jedinicama. T. Pri (1997) navodi morfemu kao osnovnu jedinicu
sadraja takvog jezikog sistema. Morfem ima formu, funkciju i sadrinu, i
smatra se jezikim znakom, dok se istovremeno javlja u sastavu osnovne jedinice leksikona odreenog jezika lekseme, koja takoe objedinjuje formu, funkciju, sadrinu, ali ima i samostalnu upotrebu. On smatra da
sledei argumentaciju J. Lyonsa (1968, 1977), P. H. Matthewsa (1991,
prvobitno jo 1974) i L. Bauera (1983, 1988), terminom leksema (ili
potpunije re-leksema) oznaava se apstraktna jedinica leksikona,
utvrene forme, funkcije, sadrine i upotrebe, koju na planu izraaja, u
razliitim okruenjima, realizuju razliiti oblici (ili potpunije re-oblici)
fonoloki, u govoru, i ortografski, u pisanju, svaki sa poneto modifikovanom formom, funkcijom, sadrinom i upotrebom. (Pri 16)
Meutim, s obzirom na prvenstveno kognitivni pristup, u tumaenju znaenjske jedinice u smislu njenog potencijala i ogranienja, dalje emo ipak koristiti termin rije, gdje njen znaenjski potencijal obuvata sve informacije, kako
one dobijene iz upotrebe jezika tako i one dobijene iz iskustva, doivljaja svijeta
koja ne moraju biti lingvistike prirode. Alvud navodi da se
znaenjski potencijali aktiviraju kroz razne kognitivne operacije. Neke od
njih se podstiu kroz upotrebu jezika, neke se mogu aktivirati nezavisno
od jezika. Bez obzira na to da li su ili nijesu lingvistiki aktivirane aktivacija
znaenjskih potencijala uvijek se odvija u kontekstu koji stvara odreene
uslove za tu aktivaciju, gdje ti uslovi odreuju nain na koji se potencijal
aktivira. (Allwood 33)
Osnovu kognitivnih operacija koje specifino aktiviraju znaenjske potencijale
rijei, ine osnovne kognitivne operacije, kao to su: sposobnost razlikovanja,
apstrakcija slinosti, tipifikacija, reifikacija, itd. Sve te operacije postoje nezavisno
od jezika, ali se proiruju i detaljnije obrazlau kada se dovedu u vezu sa jezikom.
Alvud dijeli kontekstualne zahtjeve koji doprinose aktiviranju lingvistikog
znaenja rijei na lingvistike i vanlingvistike zahtjeve. Lingvistiki zahtjevi aktivacije znaenja dijele vokabular na kategorematske (korijeni i osnove koji se
obino koriste kao imenice, glagoli i pridjevi, iji znaenjski potencijali daju
konkretna, kompleksnija znaenja utvrena kontekstom) i sintagorematske
izraze (veznici, prijedlozi, zamjenice, kvantifikatori, neki prilozi, derivacioni i
inflektivni sufiksi, zatim 'konstrukcioni tipovi' kao to su predikacija, atribucija,
itd., ije korienje dozvoljava aktivaciju semantiko-epistemikih operacija,

podgrupe optih kognitivnih operacija).
Neki od vanlingvistikih zahtjeva koji takoe odreuju znaenje su perceptivno dostupna informacija u govornoj situaciji (radi odreivanja znaenja
deiktiki korienih zamjenica i priloga, radi prostornog i vremenskog odreenja
teme razgovora pomou vremenskih odrednica i priloga), zatim zahtjevi koje
namee aktivnost koju govornik i slualac sprovode (informacija ili aktivnost pomou koje se odreuje funkcija onog to je reeno), kao i druge aktivirane
informacije koje mogu biti izvan trenutne situacije ili aktivnosti.
Znaenjski potencijal jedne rijei obuhvata kontinuum znaenja i vodi oekivanju, otvorenosti i spremnosti za nove nijanse znaenja. Govornici jednog jezika proizvode i pohranjuju nova znaenja, oni posjeduju mehanizme za djelimino aktiviranje znaenjskih potencijala sa osvrtom na kontekst koji se uvijek
mogu iznova koristiti. Jednom aktivirani ti tragovi aktivacije se pohranjuju, a
mnoga nova znaenja se mogu aktivirati ili kao reaktivacija prethodnih ili kao
kreativna aktivacija novih znaenja. Otuda dolazi do pojave polisemije i homonimije. Lajons predstavlja polisemiju i homonimiju kao dva inioca koji uzrokuju
leksiku vieznanost. Polisemija u tom kontekstu predstavlja pravilnu varijaciju
u znaenju, bilo da se radi o nivou vrste ili nivou uestalosti javljanja. Ona istovremeno odraava i jeziku ekonomiju i semantiko-pragmatiku kreativnost, a
temelji se na prenosu znaenja, u smislu postojanja jednog dominantnog
znaenja iz kojeg je izvedeno vie razliitih ali srodnih znaenja. Homonimija
predstavlja nevezane znaenjske potencijale i nepostojanje pravilnih procesa
aktivacije u odreenom kontekstu. Ona dovodi u vezu istovjetne forme dvije
rijei i njima pridruena razliita i nesrodna znaenja. Unutar homonimije postoji pojava potpune homonimije koja ukazuje na istovjetnost i fonolokih i grafolokih oblika i djelimine homonimije, u smislu homofonije kod fonoloke
istovjetnosti i homografije kod grafoloke istovjetnosti.
Postojanje pojava poput polisemije i homonimije ukazuje na mogunost
uspostavljanja razlike izmeu takozvanog denotativnog znaenja, koje se
smatra osnovnim za jedan lingvistiki izraz i prenesenog znaenja, koje je
proisteklo iz doslovnog najee putem metaforinog prenosa.
Alvud takoe smatra da je znaenje apstraktan fenomen koji se razumije
kroz metafore:
Jedan od najneshvatljivijih, ali u isto vrijeme i najprisutnijih aspekata
naeg ivota je fenomen samog jezika i njegova uloga u naem
mentalnom ivotu i meuljudskim odnosima. Moda je najmisteriozniji,
ali i najspecifiniji aspekat jezika njegovo znaenje. Mi odmah
pripisujemo znaenja lingvistikim izrazima, a da uopte nije oigledno
ta su to znaenja, niti kako to da kompleksni izrazi koje je govornik
upravo stvorio, imaju znaenja koja imaju. Znaenje kao osobina jezika i
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lingvistikih izraza jedan je od onih apstraktnih fenomena koji nalae da

se razumije putem metafore. (Allwood 33)
U istom radu Alvud navodi ideju Majkla Redija iz njegovog rada Kanalisana
metafora. Sutna ideje je da se jezika komunikacija moe predstaviti u vidu
kanalisane metafore, a ona obuhvata niz metafora koje motiviu znaajan dio
govora o jeziku i o ulozi jezika u komunikaciji. Ta metafora prikazuje lingvistike
izraze kao sudove ija je sadrina u stvari znaenje, a izraavanje bi znailo
stavljanje sadraja (znaenja) u sudove (rijei). Dalja razrada tog preslikavanja
izvornog u ciljni domen gleda na komunikaciju kao na slanje sudova zajedno sa
njihovim sadrajem kroz kanalisane metafore njihovom primaocu sluaocu.
Razumijevanje je u stvari primanje tih sudova i zadravanje njihovog sadraja.
Meutim, Redi tvrdi da takvo predstavljanje komunikacije ima dosta nedostataka i moe povesti istraivanje u pogreanom pravcu. On tvrdi da ukoliko
nekome aljemo neku stvar, mi vie nemamo tu stvar, gubimo je, dok je primalac ima. Meutim kad mi dajemo nekome ideju (putting ideas into words, or
getting ideas across), onda primalac prima, ali poiljalac je nije izgubio. Ako zaemo u dublje istraivanje tzv. preslikavanja iz izvornog u ciljni domen, dolazimo do toga da mi pakujemo ideje u rijei, pa stoga zakljuujemo da su rijei
prazne, da nemaju znaenje, ali da se mogu ispuniti sadrajem po govornikovom nahoenju.
Redi kritiki zakljuuje da bi to onda znailo da neki izraz moe da znai bilo
ta to govornik eli da taj izraz znai, to naravno nije tano. Postavlja se pitanje da li se ideje shvataju kao ve definisane stvari koje su unaprijed postojale
i koje se ubacaju u prikladan sud i da li se onda metafora odnosi na ideje
veliine rijei i na pojedinane sudove ili one odgovaraju komplesknijim mislima
koje se stavljaju u kompleksnije lingvistike izraze. Jedno od glavnih pitanja koje
se postavlja je ta govornik da radi ako se desi da se pojam koji eli da
verbalizuje ne poklopi sa nekim unaprijed odreenim sadrajem rijei?
Za kanalisanu metaforu se smatra da ima poguban uticaj jer moe voditi
pogrenom razumijevanju prirode verbalne komunikacije. Metafore podrazumijevaju reifikaciju znaenja znaenja su, navodno, predstavljena kao objekti sa
fiksnim i unaprijed odreenim osobinama koje se dodjeljuju lingvistikim
izrazima i podrazumijeva se da su ta znaenja koja slualac dobija iz lingvistikog
izraza identina u idealnim okolnostima sa znaenjima koja govornik namjerava
da im d, te da je stoga sve to je manje od toga neuspjela ili nesavrena
komunikacija. Redi jo smatra i da kanalisana metafora marginalizuje druga,
moda plodonosnija polja istraivanja jer iskljuuje mogunost da lingvistiki
izrazi moda naelno ne mogu da simbolizuju sve aspekte, sve strane
konceptualizacije koje je govornik namjeravao da iskae. Ono to govornik kae
su samo nagovjetaji onog to namjerava da izrazi i on daje instrukcije sluaocu
da d sve od sebe u cilju konstruisanja najvjerovatnijeg znaenja, a, u okolnosti-
ma govornog dogaanja, sluaoevog akumuliranog znanja jezika i njegovog sjeanja prethodnih lingvistikih susreta. Meutim, kanalisana metafora navodno
zahtijeva od sluaoca veoma malo rada na verbalnoj komunikaciji. Po tom shvatanju sve to slualac treba da uradi je da isprazni sudove, to je vrlo jednostavno.
Slualac je u tom procesu, dakle, samo pasivni primalac namijenjene mu poruke.
To je, svakako, nepotpuno tumaenje kanalisane metafore, pa iziskuje da se
drugaije pristupi njenom shvatanju kako bi se dao zadovoljavajui odgovor na
to pitanje. Lingvistiki izraz na engleskom jeziku put ideas into words koji u
prevodu glasi sprovesti ideje u rijei ili izraziti ideje rijeima bolje odslikava
shvatanje kanalisane metafore gdje se njeno znaenje preslikava iz izvornog u
ciljni domen. Dakle, ideje se ne stavljaju u prazne sudove, u rijei koje nemaju
znaenje same po sebi, ve se ideje sprovode rijeima, rijei se na neki nain
oivljavaju idejama, samim svojstvom toga to su sprovodnici. Jezik bi se onda
moda bolje mogao okarakterisati kao kanal, a ne kao sud. Ako se prihvati da su
rijei sprovodnici ideja, njihovo znaenje moe da bude modifikovano u zavisnosti od onoga to se sprovodi, tj. vrste ideje. Na primjer, slikovito kazano, sud
moe da bude neka providna zdjela od obojenog stakla. Ako je staklo ute boje,
a neka ideja koja se stavlja u to staklo je, na primjer, plave boje kad ta ideja ue
u sud on e biti donekle izmijenjen bie zelene boje. Znai, sama rije
stakleni sud, je jo uvijek ostao staklen, ali umjesto da je ute boje kao ranije on
je sad zelene boje koja je slina utoj i koja je bila uta dok u njoj nije bilo plave
boje, tj. ideje. I ta ista rije e kad se ne bude koristila za neku plavu ideju
opet biti uta ili ne zavisno od njene izvornosti. To znai da se ideje ne mogu
shvatiti kao unaprijed definisane stvari, niti sudovi kao nepromjenjivi. Zato govornik bira prikladan sud svjestan njegove odreene promjenljivosti. Ovdje se, svakako, ne uzima u obzir samo pojedinana rije, ve moe da bude i cijeli izraz. to
se tie znaenja govornikove ideje i jezika koji izraava datu ideju, to nije neki
ematski posao biranja savrenih sudova, ve je to kreativni posao biranja suda
koji u datom trenutku, u toj kulturi, moe najbolje da izrazi govornikovu ideju.
Kognitivni pristup tumaenju metafora na kljuni pojam definie kao
razumjevanje jednog konceptualnog domena pomou drugog konceptualnog
domena. Neki primjeri koji taj postupak ilustruju su: tumaenje ivota kao
putovanja, diskusije preko leksike i frazeologije koja se koristi u ratu, ljubavi
pomou izraza vezanih za putovanje, teorije pomou graevinskih izraza, ideja
pomou gastronomskih izraza itd. Takav pravac tumaenja definie metafore
kao konceptualne koje se sastoje iz dva domena. Taj jedan domen razumijvae
se pomou drugog domena. Konceptualni domen moe da predstavlja bilo koju
koherentnu organizaciju iskustva. Tako, na primjer, Lejkof i Donson (1980)
navode da ljudi imaju koherentno organizovano znanje o putovanju na koje
mogu da se oslanjaju kada ele da razumiju ljubav (Mi smo na raskrsnici. Zaglavili smo se. Moramo da nastavimo svak svojim putem. Ova veza je orsokak. Mislim da ova veza ne vodi nikuda. itd.)
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Imajui ovo na umu, mi moramo da razlikujemo konceptualnu metaforu od

metaforinog lingvistikog izraza. Lingvistiki izrazi su rijei i izrazi koji dolaze iz
jezika ili terminologije konkretnijeg konceptualnog domena. U gore navedenom
primjeru o ljubavi koja se razumije pomou putovanja svi navedeni lingvistiki.
metaforiki izrazi koji govore o ljubavi i koji dolaze iz domena putovanja su lingvistiki metaforiki izrazi, a odgovarajua konceptualna metafora koju iz njih proizilazi: LJUBAV JE PUTOVANJE. Velika slova govore da taj izraz ne postoji u jeziku
kao takav ve da konceptualno obuhvata sve metaforike izraze koji se navode
pod tim izrazom
U razumjevanju konceptualne metafore uestvuju dva domena koji imaju
posebna imena. Konceptualni domen sa metaforikim izrazima pomou kojih
razumijemo neki drugi konceptualni domen zove se izvorni domen, a konceptualni domen koji elimo da razumijemo na osnovu izvornog, naziva se ciljni domen.
U gore navedenim primjerima ivot, diskusija, ljubav, teorija i ideje predstavljaju
ciljne domene, a putovanje, rat, zgrade i hrana su izvorni domeni. Ciljni domen je
domen koji pokuavamo da razumijemo kroz upotrebu izvornog domena.
Generalizacija koja proizilazi iz konceptualnih metafora jeste da je ciljni domen kod konceptualnih metafora neki apstraktniji koncept, a izvorni domen neki konkretniji ili fiziki koncept. ivot, diskusija, ljubav, teorija, ideje su apstraktniji koncepti od putovanja, rata, zgrada, hrane i poto razumijevanje uvijek
ide u tom pravcu otkriva se princip koji stoji u osnovi razumjevanja princip
jednosmjernosti. To se jasno vidi iz ovog Kovecesovog stava:
Ako elimo da bolje razumijemo neki koncept, to emo postii ako
koristimo drugi koncept koji je konkretniji, vie fiziki, ili opipljiv od onog
koji elimo objasniti. Naa iskustva u fizikom svijetu slue nam kao
neutralna i logina osnova za razumjevanje apstraktnijih domena. To
objanjava zato se kod veine sluajeva svakodnevnih metafora izvorni i
ciljni domeni ne mogu preusmjeriti. Na primjer, o idejama ne govorimo
kao o hrani ili o putovanju kao o ljubavi. To se naziva principom jednosmjernosti; odnosno metaforikim procesom koji obino ide u pravcu od
konkretnijeg ka apstraktnijem, ali ne i u spuprotnom smjeru. (Kvecses 6)
Kognitivni pristup u tumaenju metafora polazi od toga da proces u kojem
dolazi do preslikavanja konceptualnih elemenata iz jednog domena, kao to smo
ve rekli, ide od izvornog domena u drugi domen u ciljni domen. To preslikavanje ukazuje da izmeu dva domena postoji niz sistematskih korespondencija koje
je mogue preslikati i pomou kojih se metafora razumije. Koveces daje primjer
preslikavanja izvornog domena putovanja u ciljni domen ljubavi.
Izvor: PUTOVANJE
Putnici
Prevozno sredstvo
Putovanje
Preena razdaljina
Prepreke na putu
Odluke o pravcu kretanja
Destinacija putovanja
Cilj: LJUBAV
ljubavnici
ljubavna veza
dogaaji u vezi
napredak u vezi
potekoe u vezi
izbori u vezi
cilj(evi) veze
Koveces smatra da ciljni domen ljubavi nije bio strukturiran nezavisno i prije
domena putovanja, iako neki smatraju da su elementi ciljnog domena, elementi
ljubavi, postojali stalno i nezavisno od konceptualnih elmenanta putovanja.
Domen ljubavi nije imao ove elemente prije nego to je bio struktuiran
domenom putovanja. Primjena domena putovanja na domen ljubavi
dala je konceptu ljubavi posebnu strukturu ili niz elemenata. Na jedan
nain koncept putovanja je kreirao koncept ljubavi. (Kvecses 7)
Da bismo to provjerili on predlae mali eksperiment u kojem bismo pokuali
da zamislimo cilj, izbor, tekou ili napredak ili neki od navedenih aspekata ljubavi, a da ne koristimo izvorni domen. Nemogunost toga ili potekoe u razumijevanju, Koveces smatra, pokazuju da ciljni domen ljubavi nije strukturiran nezavisno i prije domena putovanja. Razumijevanje metafore bi stoga znailo poznavanje sistematskih preslikavanja izmeu izvrnog i ciljnog domena. To se najee
ne deava svjesno i kad znamo neku konceptualnu metaforu mi koristimo lingvistike izraze koji je odraavaju na takav nain da mi ne krimo preslikavanja koja
su konvencionalno uspostavljena u nekoj jezikoj zajednici.
Na osnovu kognitivnog pristupa izvodi se tvrdnja da se na konceptualni
sistem sastoji od hiljada i hiljada konkretnih koncepata, ali isto tako i od hiljada
apstraktnih koncepata. Meutim, izbor odreenog jezikog izraza u oslikavanju
nekog apstraktnog koncepta e zavisiti od slinosti izmeu entiteta koji se
porede. Formalne teorije o jeziku, kao na primjer generativna gramatika, usvajaju ideju predvidljivosti po kojoj bi metafore trebalo biti predvidljive. Ako ih data teorija ne moe predvidjeti onda se takva teorija ne moe smatrati naunom.
Kognitivna lingvistika, meutim, u opisu metafore konkretno i jezika generalno
odstupa od ideje predvidljivosti i zamjenjuje je motivacijom gdje se smatra da
metafore ne mogu biti predvidljive, ali mogu biti motivisane, budui da motivacija proizilazi iz objektivne slinosti koja postoji izmeu dvije stvari koje se porede, izmeu dva domena, izmeu dva dijela iskustva. Ta motivisana slinost, po
kognitivistima, je strukturalna slinost. Ona podrazumjeva nain kako mi razumijemo da se dva naglaena iskustva spajaju na koherentan nain, iskustva ljubavi i putovanja, na primjer. Takav stav zastupaju i Lejkof i Donson: Primarna
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330
funkcija metafore je da obezbijedi djelimino razumjevanje jedne vrste iskustva

pomou druge vrste iskustva. To moe podrazumijevati izolovanje ve postojeih slinosti, kreiranje novih slinosti, i vie (Lakoff & Johnson 1980: 116).
Lejkof i Donson, naime, smatraju da je vrsta slinosti koja je relevantna za
razumijevanje metafore slinost koju ljudi poznaju iz iskustva, iskustvena, ne
objektivna slinost, slinost koja proizilazi iz osnovnog domena iskustva. Oni
smatraju da je svaki iskustveni domen strukturiran po principu iskustvenog
getalta i da je svaka prirodna dimenzija stoga prirodna vrsta iskustva. Termin
prirodna iskustva se koristi u odnosu na tri vrste iskustava koja su proizvodi:
naeg tijela (motornog i perceptivnog aparata, mentalnih sposobnosti, emotivnog sklopa, itd.), naeg odnosa sa fizikim okruenjem (kretanje, rukovanje
predmetima, uzimanje hrane, itd.) i naeg odnosa sa drugim ljudima u naoj
kulturi (u drutvenim, politikim, ekonomskim, religioznim, itd. institucijma). Ta
prirodna iskustva su proizvodi ljudske prirode i neka od njih mogu biti univerzalna, a neka variraju od kulture do kulture. Koncepti koji su motivisani iskustvom
kao i kategorizacije pomou kojih razumijemo svijet oko sebe nijesu striktne i
zatvorene ve su otvorene i dozvoljavaju stvaranje novih iskustvenih slinosti.
Tradicionalno shvatanje metafore koje se u velikoj mjeri razlikuje od kognitivnog pristupa tumaenju metafore metaforu posmatra kao figurativni, matoviti ili poetski lingvistiki izraz i mnoge diskusije o metafori u takvom pristupu se
fokusiraju na istinitost lingvistikih izraza. Istinito u toj teoriji znai objektivno.
Filozofsko tumaenje i zakljuak koji proizilazi iz te teorije je da metafore ne
mogu direktno predstavljati istinu i ako uopte predstavljaju istinu da je to onda
samo posredno kroz neku nemetaforinu parafrazu.
Razumijevanje istine pomou metafore se stoga ne razlikuje od razumijevanja istine pomou nemetaforikog razmiljanja. Jedina razlika sastoji se u tome
da metaforino razumijevanje ukljuuje razumijevanje jednog pojma uz pomo
drugog pojma, znai ukljuuje dva razliita pojma, dva razliita domena, entiteta, dok nemetaforino razumijevanje ukljuuje samo jedan entitet.
to se tie ovjekovog razumijevanja i shvatanja mnogi aspekti iskustva se ne
mogu jasno razdvojiti pomou dimenzija koje proizlaze iz prirodnog iskustva. To
je naroito sluaj sa emocijama, mentalnim aktivnostima, vremenom, radom,
institucijama, drutvenim ponaanjem. Iako veinu ovih kategorija moemo direktno da iskusimo ni jedna od njih se ne moe shvatiti pomou njih samih. Moramo ih shvatati uz pomo drugih entiteta i iskustava. Kod tog indirektnog razumijevanja koristimo sredstva direktnog razumjevanja, upotrebljavajui metafore.
Da se vratimo na domene iz kojih se elementi iz jednog domena preslikavaju na drugi domen i omoguavaju metaforino razumjevanje. to se tie preslikavanja iz jednog u drugi, kao to smo pomenuli u nekoliko navrata do sada, to
preslikavanje nikada ne moe biti potpuno, ve samo djelimino, samo su neki
elementi iz izvornog domena istaknuti i primijenjeni na ciljni domen. Isto tako,
ciljni domen moe biti objanjen uz pomo preslikavanja elemenata iz nekoliko
izvornih domena, ali moe doi i do obrnutog sluaja kad se elementi iz jednog izvornog domena preslikavaju u vie ciljnih domena i objanjavaju vei
broj apstraktnih entiteta. Razlog za to je to svaki izvorni domen moe struktuirati samo odreene aspekte ciljnog domena i tu se javlja princip nepromjenjivosti koji kae da se mogu preslikati samo oni djelovi, elementi izvornog domena koji nijesu u konfliktu sa ematskom strukturom ciljnog domena. Zato Koveces istie: S obzirom na aspekte koji uestvuju u metaforinom preslikavanju, preslikava se to je mogue vie znanja sa izvora na cilj, koje je u skladu sa
slikovno-ematskim karakteristikama cilja (Kvecses 103).
Vano je pri tome imati u vidu princip nepromjenjivosti jer elementi koji se
preslikavaju iz izvornog domena zadravaju svoju osnovnu strukturu u procesu
preslikavanja: nepromjenjivi su. Taj princip stoga govori o tome ta se moe
preslikati iz izvora, ta se ne moe preslikati i zato.
Na osnovu svega izloenog u ovom radu o znaenju rijei i o konceptualnoj
metafori kao sredstvu izraavanja i prenoenja znaenja moe se rei da mi
biramo odreene izvore za konceptualizaciju eljenih ciljeva iz velikog broja
potencijalnih izvora i to na osnovu naeg kognitivnog, kulturolokog, psiholokog, biolokog i drugog iskustva. Svaka konceptualna metafora nije zastupljena u svakom jeziku i moda ne odgovara kulturolokom ili psiholokom iskustvu
govornika odreeneog jezika, ali nijedan jezik nema izvorne domene koji nijesu
u saglasnosti sa univerzalnim senzornim i motornim iskustvima u kojima su ciljni
koncepti ukorijenjeni.
Literatura:
Allwood, J. Meaning Potentianl and Context. Some Consequences for the
Analysis of Variation in Meaning. Cognitive Approaches to Lexical Semantics.
Eds. Hubert Cuyckens, Ren Diron and John R. Taylor. Berlin-New York:
Walter de Gryter, 2003.
Bassnett, S. Translation Studies. London-New York: Routledge, 2004.
Bassnett, S.,and A. Lefevere. Cassell, Translation, History and Culture. LondonNew York: Routledge, 1990.
Bermann, S., and M. Wood. Nation, Language and the Ethics of Translation.
Princeton: Princeton UP, 2005.
Croft, W., and Cruse, A. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004.
Crystal, D. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Cruse, A. Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics.
Oxford: OUP, 2004.
Cuyckens, H., R. Dirven and J. Taylor. Cognitive Approaches to Lexical Semantics.
Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2003.
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Deignan, A. Cobuild Collins English Guides: Metaphor 7. London: Harper Collins,

1995.
Kvecses, Z. Metaphor A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002.
Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: U of Chicago P,
1980.
Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson. Philosophy in the Flesh The Embodied Mind and its
Challenge to Western Thought. New York: Basic Books, 1999.
Lakoff, R. Talking Power, The Politics of Language. New York: Basic Books, 1990.
Lyons, J. Semantics.Vol 1. Cambridge: CUP, 1977.
Nida, Eugene. Language Structure and Translation. California: Stanford UP, 1975.
Pri, T. Semantika i pragmatika rei. Sremski Karlovci-Novi Sad: Izdavaka
knjinica Zorana Stojanovia, 1997.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics.Trans. Roy Harris. Chicago,
Open Court, 1983.
MEANING IN COGNITIVE APPROACH

How does manifold meaning become apparent in different contexts? What
are the units of meaning, and what are their potential and their limitations? A
cognitive approach to interpreting units of meaning implies the potential to cover
all information, that received from the use of language, as well as from
experience of the world not necessarily of a linguistic nature. Allwood, Lyons,
Reddy, Kvecses, Lakoff, and Johnson all develop the idea of potential meaning.
This paper deals with a special kind of meaning potential namely, metaphor.
The conceptual metaphor explains meaning through two domains, the target and
the source domains. Besides activating potential meanings through the universal
sensimotor experiences in which one of those domains is rooted, conceptual
metaphor also reflects the limitations of meaning, which are mostly culturally
and experientially bound.
Key words: meaning, potentials, limitations, word, unit of meaning, conduit
and conceptual metaphor, target domain, sourse domain, experience
UDK 811373:82-2
Lexical Cohesion in Humorous Texts
Olja Joji
University of East Sarajevo
Abstract: Lexical cohesion above all concerns the way in which lexical items relate to
116
each other and to other cohesive devices so that textual continuity is created
(Flowerdew and Mahlberg 1). Apart from that, lexical cohesion, together with
grammatical cohesion, not only contributes to the texture of a text, but also sets the basis
for further build-up of coherence, of which lexical cohesion is said to be the main source
(Hoey 10). The importance of cohesive devices for humorous texts cannot be stressed
enough. Humorous texts, more than any other type of text, rely on cohesive ties in order
to produce a specific type of humorous texture. This paper explores linguistic
characteristics of lexical cohesion with reference to jokes, as one type of humorous
stimuli. The main method used is descriptive-analytical.
Key words: lexical cohesion, humorous texts, sense relations, repetition, texture
1. Introduction
1.1. Lexical cohesion
The two fundamental areas of research pertaining to this work are lexical
cohesion and lexical semantic relations. The traditional approach to lexical
cohesion was first presented in Halliday and Hasan (1976). In their work, the
authors give the following broad definition of cohesion: the continuity that
exists between one part of the text and another (Halliday and Hasan 299).
Halliday and Hasan introduce another term relevant for this work texture, or
the property of being a text. A text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it
from something that is not a text. The text functions as a unity with respect to its
environment (Halliday and Hasan 2). Lexical devices are only one means to this
goal, and they are the subject of inquiry in this paper.
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In this paper, the term discourse is used interchangeably with the term text, to mean any
stretch of language that may be longer than a single sentence (cf. Salkie XI).
333
334
Although they devote most of their book to grammatical cohesion

(reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction), Halliday and Hasan also briefly
discuss lexical cohesion. Lexical cohesion can occur in the form of reiteration or
collocation. Reiteration is the repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of
a synonym of some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where the two
occurrences have the same referent (Halliday and Hasan 318-319), while
collocation covers all types of lexical relations that do not need referential
identity and cannot be described as a type of reiteration (287).
This paper focuses on lexical cohesion across sentence boundaries, while
intra-sentence cohesion is not explored. Mainly based on the taxonomy of
Halliday and Hasan, lexical cohesion in this paper is subdivided in accordance
with its sources into two types: 1) sense relations and 2) repetition. In the
analytical part of this study pertaining to sense relations, we also rely on Cruses
terminology from (and approach to) lexical semantics (2004).
1.2. Procedure
The corpus was made up of late-night jokes that were retrieved from the
Internet. This corpus was perceived as the most appropriate, since jokes are
traditionally seen as methodologically convenient (Ritchie 15-16): most of all,
because they are short, which renders them more available for linguistic analysis.
Only jokes that contain two, three or four sentences were taken into
consideration in our analysis.
Although it is the humorous mode under analysis here, we shall not attempt
to give the definition of joke. Instead, following Ritchie, we take it as evidence
that a text is a joke if it appears in a published form explicitly labelled as being a
joke (15). In our analysis, however, we rely on Hockets terminology regarding
the structure of a joke: the build up, pivot and punch line (qtd. in Schwarz 65-67),
because it proved to be applicable in most cases in the corpus. The first sentence
of a joke was always the build up, whereas the final sentence was always the
punch line. Pivot, the part of the joke containing the word or a phrase around
which ambiguity is created (Shwarz 65), was sometimes present in the second,
third or the fourth sentence.
As regards methodology, although the growing amount of research within
discourse analysis is done using the methodology of corpus linguistics to examine
millions and millions of words, the nature of our corpus required, we feel, that
the cohesive ties be identified by traditional methods: that is, text analysis,
combined with the intuition about the ways words were used (Nesi and
Basturkem 24). The attempt was not made to explain why these specific items
were funny. In many cases lexical devices that were the source of cohesion, also
represented the means for achieving a humorous effect. However, the analysis
was oriented towards those lexical items that were perceived as cohesive ties
between the sentences that make up the joke.
2. Analysis
All the example texts are numbered in one sequence that goes through this
paper. The crucial words in the examples have been put in bold.
2.1. Sense relations
2.1.1. Relations of inclusion and identity
Out of relations of identity and inclusion between word meanings (Cruse
148), hyponymy, meronymy and synonymy were identified in the corpus.
Hyponymy was encountered most frequently in the corpus.
2.1.1.1. Hyponymy
Hyponymy can be defined as the relation between two lexical items in
which the meaning of one of the terms (superordinate) includes the meaning of
the other (hyponym) (Cruse 148). Corpus revealed many examples of
hyponymy-based lexical cohesion. For example, lexical interconnectivity across
the pivot and the punch line (the second and third sentences respectively) in (1)
is achieved through a new musical instrument, which is a superordinate term,
and the Breathalyzer, which can be seen as a (humorous) hyponym:
(1) Finally, some good news on the Bush girls. It seems that Jenna Bush
is taking up a new musical instrument. Shes learning how to play the
Breathalyzer.
Similarly, in (2), we have a Star wars convention as a hyponym of the more
general, superordinate concentration of celibate men:
(2) Over the weekend in Indianapolis over 30,000 fans attended a Star
wars convention. Experts say it was the highest concentration of
celibate men since they elected the new pope.
At times, hyponym was a nonce expression invented for the purpose of
achieving a humorous effect, as is bazillion in (3), the (non-existent) hyponym
of a real number:
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336
(3) President Bush unveiled his new $2.2 trillion budget. Yeah, the
president settled on $2 trillion after being told that $2 bazillion was not
a real number.
2.1.1.1.1. Taxonomy
Taxonomy is, according to Cruse (150), a sub-type of hyponymy, (4)
revealing the elements of (partial) taxonomic relations: the Pope can be seen as
superordinate to one of the Cardinals, whereas Roman Catholic Church, which
is not present in the text, can be placed at the superordinate (vertical) level for
both of these terms:
(4) The Pope got heckled today while he was saying mass. The Pope
heckled. One of the Cardinals said, We should never have started that
two-drink minimum.
2.1.1.2. Meronymy
Another relationship of inclusion that is obtained between parts (meronym)
and wholes (holonym) (Cruse 150), which was identified as a basis for lexical
cohesion is meronymy. In (5) the Pope and the humorous (non-existent) Mrs.
Pope can be seen as meronyms of the Vatican (the holonym of the Pope and
Mrs. Pope):
(5) President Bush is going to visit the Vatican. He says hes looking
forward to meeting the Pope and Mrs. Pope.
In the same way, in (6), the Bush twins are connected meronymically to the
Bush family. That is, the Bush family is the holonym of the Bush twins
(meronyms):
(6) A huge family night for the Bush family. This morning the Bush twins
woke up in Lincoln's lap.
In (7), the holonym cathedral is introduced in the build up; cohesion is
achieved by introducing confessional (meronym) in the punch line:
(7) The Catholic Church has just opened a new $2 million cathedral in
Los Angeles. They really spared no expense. Each confessional has a
panic button in it.
2.1.1.3. Synonymy
Synonymy, or the sameness of meaning (Cruse 154), was not employed so
often as a cohesive device in the corpus. (8) illustrates the usage of the more
formal to evacuate (evacuating) in two occurrences, and then to get out as its
less formal near synonym:
(8) A lot of people are now blaming President Bush for not evacuating
New Orleans sooner. Hey, were still trying to get him to evacuate
Crawford, Texas. Took him five weeks to get out of there.
In (9) the build up contains Pope Benedict, which is followed by the pontiff, as
its synonym in the third sentence:117
(9) We also want to wish Pope Benedict a happy birthday. Tomorrow,
he'll be 81 years old. The pontiff, 81 years old. Do you realize in a couple
more years, he could be the next Republican nominee?
2.1.1.4. Meronymy and synonymy
Corpus also revealed examples of a combination of sense relations. For
example, in (10), through White House (as an institution), which can be
interpreted as the holonym of President Bush, and gag-reflex, which is a synonym
of (the) choking episode, we get the sense of inter-sentence connection:
(10) Heres good news, President Bush has recovered from the pretzel
choking episode. I tell you, I never thought I would hear White House
and gag-reflex in the same sentence again.
2.1.2. Relations of opposition and exclusion
2.1.2.1. Oppositeness
Relation of opposition was sometimes quite difficult to pin down; very few
cases in the corpus exhibited this type of sense relation. Example (11) illustrates
the usage of complementaries as the basis for cohesion. Complementaries are a
type of oppositeness, which display binarity in its purest form, and have a
contradictory relation (Cruse 163). (To be) out and (to be) conscious can be
interpreted as complementaries:
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This example was one of the more problematic ones as regards analysis, since cohesion is here
based on both lexical means (the synonyms mentioned above), and grammatical means (co-referential
anaphora).
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338
(11) Poor guy, he blacked out and hit the ground and he was out for four
seconds. Fortunately, those were the same four seconds that Dick
Cheney was conscious yesterday.
2.1.2.2. Incompatibility
Incompatibility is a relation of exclusion (Cruse 161). In (12), for example, a
police state, socialism, and democracies stand in co-hyponymical relationship of
incompatibility,118 thus presenting the parts of the mechanism that creates lexical
cohesion in this joke:
(12) If youre keeping score at home, so far our war in Iraq has created a
police state in that country and socialism in Spain. So, no democracies
yet, but were really getting close.
In (13), we have the same situation. Four-letter word and a four-syllable word
are incompatible co-hyponyms:
(13) People are still talking about President Bushs use of a four-letter
word at the G-8 Summit. Its not a big deal, President Bush using a fourletter word. Now if President Bush used a four-syllable word, that would
be unbelievable.
In the same way, (14) is an example of co-meronymical incompatibility. Bush
and his brother are co-meronyms (the holonym of which could be said to be the
Bush family), and these two are incompatible:
(14) Bush said his brother, Jeb, would make a great president. That's all
we need. Big Brother's little brother.
2.2. Repetition
Repetition of content words, to a large extent, helps maintain the sense of
connection between the particular sentences that make up the joke. It was the
most explicit and frequent signal of the connections between the sentences of
joke-texts in corpus.
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It is important to note that not all co-hyponyms are incompatible (Cruse 165).
2.2.1. Simple repetition

Simple repetition, or the repetition of the same119 word(s) was encountered
very frequently in the corpus. The speakers mostly chose (partial or full)
repetition of proper and common nouns to preserve the sense of cohesion.
2.2.1.1. Repetition of common and proper nouns
(15) Fox has debuted a new reality show called Mr. Personality starring
Monica Lewinsky who interviews dozens of bachelors who all wear
masks. Apparently, all of the bachelors wear masks because theyre
embarrassed to be on a show with Monica Lewinsky.
(16) Yesterday, President Bush unveiled a $38 billion dollar homeland
security plan. The president said that under the new plan, we can wipe
out the threat of pretzels in our lifetime.
2.2.1.2. Polysemy-based repetition
A polysemous word is said to have more than one distinct sense. For
instance, in (17) the polysemous word protection is repeated in the build up and
the punch, with two different senses of the word used, the more literal one and
the figurative (metaphorical):
(17)
The Vatican has increased protection around the Pope. How
ironic is that A Catholic using protection?
2.2.2. Complex repetition
2.2.2.1. Syntactic transformations
In the example below we have complex repetition based on the replacement
of the postmodifying prepositional phrase (on sexual harassment) by
premodification (the sexual harassment):
(18)
Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger announced this week that
after he got elected, he took a voluntary course on sexual harassment.
Arnold says the sexual harassment course was a waste of time because,
quote I already know how to do it.
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The sameness is here regarded with respect to the form of the word(s).
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340
2.2.2.2. Conversion
Using a different word class can be a way of achieving cohesion across
sentences that represent constituent parts of a joke. Both inflectional and
derivational means were used in the corpus. In (20), for instance, to vacation (in
two inflected variants) is used twice in the build up, and then repeated through
the noun vacation in the punch:
(20)
President Bush is vacationing in Crawford, Texas. He will be
vacationing for five weeks. That's a long time. I dont think he has an exit
strategy for his vacation either.
2.2.3. Quasi-repetition
Corpus revealed cases of what we dub here as quasi- repetition. As is
illustrated in (19), sense of repetition is maintained because nonce word(s) (as is
My fellow United Statesers in the punch line) are used as a substitute for My
fellow citizens, introduced in the build up, all of which maintains the unity of the
text:
(19)
Historians say the most commonly used phrase at inaugurations
is My fellow citizens. However, the most commonly used phrase at
President Bushs inauguration is expected to be My fellow United
Statesers.
3. Conclusion
This paper explores lexical cohesion in joke-texts, as one type of humorous
discourse. By using text analysis, sense relations and repetition were singled out
as the main sources of cohesion in joke-texts, and lexical cohesion was discussed
with respect to them.
The analysis was faced with several problems. Although the jokes analyzed in
this paper were (intentionally) short, the problem still occurred in cases of the
presence of several simultaneous signals of cohesion (especially with respect to
their classification). This raises the issue of analytical subjectivity: to what extent
should the analyst rely on his/her intuition in the identification of lexical cohesive
devices (and their subsequent classification), and are there any objective,
invariant factors to build upon when performing this kind of analysis?
Then, as always, there was the issue of inseparability of lexis and grammar. In
our paper, we drew upon the division between the lexical/grammatical cohesion.
This point proved particularly important in the discussion of synonymy, especially
with respect to the notion of reference (cf. 2.1.1.3. section of this paper, example
(9)), and the (potentially problematic) introduction of the category of repetition

based on syntactic transformations (cf. 2.2.2.1.).
The analysis of lexical devices in humorous texts is only one small step
towards the understanding of the workings of (non)verbal humor. A further step
could be the combined analysis of lexical and grammatical cohesive devices,
which, in their turn, represent only one means of achieving coherence in (joke-)
texts.
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Hilary, Nesi, and Helen Basturkmen. Lexical Bundles and Discourse Signalling in
Academic Lectures. Lexical Cohesion and Corpus Linguistics. Eds. John
Flowerdew and Michaela Mahlberg. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John
Benjamins, 2009. 23-45.
Hoey, M. Patterns of Lexis in Text. Oxford: O UP, 1991.
Ritchie, Graeme. The Linguistic Analysis of Jokes. London: Routledge, 2004.
Salkie, Raphael. Text and Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge, 1995.
Schwarz, Jeannine. Linguistic Aspects of Verbal Humor in Stand-up Comedy.
Diss. Universitt des Saarlandes, 2010.
Bush Jokes. Web. 14 June 2009. <http://politicalhumor.about.com/> .
Jenna Bush Jokes and Barabara Bush Jokes. Web. 12 January 2010.
<http://politicalhumor.about.com/>.
Catholic Church Scandal Jokes. Web. 15 September 2009
George Bush Jokes. Web. 3 July 2009 <http://politicalhumor.about.com/>.
Jon Stewart Quotes. Web. 18 October. 2009.
Mel Gibson Jokes. Web. 7 July 2009. <http://politicalhumor.about.com/>.
Monica Lewinsky Jokes. Web. 7 July 2009.
Pope Jokes. Web. 15 August 2009. <http://politicalhumor.about.com/>.
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LEKSIKA KOHEZIJA U HUMORISTIKOM DISKURSU

Leksika kohezija u najveoj mjeri tie se naina na koji se leksike jedinice
meusobno povezuju, a zatim i naina na koji se povezuju sa drugim kohezivnim
sredstvima, kako bi se postigao tekstualni kontinuitet (Flowerdew and Mahlberg
1). Osim toga, leksika kohezija, uz gramatiku koheziju, ne samo da doprinosi
teksturi teksta, ve takoe predstavlja osnovu za dalju izgradnju koherentnosti, za
koju se esto istie da joj je osnovni izvor u leksikoj koheziji (Hoey 10). Znaaj kohezivnih sredstava za humoristike tekstove ne moe se dovoljno istai. U mnogo
veoj mjeri nego druge vrste teksta, humoristiki tekstovi oslanjaju se na kohezivne veze kako bi se proizvela specifina humoristika tekstura. U ovom radu
ispituju se lingvistike osobine leksike kohezije na korpusu vica, kao jedne vrste
humoristikog stimulansa. Osnovni metod koji je korien u radu je deskritptivnoanalitiki.
Kljune rijei: leksika kohezija, humoristiki tekstovi, odnosi smisla, ponavljanje, tesktura
UDK 821.163.4.09
Sintaksiki sinonimi glagolskih priloga u jeziku

Stefana Mitrova Ljubie
Milo Krivokapi
Abstrakt: U Ljubiinom jeziku frekventniji je glagolski prilog sadanji od glagolskog

priloga prolog. Oba glagolska priloga javljaju se u adverbijalnoj slubi. Upotreba
glagolskog priloga sadanjeg u pridjevskoj slubi dosta je ograniena, a glagolskog
priloga prolog u toj (pridjevskoj) slubi nema. Glagolski prilog sadanji, pored nastavka
/-i/, ima, ali rijetko, i okrnjeni nastavak //, a glagolski prilog proli rjee ima nastavak
/-v/, ee nastavak /-vi/. Sintaksiki sinonim glagolskog priloga sadanjeg u funkciji
odredbe za vrijeme je vremenska reenica iji glagolski sadraj oznaava prezent ili
perfekat, u funkciji priloke odredbe za uzrok uzrona reenica, a u funkciji priloke
odredbe za nain nainski prilog i nainski izraz. Glagolski prilog proli u funkciji
priloke odredbe za vrijeme ima za sintaksiki sinonim vremensku reenicu iji
glagolski sadraj oznaava perfekat, a u funkciji priloke odredbe za uzrok uzronu
reenicu. Razlika meu njima je samo stilska. Oba glagolska priloga mogu imati za
sintaksiki sinonim i nezavisne reenice (uglavnom, sastavne), kad se njima kazuje
sadraj itave reenice. Tada se ovi sintaksiki sinonimi unekoliko razlikuju. Glagolski
prilog sadanji i proli i njihovi sinonimi, naravno, i stilski se razlikuju.
Kljune rijei: particip, glagolski prilog sadanji, glagolski prilog proli, sintaksiki
sinonim, supstitucija, temporalnost, perfektivni i imperfektivni glagoli, priloke odredbe
za vrijeme, uzrok i nain
Neki gramatiari, meu kojima su A. Musi i Lj. Stojanovi, glagolske priloge

nazivaju participima. Termin patricip, smatra M. Stevanovi, ne odgovara sutini
glagolskog priloga sadanjeg i prolog. Ali iako su to nekada bili, glagolski
prilozi [] vie nisu participi, niti ovaj jezik ima te kategorije (Stevanovi 707).
Oni su, kao odredba glagola, postali prilozima, a ostali su glagolski, naravno,
zato to su im opet u osnovi ostali i oblik i osnovno znaenje glagola (707). Lj.
Stojanovi tvrdi da se glagolski prilog proli gradi samo od perfektivnih glagola
(Stojanovi 6), to ne prihvata T. Mareti i kae da se tvori od oba glagolska vida
(Mareti 197). A. Beli je miljenja da se ovaj glagolski prilog od imperfektivnih
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344
glagola sve vie gubi i [] sve vie ograniava na perfektivni vid (Beli 197). M.
Stevanovi smatra da glagolski prilog proli, i nasuprot osnovnom karakteru
njegova znaenja koje zahteva svrenost radnje, upotrebljava se gdekad i od
nesvrenih glagola (Stevanovi 729). Glagolski prilog sadanji tvori se samo od
imperfektivnih glagola. Lj. Stojanovi je sasvim tano konstatovao, to je prihvatio i M. Stevanovi, i to ne samo on, da glagolski prilozi nisu uvijek skraene zavisne reenice, nego se oni mogu shvatiti i kao naporedni s reenicama iji predikat odreuju, kao nezavisni od njih (Stojanovi 6-10). Isto tako, u pravu je Lj.
Stojanovi, kae M. Stevanovi, kad kae da se jedna reenica moe skratiti glagolskim prilogom kada je druga u mnoini i kojoj pripada subjekat skraene reenice (Ibid). Glagolskim prilogom sadanjim se kazuje radnja koja je istovremena s radnjom glagola u predikatu, odnosno s radnjom upravnog glagola, bez
obzira kad se ona zbiva (Stevanovi 708), a glagolskim prilogom prolim oznaava se radnja koja se izvrila pre neke radnje koja se kazuje predikatom, odnosno upravnim glagolom reenice (724).
Glagolski prilog sadanji i proli, nelini glagolski oblici, imaju u odnosu na
druge glagolske oblike malu frekvenciju. Frekventniji je glagolski prilog sadanji,
koji, uglavnom, ima dui nastavak -i, od glagolskog priloga prolog u jeziku
Ljubiinom. Glagolski prilog proli Ljubia upotrebljava samo u adverbijalnoj
slubi, a glagolski prilog sadanji u adverbijalnoj i pridjevskoj slubi. Glagolski
prilog sadanji upotrebljava se iskljuivo od imperfektivnih glagola, a glagolski
prilog proli gdjekad i od nesvrenih glagola.
Znaenje i sintaksiki sinonimi glagolskog priloga sadanjeg

U adverbijalnoj sintaksikoj funkciji glagolski prilog sadanji u jeziku Ljubiinom odnosi se prema predikatu reenice kao: priloka oznaka vremena, priloka
oznaka naina, priloka oznaka uzroka. Ovaj glagolski oblik Ljubia najee upotrebljava kao priloku oznaku vremena. Ovim glagolskim prilogom se tada odreuje vrijeme radnje u predikatu na koju se naslanja:
Uzmite se Patrovii gledajui s planine gdje im se polje tlai, a pop
Gregovi ucka ih da udare. (Pop Androvi, novi Obili, 215)
Razbije mi se san mislei to u sudu. (Prokleti kam, 232)
Moj narod svaki dan gine i zlopati, borei se za krst asni i svoj
opstanak. (Prokleti kam, 266)
ena mu je vrh glave drala zublju, povikujui: Kuni kneza i seljane koji
su te sudu oblagali (Prokleti kam, 272)
Hodei putom, svakome sukae para iz nozdara nalik dima iz dunjaka.

(Kako ko slijepi, tako gore gudi, 204)
Pade mi na um, sluajui gdje se zlarad grizete i ova druga jot ljepa,
ako vi se ljubi uti. (Dok se vukovi kolju, obani miruju, 254)
Mlei ga je trpio za nevolju, preei ga i pazei mu svaku rije, svaku
stopu da bi ga kako ulovio i smakao. (Skoidjevojka, 123)
Oblici glagolskog priloga sadanjeg u datim primjerima su u funkciji priloke
odredbe za vrijeme, po vremenu odreuju radnju glagola s kojim se njime
oznaena radnja vri uvek istovremeno (Stevanovi 708). Poto se ovim oblikom oznaava vrijeme vrenja predikatove radnje, to se moe zamijeniti odgovarajuom vremenskom reenicom. Glagolskom prilogu sadanjem ne odgovara
uvijek isti glagolski oblik u vremenskoj reenici kao zamjena. Moe se postaviti
pravilo: oblik kojim e se zamijeniti glagolski prilog sadanji zavisi od toga uz koji
je oblik upotrijebljen ako je prezent, i prilog se esto preinauje u prezent,
kraj perfekta postaje perfekat itd (Simi i dr. 188-190).
Mogua je ovakva zamjena:
Uzmute se Patrovii gledajui s planine gdje im se polje tlai, a pop
Gregovi ucka ih da udare = Uzmute se Patrovii dok gledaju (glagolski
prilog sadanji je uz prezent uzmute se) s planine gdje im se polje tlai,
a pop Gregorvi ucka ih da udare.
Razbije mi se san mislei to u sudu = Razbije mi se san dok mislim
(glagolski prilog je kraj prezenta razbije se) to u sudu.
Moj narod svaki dan gine i zlopati, borei se za krst asni i svoj opstanak
= Moj narod svaki dan gine i zlopati, dok se bori (glagolski prilog
sadanji je pored prezenta gine, zlopati) za krst asni i svoj opstanak.
ena mu je vrh glave drala zublju, povikujui: Kuni kneza i seljane koji
su te sudu oblagali = ena mu je vrh glave drala zublju dok je
povikivala (glagolski prilog sadanji je pored punog perfekta je drala):
Kuni kneza i seljane koji su te sudu oblagali
Hodei putom, svakome sukae para iz nozdrva nalik dima iz dunjaka =
Dok je hodio putom (glagolski prilog sadanji je uz imperfekt sukae),
svakome sukae para iz nozdrva nalik dima iz dunjaka.
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346
Pade mi na um sluajui gdje se zlarad grizete i ova druga jot ljepa,

ako vi se ljubi uti = Pade mi na um dok sam sluao (glagolski prilog
sadanji je uz aorist pade) gdje se zlarad grizete i ova druga jot ljepa,
ako vi se ljubi uti.
Mlei ga je trpio za nevolju, preei ga i pazei mu svaku rije, svaku
stopu da bi ga kako ulovio i smakao = Mlei ga je trpio za nevolju dok
ga je preao i pazio (glagolski prilog sadanji je uz perfekat je trpio) mu
svaku rije, svaku stopu da bi ga kako ulovio i smakao.
M. Stevanovi smatra da su odgovarajue sintagme adekvatnija zamjena
nego vremenske reenice (94), i to ne bez razloga:
Uzmute se Patrovii gledajui s planine gdje im se polje tlai, a pop
Gregorovi ucka ih da udare = Uzmite se Patrovii pri gledanju s
planine gdje im se polje tlai, a pop Gregovi ucka ih da udare.
Hodei putom, svakome sukae para iz nozdrva nalik dima iz dunjaka =
Pri hodu svakome sukae dim iz nozdrva nalik dima iz dunjaka.
Pade mi na um sluajui gdje se zlarad grizete i ova druga jot ljepa,
ako vi se ljubi uti = Pade mi na um pri sluanju gdje se zlarad grizete i
ova druga jot ljepa, ako vi se ljubi uti.
Dakle, glagolski prilog sadanji u funkciji priloke odredbe za vrijeme ima za
sintaksiki sinonim odgovarajuu vremensku reenicu iji je glagolski sadraj
oznaen prezentom ili perfektom i adekvatnu sintagmu. Ovi sinonimi se samo
stilski razlikuju.
Oznaavajui istovremenost njime oznaene radnje sa radnjom glagola u
linom glagolskom obliku, glagolski prilog sadanji moe da oznaava uzrok, da
bude u funkciji priloke oznake za uzrok:
Bojei se da ne ostanu sunji i pod mletakim mukama, ostave crkvu
poruenu, a manastir pust, i pribjegnu u gornja sela. (Skoidjevojka, 167)
Seraskijeru se njeto raali videi junaku prostotu ovijeh staraca, pak se
skameni i zamisli duboko. (epan Mali, 54)
Pone gospodar da prijeti a vladika da kune, videi ruglo to je palo na
na lijepi zakon, pak poalju osvjesne svetenike i jake perjanike. (Gori je
nevjernik nego li krivokletnik, 243)
Stanemo da se Bogu molimo, da prizivamo svak svoga sveca, da

obeavamo zavjete i prijeloge, da jedan drugoga pratamo, videi
stranju uru pred oima. (Ko se hvali taj se kaom hrani, 213)
Stojei u okrugloj ne moe da razazna itavu veliinu crkve. (Ako je
muka trpjeti, nije pametovati, 222)
Stari Radun, bojei se da e Druko upaliti manastir, jer o otrovi starac
nije imao mnogo pojma, svu je no klima pred Drukovom elijom, iem
za pasom. (Prokleti kam, 312)
Reevi bio je [] ugodna gostionica, pa poslje, kad je putnika sve manje
bivalo, ondanji okolni poboni itelji, ne imajui nablizu crkve, naine od
te iste graevine malu crkvicu i monastir. (Optestvo patrovsko u
okruiju kotorskom, 10)
Boko Gregovi, videi smrt pred oima, zgrabi jednom begu deverdan,
pa mu ga okrene u prsi. (Pop Androvi, novi Obili, 218)
A ti da plati osmero djece to su ene pobacile miriui tvoje jee.
(Premudrost nemudrost, 209)
U ovim primjerima oblikom glagolskog priloga sadanjeg oznaava se uzrok
radnje glavnog glagola. Stoga se u svim navedenim primjerima moe umjesto
glagolskog priloga sadanjeg u funkciji priloke odredbe za uzrok upotrijebiti
uzrona reenica, a da se pri tome smisao reenice ne promijeni:
Bojei se da ne ostanu sunji i pod mletakim mukama, ostave crkvu
poruenu, a manastir pust, i pribjegnu u gornja sela = Zato to su se bojali
da ne ostanu sunji i pod mletakim mukama, ostave crkvu poruenu, a
manastir pust, i pribjegnu u gornja sela.
Seraskijeru se njeto raali videi junaku prostotu ovijeh staraca, pak se
skameni i zamisli duboko = Seraskijeru se njeto raali zato to je vidio
junaku prostotu ovijeh staraca, pak se skameni i zamisli duboko.
Pone gospodar da prijeti a vladika da kune, videi ruglo to je palo na
na lijepi zakon, pak poalju osvjesne svetenike i jake perjanike = Pone
gospodar da prijeti a vladika da kune, budui da je vidio ruglo to je palo
na na lijepi zakon, pak poalju osvjesne svetenike i jake perjanike.
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348
Stanemo da se Bogu molimo, da prizivamo svak svoga sveca, da obeavamo zavjete i prijeloge, da jedan drugoga pratamo, videi stranju uru
pred oima = Stanemo da se Bogu molimo, da prizivamo svak svoga
sveca, da obeavamo zavjete i prijeloge, da jedan drugog pratamo,
budui da vidimo stranju uru pred oima.
Stojei u okrugloj ne moe da razazna itavu veliini crkve = Zato to
stoji u okrugloj ne moe da razazna itavu veliinu crkve.
Stari Radun, bojei se da e Druko upaliti manastir, jer o otrovi starac
nije imao pojma, svu je no klima pred Drukovom elijom, iem za
pasom = Stari Radun, zato to se bojao da e Druko upaliti manastir, jer
o otrovi starac nije imao pojma, svu je no klima pred Drukovom
elijom, iem za pasom.
Reevi bio je [] ugodna gostionica, pa je poslje, kad je putnika sve
manje bivalo, ondanji okolni poboni itelji, ne imajui nablizu crkve,
naine od te iste gradjevine malu crkvicu i monastir = Reevi bio je []
ugodna gostionica, pa je poslje, kad je putnika sve manje bivalo, ondanji
okolni poboni itelji, jer nijesu imali nablizu crkve, naine od te iste
gradjevine malu crkvicu i monastir.
Boko Gregovi, videi smrt pred oima, zgrabi jednom begu deverdan,
pa mu ga okrene u prsi = Boko Gregovi, zato to je vidio smrt pred
oima, zgrabi jednom begu deverdan, pa mu ga okrene u prsi.
A ti da plati osmero djece to su ene pobacile miriui tvoje jee = A ti
da plati osmero djece to su ene pobacile zato to su mirisale tvoje
jee.
Stevanovi smatra da stilski samo potpuna zavisna reenica nije ekvivalentna s odredbom uzroka izraenom bezlinim oblikom glagolskog priloga
sadanjeg.
U Ljubiinom jeziku glagolskim prilogom sadanjim oznaava se i nain
vrenja glagolske radnje. Naravno, i tada je prisutna istovremenost vrenja dvije
radnje:
Ja ga svakako ah pustiti ree Dolgoruk smijui se jer sam poznao da
je razborit i priljean, ali sam ga htio kuati i njim se bolje upoznati.
(epan Mali, 61)
Povrne Kanjo i drugom i treom, no Furlan vjeto odbija mahove, dok ga

Kanjo, obigravajui, okrene suncu u oi. (Kanjo Macedonovi, 105)
Ter ti ja ostani ba onako zguen, i uei okupljam ojadjele gae oko
sebe. (Svuda podji, doma doi, 21)
Priaj, Katno, zae stari ura, smijui se pod brcima jesi li utopila
varice u lopiu da ukisnu, da sjutra gata kao si navikla. (Skoidjevojka,
109)
A on se ne okrenu, nego onako hramljui put vrata, provaka: etrdesetine. (Kanjo Macedonovi, 93)
Jot je i to uutilo svakog protivnika epanova kad Novljanin Daja posla
caru na dar arenu prekomornu ticu nalik nae sojke, koja dreei vikae
iz svega glasa: car, car, car, kako je bijae Daja nauio. (epan Mali, 47)
Upotrijebljeni su sljedei oblici glagolskog priloga sadanjeg u funkciji priloke
oznake za nain: smijui se, obigravajui, uei, smijui se, hramljui, dreei.
Njime se, tako e, oznaava radnja istovremena s radnjom glavnog glagola. Ovom
glagolskom prilogu u funkciji priloke odredbe za nain ne odgovara jedna te ista
zamjena. Zamjena moe biti nainski prilog, nainski izraz i dr. to e se u primjerima sagledati:
Ja ga svakako ah pustiti ree Dolgoruk smijui se - jer sam poznao da
je razborit i priljean, ali sam ga htio kuati i njim se bolje upoznati = Ja
ga svakako ah pustiti ree Dolgoruk sa smijehom - jer sam poznao da
je razborit i priljean, ali sam ga htio kuati i njim se bolje upoznati.
Povrne Kanjo i drugom i treom, no Furlan vjeto odbija mahove, dok ga
Kanjo, obigravajui, okrene suncu u oi = Povrne Kanjo i drugom i
treom, no Furlan vjeto odbija mahove, dok ga Kanjo obigravanjem
okrene suncu u oi.
Ter ti ja ostani ba onako zguen, i uei okupljam ojadjele gae oko
sebe = Ter ti ja ostani ba onako zguen, i ueke okupljaj ojadjele gae
oko sebe.
Priaj, Katno, ree stari ura, smijui se pod brcima jesi li utopila
varice u lopiu da ukisnu, da sjutra gata kao si navikla = Priaj, Katno,
ree stari ura, sa smijehom pod brcima jesi li utopila varice u lopiu
da ukisnu, da sjutra gata kao si navikla.
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350
A on se ne okrenu, nego onako hramljui put vrata, provaka:

etrdesetine = A on se ne okrenu, nego onako hramajuke provaka:
erdesetine.
Jot je i to uutilo svakog protivnika epanova kad Novljanin Daja posla
caru na dar arenu prekomornu ticu nalik nae sojke, koja dreei vikae
iz sveg glasa: car, car, car, kako je bijae Daja nauio = Jot je i to uutilo
svakog protivnika epanova kad Novljanin Daja posla caru na dar
arenu prekomornu ticu nalik nae sojke, koja dreeki (prodorno) vikae
iz svega glasa: car, car, car, kako je bijae Daja nauio.
Adekvatna je zamjena, kao to se vidi, kad se umjesto glagolskog priloga
sadanjeg u funkciji odredbe za nain upotrijebi nainski prilog glagolskog
porijekla sa strukturnim nastavkom /-ke/, /-ki/, i nainski izraz, to, naravno,
nije uvijek mogue.
Oblici glagolskog priloga sadanjeg nisu uvek samo skraene zavisne
reenice, nego se oni mogu shvatiti i kao naporedni s reenicama iji predikat
odreuju kao nezavisni od njih (Stevanovi 713), to potvruju ovi primjeri:
Nesretnja cura vrila je teki izmet kao da joj je bilo dvadeset godina,
uvajui po vas bijeli dan krmke od lupea, od zvjereta i od pustopaice.
(Bog se brine sirotama, 83)
U jednom selu, pri samoj obali Skadarskog jezera, ivjele dvije susjede[]
koje se ljubile kao igdje sestre i po vas dan drugarile ijui, vezui i svijet
na reeto premeui. (enski donos, prazan ponos, 59)
Poe joj mati da se opire velei da joj ker ne smije okusiti ni krune kore,
to ne bi jedanak preminula. (Gori je nevjernik nego li krivokletnik 245)
Vladika Sava, dobri starac bez otrote i hitrine, sjedio spokojno na
Stanjeviima u manastiru; molei Boga, upravljajui crkvenim poslom i
nastojei oko blaga manastirskoga (epan Mali, 34).
Na preustake Nikolja-dne pratio je Stevan staricu tetku, oinu sestru, koja
se s pia vraala iz roda u dom, nosei kolae hljeba eninoga unucima,
zaovinama i djeveriiima. (Skoidjevojka, 120)
Isti smisao e biti ako se umjesto oblika glagolskog priloga sadanjeg
upotrijebe lini glagolski oblici, odnosno umjesto ovog priloga stave nezavisne
reenice:
Nesretnja cura vrila je teki izmet kao da joj je bilo dvadeset godina,
uvajui po vas bijeli dan krmke od lupea, od zvjereta i od pustopaice =
Nesretnja cura vrila je teki izmet kao da joj je bilo dvadeset godina, i
uvala po vas bijeli dan krmke od lupea, od zvjereta i od pustopaice.
U jednom selu, pri samoj obali Skadarskog jezera, ivjele dvije susjede []
koje se ljubile kao igdje sestre i po vas dan drugarile ijui, vezui i svijet
na reeto premeui = U jednom selu, pri samoj obali Skadarskog jezera,
ivjele dvije susjede[] koje se ljubile kao igdje sestre i po vas dan
drugarile, ile, vezle i svijet na reeto premetale.
Poe joj mati da se opire velei da joj ker ne smije okusiti ni krune kore,
to ne bi jedanak preminula = Poe joj mati da se opire i veli da joj ker
ne smije okusiti ni krune kore, to ne bi jedanak preminula.
Vladika Sava, dobri starac bez otrote i hitrine, sjedio je spokojno na
Stanjeviima u manastiru; molei Boga, upravljajui crkvenim poslom i
nastojei oko blaga manastirskoga = Vladika Sava, dobri starac bez
otrote i hitrine, sjedio je spokojno na Stanjeviima u manastiru; molio
Boga, upravljao crkvenim poslom i nastojao oko blaga manastirskoga.
Na preustake Nikolja-dne pratio je Stevan staricu tetku, oinu sestru, koja
se s pia vraala iz roda u dom, nosei kolae hljeba eninoga unucima,
zaovinama i djeveriiima = Na preustake Nikolja-dne pratio je Stevan
staricu tetku, oinu sestru, koja se s pia vraala iz roda u dom i nosila
kolae hljeba eninoga unucima, zaovinama i djeveriiima.
Kao to Stevanovi zakljuuje ove naporedne reenice imaju potpuno isti
smisao, ali im je drukiji sintaksiki odnos; mesto zavisnog odnosa kakav imaju s
prilogom sadanjim, one su sada postale nezavisnim od glavnih reenica (714).
One se takoe i stilski razlikuju Oblici glagolskog priloga sadanjeg i naporedne
reenice, dakle, unekoliko se sintaksiki i stilski razlikuju (Cf. Stevanovi 714).
Znaenje i sintaksiki sinonimi glagolskog priloga prolog

Glagolski prilog proli, koji se u Ljubiinom jeziku upotrebljava s nastavkom
v, -vi, u adverbijalnoj slubi javlja se kao priloka odredba vremena i priloka
odredba uzroka. Njegova je upotreba u Ljubiinom jeziku znatno manja od
glagolskog priloga sadanjeg. U pridjevskoj slubi ga nema. Najee se javlja
kao priloka odredba vremena:
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352
Vrativi se epan na Cetinje postavi sud od dvanaest ljudi pribranijeh,

koji isti dan osude na smrt uja Radanovia [] ubicu svog brata. (epan
Mali, 62)
Starinom Mahina, primivi vlasteostvo mletako, okrenu vjerom i porijeklom. (epan Mali, 32)
Postavi Turinom dobije konja, oruje, odijelo, ali se ne e nipoto
eniti, ni abdes uzimati, pak ue u janiare i zapie se caru vojnik za
dovijeka. (Skoidjevojka, 155)
Otac Serafin, uv da je knez digao, poalje po Ruu i smjesti je u Zupcima
na crkovno, kod dobre porodice, gdje bi mirno i izobilno ivjela.
(Skoidjevojka, 159)
Doav na gornju okuku, ba gdje je Joo zapao, ovaj skoi na kam s
pukom u rame, a s prstom za klinac, pak vikne putniku: Baci oruje, jal'
e poginuti na ovi as. (Ko se visi on se nizi, a ko se nizi on se visi, 81)
Pa, primivi novac, poe u drugi duan i kupi dva bagaa ita, jedan boba,
tri somuna tmastoga hljeba i dva dublijera od procijeenog voska. (Pop
Androvi, novi Obili, 206)
Grujo Miloev Gradjanin, koji, upoznavi pobratima svoga, pristupi k Luki
i tu se zagrle (Prodaja patrijare Brkia, 65).
Oblici glagolskog priloga prolog u navednim primjerima nalaze se u funkciji
priloke odredbe za vrijeme. Ono to je oznaeno ovim glagolskim oblikom
izvrilo se prije radnje upravnog glagola. Najee se glagolski prilog proli u
funkciji vremenske odredbe zamjenjuje perfektom u vremenskoj reenici. Glagolski prilog proli zamjenjuje se u slinim okolnostima kao i sadanji, ali u reenici s prezentom najbolja mu je zamjena perfekat, u reenici s futurom futur II
itd (Simi i dr. 190). U datim i slinim primjerima adekvatna je zamjena vremenska reenica iji glagolski sadraj ini perfekat:
Vrativi se epan na Cetinje postavi sud od dvanaest ljudi pribranijeh,
koji isti dan osude na smrt uja Radanovia[] ubicu svoga brata = Kad se
vratio epan na Cetinje, postavi sud od dvanaest ljudi pribranijeh, koji
isti dan osude na smrt uja Radanovia[] ubicu svoga brata.
Starinom Mahina, primivi vlasteostvo mletako, okrenu vjerom i

porijeklom = Starinom Mahina, poto je primio vlasteostvo mletako,
okrenu vjerom i porijeklom.
Postavi Turinom dobije konja, oruje, odijelo, ali se ne e nipoto
eniti, ni abdes uzimati, pak ue u janiare i zapie se caru vojnik za
dovijeka = Poto je postao Turinom, dobije konja, oruje, odijelo, ali se
ne e eniti ni abdes uzimati, pak ue u janiare i zapie se caru vojnik za
dovijeka.
Otac Serafin, uv da je knez digao, poalje po Ruu i smjesti je u Zupcima
na crkovno, kod dobre porodice, gdje bi mirno i izobilno ivjela = Otac
Serafin, kad je uo da je knez digao, poalje po Ruu i smjesti je u
Zupcima na crkovno, kod dobre porodice, gdje bi mirno i izobilno ivjela.
Doav na gornju okuku, ba gdje je Joo zapao, ovaj skoi na kam s
pukom u rame, a s prstom za klinac, pak vikne putniku: Baci oruje,
jal' e poginuti na ovi as = Kad je doao na gornju okuku, ba gdje je
Joo zapao, ovaj skoi na kam s pukom u rame, a s prstom za klinac, pak
vikne putniku: Baci oruje, jal' e poginuti na ovi as.
Pa, primivi novac, poe u drugi duan i kupi dva bagaa ita, jedan boba,
tri somuna tmastoga hljeba i dva dublijera od procijeenog voska = Pa,
poto je primio novac, poe u drugi duan i kupi dva bagaa ita, jedan
boba, tri somuna tmastoga hljeba i dva dublijera od procijeenog voska.
Grujo Miloev Graanin, koji, upoznavi pobratima svoga, pristupi k Luki i
tu se zagrle = Grujo Miloev Graanin, koji, poto je upoznao pobratima
svoga, pristupi k Luki i tu se zagrle.
Moe se umjesto glagolskog priloga prolog u funkciji priloke odredbe za
vrijeme uzeti i sintagma (Stevanovi 94): vrativi se = po povratku; primivi = po
primanju; upoznavi = po upoznavanju. Ovi sinonimi se samo stilski razlikuju.
Glagolskim prilogom prolim se u Ljubiinom jeziku izrie i uzrok vrenja
radnje glavnog glagola. I tada ovaj glagolski oblik zadrava vremenski odnos
prema radnji upravnog glagola:
Ja sam se, igumane, poturio, ne imavi muenike kreposti; izgubih oba
svijeta, duu i obraz. (Skoidjevojka, 177)
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354
Prilui se zatijem da se istrai jedan bogati Zeanin, ujak Zlatijin, koji, ne

imavi od srca poroda, ostavi sve njegovo suho i sirovo Zlatiji. (enski
donos, prazan ponos, 62)
Djever, ne imavi sa sobom velika oruja, pobjegne sram ga bilo! a
crni Mrko pane i prenemogne se vrh Zlatije. (enski donos, prazan ponos,
64)
Namijerae se meu nama mladi popi - vaistinu, dosta prikladan koji,
ne imavi svoje hinorije, ivukae o petrahilju i rodeniku. (Da joj treba
nae sloge, ne bi nikad kie nalo, 40)
Prosili estani po svoj dravi milostinju[] i svaki put doli u mene i naavi me dobre volje, oglobe me po sto perpera, kao da se u zlatu topijah.
(Bolje u pamet ikad nego li nikad, 144)
Ako u datim primjerima glagolski prilog proli za oznaku uzroka vrenja
radnje glavnog glagola zamijenimo perfektom, pretvarajui skup, u kome ovaj
glagolski oblik ini sr, u uzronu reenicu, tada bi znaenje cele sloene reenice po smislu, pa i sintaksiki, ostalo isto, a samo stilski bismo dobili nov kvalitet (Stevanovi 713):
Ja sam se, igumane, poturio, ne imavi muenike kreposti; izgubih oba
svijeta, duu i obraz = Ja sam se, igumane, poturio, zato to nijesam
imao muenike kreposti; izgubih oba svijeta, duu i obraz.
Prilui se zatijem da se istrai jedan bogati Zeanin, ujak Zlatijin, koji, ne
imavi od srca poroda, ostavi sve njegovo suho i sirovo Zlatiji = Prilui se
zatijem da se istrai jedan bogati Zeanin, ujak Zlatijin, koji, kako nije
imao od srca poroda, ostavi sve njegovo suho i sirovo Zlatiji.
Djever, ne imavi sa sobom velikog oruja, pobjegne sram ga bilo! a
crni Mrko pane i prenemogne se vrh Zlatije = Djever, zato to nije imao
velikog oruja, pobjegne sram ga bilo! a crni Mrko pane i prenemogne
se vrh Zlatije.
Namijerae se meu nama mladi popi vaistinu dosta prikladan, koji,
ne imavi svoje hinorije, ivukae o petrahilju i rodeniku = Namijerae se
meu nama mladi popi vaistinu, dosta prikladan koji, zato to nije
imao svoje hinorije, ivukae o petrahilju i rodeniku.
Prosili estani po svoj dravi milostinju[] i svaki put doli u mene i,

naavi me dobre volje, oglobe me po sto perpera, kao da se u zlatu
topijah = Prosili estani po svoj dravi milostinju [] i svaki put doli u
mene i zato to su me nali dobre volje, oglobe me po sto perpera, kao
da se u zlatu topijah.
Dakle, glagolski prilog proli u funciji oznake za uzrok vrenja radnje glavnog
glagola i uzrona reenica s perfektom se sintaksiki ne razlikuju.
U Ljubiinom jeziku rijetko se glagolski prilogom prolim saeto kazuje
sadraj itave reenice, kada se njime izrie isto ono to se kazuje nezavisnom
reenicom:
Ne htjenu Klimenti ni glave obratiti na glavarev svjet i blage rijei, no
skoe na nj, da ga vikom i bukom ometu, prozvavi ga izdajicom i
prodanikom. (Imasmo te, ne znasmo te; izgubismo te, poznasmo te, 123)
Ta koprena ima nasred nje petlju koja se zapua za ono puce to je priito
o uku i sputava se sprijed niz uk mladoj do prsiju pokrivii joj rumeno
lice. (Nekome na glas, a nekome na ast, 166)
Danu stani, eno boja! povrne popadija dohvativi joj ruku u miku.
(Prodaja patrijare Brkia, 78)
Debelja se nasmije i ukroti Spasoja, nazvavi mu dobar put. (Gorde, ili
kako Crnogorka ljubi, 323)
Umjesto oblika glagolskog priloga prolog mogu se upotrijebiti nezavisne
reenice (sastavne):
Ne htjenu Klimenti ni glave obratiti na glavarev svjet i blage rijei, no skoe na nj, da ga vikom i bukom ometu, prozvavi ga izdajicom i prodanikom = Ne htjenu Klimenti ni glave obratiti na glavarev svjet i blage
rijei, no skoe na nj, da ga vikom i bukom ometu, i prozovu ga izdajicom i
prodanikom.
Ta koprena ima nasred nje petlju koja se zapua za ono puce to je priito
o uku i sputava se sprijed niz uk mladoj do prsiju pokrivi joj rumeno lice = Ta koprena ima nasred nje petlju koja se zapua za ono puce to je
priito o uku i sputava se sprijed niz uk mladoj do prsiju i pokriva joj
lice.
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356
Danu stani, eno Boja! povrne popadija dohvativi joj ruku u miku =
Danu stani, eno Boja! povrne popadija i dohvati joj ruku u rame.
Debelja se nasmije i ukroti Spasoja, nazvavi mu dobar put = Debelja se
nasmije i ukroti Spasoja, nazove mu dobar put.
Ove naporedne reenice imaju isti smisao, ali im je drukiji sintaksiki
odnos; mesto zavisnog odnosa kakav ga imaju s prilogom [] one su sada postale nezavisnim od glavnih reenica (Stevanovi 713). Znai, oblici glagolskog
priloga prolog i naporedne reenice se unekoliko sintaksiki i stilski razlikuju.
Literatura:
Beli, Aleksandar. Istorija srpskohrvatskog jezika. Rei s konjugacijom. Knj. II, sv.
2. Beograd: Nauna knjiga, 1965.
Mareti, Tomo. Gramatika i stilistika hrvatskoga ili srpskoga knjievnog jezika.
Zagreb: Jugoslavensko nakladno d.d. "Obnova", 1931.
Simi, Radoje, Branislav Ostoji, i Brigita Simi. Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik.
Titograd: Republiki zavod za unapreivanje kolstva, 1983.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. "Sintaksika sinonimika." Knjievnost i Jezik 2(1963).God. X.
Beograd.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik.Sintaksa.Beograd: Nauno
delo, 1969.
Stojanovi, Ljubomir. Znaenje glagolskih participa. Junoslovenski filolog
(1923).VII. Beograd.
THE SYNTACTIC SYNONYMS OF ADVERBS WITHIN THE LANGUAGE OF STEFAN MITROV

LJUBIA
The author notices the higher frequency of the glagolski prilog sadanji
than the glagolsi prilog proli. Both of them act as the adverbials. The usage of
the present adverbs is rather limited, and there is no past adverb acting as an
adjective. The glagloski prilog sadanji has been distinguished because of the
usage of the suffix -i, while the glagoloski prilog proli has got the
abbreviated suffix -. The form known as glagolski prilog proli will, more
often, have the suffix -vi, than -v. The syntactic synonym for glagolski prilog
sadanji in the Montenegrin language would be the time clause whose verbal
content refers to the present or past tense, in the function of an adverb for cause
it would be a causative sentence, while, when it functions as an adverb of
manner it is an adverb for manner and the expression for manner. The syntactic
synonym for glagolski prilog proli, functioning as an adverb of time would be a
time clause whose verbal content refers to perfekat, while, within the function
of an adverbs of cause its synonym would be a causative sentence. The
difference between them is only a stylistic. Both adverbs can have the
independent sentences, referring to the content of a sentence. That is the only
situation when they are rather different. There is, naturally, a significant
difference between the glagolski prilog sadanji and glagolski prilog proli and
their synonyms.
Kew words: participle, syntactic synonym, substitution, temporality,
perfective and imperfective verbs, adverbs of manner, cause and time,
glagolski prilog sadanji and glagolski prilog proli.
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UDK 811.111373
Poslovni engleski jezik kao deo engleskog za

posebne namene
Amela Luka Zorani

Internacionalni Univerzitet u Novom Pazaru
Apstrakt: U ovom radu istie se znaaj poslovnog engleskog jezika. Jedan od temeljnih
preduslova radne konkurentnosti i uspenosti poslovnih ljudi dananjice je poznavanje
poslovnog engleskog jezika i vetina usmene i pismene komunikacije u meunarodnom
poslovnom okruenju. Kako bi biznismeni iz svih zemalja sveta mogli aktivno
uestvovati na poslovnim sastancima i konferencijama neophodno je da poznaju
poslovni engleski jezik, koji je postao lingua franca modernog doba. U daljem tekstu,
istie da su poslovni termini engleskog porekla morfoloki i fonoloki adaptirani u skoro
svim svetskim jezicima.
Kljune rei: engleski za posebne namene, poslovni engleski jezik, ekonomija,
globalizacija, poslovna komunikacija.
Poslovni engleski moemo okarakterisati kao glavni deo programa Engleskog

za posebne namene (ESP) koji se zasniva na efektvnost i pragmatinosti.
Praktinost je krucijalni element poslovnog engleskog jezika, pogotovo za poslovne ljude, te Poslovni engleski jezik predstavlja novi, radikalni pristup vrednosti u kursevima poslovnog engleskog jezika (Peter and Lewis 8).
Nakon Drugog svetskog rata uenje engleskog jezika je postala jedna od vanih aktivnosti i to ne samo u zemljama saveznicama Velike Britanije i SAD ve i
u drugim zemljama sveta.
Sve do 1950. uloga engleskog jezika kao jezika meunarodne komunikacije
brzo se irila tako da je Engleski jezik postao veoma vaan za meunarodnu
trgovinu i razmenu. Pored toga, razvoj radija, filma i televizije u znatnoj meri je
proirio potrebu za uenjem engleskog jezika.
Usled brzog razvoja tehnologije, meunarodne saradnje odnosno razvoja
na svim podrujima ljudske delatnosti ukazala se potreba kao i neophodnost sakupljanja, izuavanja i definisanja pojmova iz odreenih oblasti u cilju lake ko-
359
360
munikacije i sporazumevanja u tim domenima, kako u nacionalnim granicama,

tako i na meunarodnom planu.
Godine 1969., Savet Evrope (Council of Europe) je, u cilju da promovie to
efektivnije uenje stranih jezika unutar zajednice, Rezolucijom (69) 2, odluio:
da bi se postiglo potpuno razumevanje izmeu zemalja Evrope, jezike
barijere moraju biti otklonjene;
lingvistika raznolikost kao deo evropskog kulturnog naslea, kroz uenje
modernih jezika, treba da obezbedi izvor intelektualnog bogaenja, pre
nego li prepreku u postizanju jedinstva;
ukoliko uenje modernih evropskih zemalja postane opteg karaktera, jedino tako e uzajamno razumevanje i kooperacija biti mogua u Evropi;
bolje poznavanje modernih jezika vodie ka uvrivanju veza i uveanju
meunarodne razmene, od ega zavisi ekonomski i drutveni progres
Evrope;
poznavanje modernih jezika ne treba vie da bude smatrano luksuzom
koji je rezervisan samo za elitu, ve instrumentom informacija i kulture
dostupne svima. (8)
Istom Rezolucijom, Savet Evrope preporuio je da se u osnovnim i srednjim
kolama uvede predmet barem jednog modernog stranog jezika za uenike od 10
godina starosti, sa ciljem da se uenje stranog jezika proiri i na sve deake i devojice tog uzrasta. Takoe, preporuena je priprema modernih nastavnih
materijala za nastavu stranih jezika kroz sistematinu upotrebu audio-vizuelnih
sredstava. (8)
Obzirom na injenicu da je ekspanzija zapadnih sila u ekonomskom smislu,
pri tom prije svega mislimo na SAD i Veliku Britaniju, sa sobom donela i
ekspanziju jezika koji se govori u tim zemljama, evidentno je da je i engleski jezik
postao jezik meunarodne komunikacije.
Brojna istraivanja su pokazala da je do nedavno veina ljudi elela da naui
engleski jezik jer su hteli da rade u Americi, odnosno Britaniji, ili da razgovaraju
s ljudima iz podruja na kojima je engleski maternji jezik, kao to je recimo
sluaj s delatnicima u turistikom sektoru, dok, s druge strane, postoji veliki broj
onih koji su nauili engleski zato to su usled kolonizacija odrastali uz taj jezik
kao uz svoj maternji jezik. Danas, meutim, kae Linda Dan, dekan Njujorke
Nove kola (New School), za tri etvrtine onih koji govore engleski, [engleski] je
drugi jezik. (Philips)
Mnogi se koriste engleskim jezikom u komunikaciji s drugim ljudima kojima
engleski isto tako nije maternji jezik. On je postao lingvistika poveznica izmeu
ljudi sa svih strana sveta, nova lingua franca.
Neko ko govori vedski, a eli poslovati s nekim ko govori japanski,

moda e se posluiti engleskim kao jezikom koji govore obojica. Takvo
korienje engleskog uveliko menja dinamiku toga kakav jezik koriste,
kako ga ue, svrha s kojom ga ue. Ti e ljudi uiti engleski ne da bi se
njime koristili u zemljama engleskog govornog podruja nego da komuniciraju negde drugde u svetu, sklapajui poslove, piui lanke za asopise i radei sve ono to rade ljudi u globalizovanom svetu. (Philips)
Zbog proirivanja meunarodnih ekonomskih veza javila se i otvorena potreba za usklaivanjem meunarodno priznatih ekonomskih termina. Poslovni
engleski jezik, kao grana engleskog za posebne namene, javio se kao jedino i
pravo sredstvo komunikacije poslovnih ljudi, jer u eri globalizacije svetske ekonomije, engleski jezik je vie nego ikada ranije lingua franca u svetu biznisa
(Radosavljevi 44). Koncept poslovnog engleskog jezika javio se kao odgovor na
neophodnost to bolje komunikacije izmeu razvijenog sveta i zemalja u razvoju. U zemljama u razvoju javila se potreba za tehnolokim inovacijama, trgovinskim razmenama, poslovanjima. Pojavila se potreba za univerzalnim jezikom
na kome meunarodna zajednica moe komunicirati u oblastima zajednikih
interesovanja, a engleski je takav svetski jezik (Sainz and Biggins).
Ubrzani razvoj ekonomije u globalnim razmerama, kao i razvoj finansijskog
sektora, podstaknuti razvojem informacionih sistema i digitalne revolucije, doprinose da se predmet roba i usluga i finansijske transakcije koje ih prate odvijaju u to veoj meri na meunarodnom planu. To podrazumeva da i papirologija
(kao to su poslovna pisma, sporazumi, ekonomski instrumenti plaanja), klasina i digitalna, koja prati zakljuivanje takvih poslova, mora da bude na nekom
od vodeih svetskih jezika, a engleski je u tom pogledu postao dominantan.
Poznato je da jezik odraava promene u drutvu najveim delom kroz leksiki fond koji uva svedoanstva o oblicima i fazama kroz koje prolazi drutvo.
Iako semantiko polje svakog jezika odgovara pojmovnim potrebama, nain
stvaranja odgovarajue naune terminologije bitno se razlikuje od jezika do
jezika, jer su terminoloke potrebe razliite i promenljive, te se za pojedine jezike
kreu od imperativa stvaranja terminologije ex nihilo do prilagoavanja postojeeg vokabulara bilo putem jednokratnih ili globalnih intervencija, bilo putem
mera jezikog planiranja.
Iskustvo je pokazalo da odreena terminologija vri snaan povratni uticaj
na jezik svakodnevne komunikacije, to je posebno evidentno u monoj industriji kao to su finansije. Doprinos strune terminologije optem jezikom fondu
je svakako jedna od karakteristika savremenih kretanja na jezikom planu.
Praksa je pokazala da se mnogi ekonomski termini na engleskom jeziku
upotrebljavaju esto u drugim svetskim jezicima koji nisu nali odgovarajua
reenja ili u cilju lakeg sporazumevanja, koriste engleske termine.
361
362
U tabeli 4. su prikazani uvodni delovi poslovnih pisama na nemakom,

francuskom, italijanskom, ruskom i srpskom jeziku u kojima su zastupljene rei
na engleskom jeziku.
Jezik:
Nemaki
Orginalni tekst
Prevod
Entsprechend den Short-term
U skladu sa ugovorom o kratkoronoj
Facilities Agreement werden
kreditnoj liniji, za sva finansiranja u
wir fr alle Finanzierungen im
okviru gore pomenute kreditne linije
Rahmen der vorgenannten
(revolving kreditna linija)
Kreditlinie (revolving kredit
zaraunaemo maru od I 3/8/%
facility) eine Marge von i 3/8%
godinje, iznad naih trokova
p.a. ber unseren
nabavke sredstava na novanom
Einstandskosten im Geldmarkt in tritu.
Rechnung stellen. (Deutsche
Bank AG)
Francuski: Nous vous fasion parvenir ciU prilogu Vam dostavljam jedan
joint une copie du joint venture
primerak ugovora o zajednikom
agreement conclue entre
ulaganju zakljuenog izmeu Renoa i
Renault et IMV. (Societe
IMV-a.
General)
Italijanski: II contratto stipulato tra i
Ovaj ugovor izmeu poslovnih
business partners prevede
partnera predstavlja parcijalne
forniture parziali di merce.
isporuke robe.
)
(Genova i Voarcop
Ruski:

AD Alfabanka je specijalno za

osiguravajue kompanije pripremila

niz usluga i spremna je da Vam
ponudi sistem Ke menadmenta.
Cash Management. (Alfabanka)
Srpski:
Implementacija projekta je u
Sprovoenje projekta je u toku, stoga
toku, stoga Vas molim da
Vas molim da potpiete po jedan
popiete po jedan primerak ovih primerak ovih dokumenata, a
dokumenata a kopije zadrite
duplikate zadrite radi vlastite
radi vlastite upotrebe. (Taylor
upotrebe.
10)
Tabela 4. Delovi poslovnih pisama na raznim jezicima
Moe se primetiti da su ekonomski termini na engleskom jeziku na ve

gotovo prirodan nain zastupljeni u drugim jezicima, tako da prilikom itanja
odreenog teksta na drugom jeziku, koji nije engleski, a u kome se nalaze
poslovni izrazi na engleskom jeziku uopte se ne primeuje da su to rei stranog
porekla ve su usvojene kao deo vokabulara tog jezika. Ovde primeujemo da je
dolo do direktnog pozajmljivanja poslovnog argona engleskog jezika bez
ikakve geografske i morfoloke adaptacije.
Ovi primeri direktnog pozajmljivanja iz engleskog jezika u svim navedenim

svetskim jezicima koji pripadaju jednako jakim i slabim finansijskim sistemima
potvruju tenju ka internacionalizaciji jezika struke. Njima se pridruuje i srpski
jezik u kome, i pored postojanja izraza na maternjem jeziku, preovladavaju u
upotrebi direktne pozajmljenice iz engleskog jezika. Primera radi, i pored termina sprovoenje, u sve veoj meri se koristi termin implementacija. Takoe, iako
za engleski termin business postoji sasvim adekvatno leksikografsko reenje poslovanje, u optoj upotrebi u domaim ekonomskim krugovima je pozajmljenica
biznis, koja je ve prola kroz fonoloku adaptaciju.
Ovladavanje jezikim strukturama i usvajanje pojmova i kljunog poslovnog
vokabulara (s podruja kao to su organizacija poduzea, zapoljavanje, poslovna etika, poslovni kontakti i interkulturalne razlike u poslovnom svetu, poslovno
dopisivanje) neophodno je za komuniciranje u razliitim poslovnim situacijama.
Jedan od temeljnih preduslova radne konkurentnosti i uspenosti poslovnih
ljudi dananjice je poznavanje poslovnog engleskog jezika i vetina usmene i
pismene komunikacije u meunarodnom poslovnom okruenju kako bi poslovni
ljudi, tj. biznismeni, mogli aktivno da uestvuju na poslovnim sastancima i konferencijama na kojima se zahteva poznavanje engleskog jezika. Stoga je znaaj
poznavanja engleskog jezika u svetlu najnovijih kretanja svetske privrede, koju
karakterie globalizacija poslovanja, veoma izraen te se shodno tome javlja i
potreba za unapreivanjem poslovne komunikacije na engleskom jeziku.
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Philips, Adam.Poduka engleskog jezika na globalan nain. VOA. Washington
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Radosavljevi, Mirjana. Fenomen u finansijskom vokabularu engleskog jezika.
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AN INTENSIFIED MODERN LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAMME FOR
EUROPE, https://wcd.coe.int.
Sainz, JoAnn, and Catherine M. Biggins. "How Can the International Community
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Wilberg, Peter, and Michael Lewis. Business English: An Individualised learning

programme. London: Language Teaching Publications, 1990.
BUSINESS ENGLISH AS A PART OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

This paper highlights the importance of business English. One of the current
fundamental prerequisites for competitiveness in an international business
environment is fluency in business English, including both oral and written
correspondence. English has become the lingua franca of the modern age. This
article explains how business terms of English origins are morphologically and
phonologically adapted to almost all world languages.
Key words: English for Specific Purposes, Business English language,
economics, globalization, business correspondence.
UDK 371.3:81243
:
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( 2005).
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XX

(Communicative Language Teaching Task-based),
(Whole Language
Contextual Teaching and Learning) (Richards 2001).

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(Widdowson) (Wilkins) , .
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(Larsen-Freeman 121).
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:
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, ,
(Richards 110). : ,
.

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368

( 2003: 113).
()

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(onathan ueller),
Authentic Assessment Toolbox ( )
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(Mueller 2003, ..).
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(Katona, Drnyei 2004). H
- (McBeath 2004),
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. ( 1987: 251)
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, , . .
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),
(
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.
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Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Elite Olshtain. Discourse and Context in Language
Teaching: A Guide for Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
Richards, Jack C, Richard Schmidt. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics. Malaysia: Pearson Education, 2002.
, . . :
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Katona, Lucy, and Zoltn Drnyei. The C-Test: A Teacher-Friendly Way to Test
Language Proficiency. Teacher Development: Making the Right Moves. Ed.
Thomas Kral. Washington: The Office of English Language Programs of the
United States Department of State, 2004. 270-73.
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Hong
Kong: Oxford UP, 2000.
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McBeath, Neil. C-Tests Some Words of Caution. Teacher Development:
Making the Right Moves. Ed. Thomas Kral. Washington: The Office of English
Language Programs of the United States Department of State, 2004. 274-278.
McKay, Penny. Assessing Young Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
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ueller, onathan. The Authentic Assessment Toolbox. 20.03.2010.
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O'Malley, Michael, Lorraine Valdez-Pierce. Authentic Assessment for English
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Teaching. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
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XXII/3 (2009): 99-106.
AUTHENTICITY AND CONTEXT IN STUDENTS ASSESSMENT TASKS

Preparing assessment tasks is a very demanding job; it requires that many
aspects be considered in order to make objective, valid and reliable evaluations.
The aim of this paper is to draw the attention of test makers to the importance of
two of these aspects: authenticity and context of tasks so that tasks can better
resemble real-life language situations. Authenticity includes both using authentic
materials of native speakers and creating real-life language situations. This paper
shows the intertwined nature of these aspects in developing authentic
assessment. A contextualized task is a task characterized by a particular situation
and the verbal, paralinguistic and non-verbal signs that help speakers understand
the full meaning of a speakers utterances. If assessment tasks are carefully
chosen while paying attention to authenticity and context, then the marks which
students receive will be more valid and reliable, a requirement for qualitative
assessment.
Key words: Authenticity, context, evaluation, constructivism, authentic
assessment.
379
380
Jezik medija
Language of Media
381
382
UDK 811.163.4367.7:070
Noun Phrases in News Reports in Serbian:

Words Tightly Packed
Tatjana Marjanovi
University of Banja Luka
Abstract: News reports belong to a register that strives to provide the reader with as
much information as possible packed into as little space as possible. To achieve these
competing goals, the texts tend to rely on structural resources which are particularly
suitable to express their content most economically.
Studies have shown that newspaper texts in English are especially prone to pack their
content into integrated noun phrase constructions, heavily modified with both pre- and
post-head elements. What could be expressed in a number of separate sentences is
compressed into highly complex noun phrases, predominantly featuring appositive
structures and relative clauses as postmodifiers, and nouns and noun phrases as
premodifiers.
This small-scale research seeks to demonstrate that newspaper texts in Serbian resemble
those in English in their frequent recourse to tightly packed noun phrases. Although it is
reasonable to expect that, owing to their structural differences, the two languages will at
times differ in the exact ways in which they set out to accomplish these tasks, the end
result is consistent with the assumption that both share their reliance on heavily modified
noun phrases in informational registers such as news reporting.
Key words: noun phrase, premodifier, postmodifier, multiple modification, subordinated
modification, news reporting, English, Serbian.
Introduction
Studies have shown that the noun phrase in English is one of the structures
most capable of undergoing heavy modification by a variety of elements
stretching both before and after the head word (Greenbaum and Quirk 1990;
Halliday and Mathiessen 2004). This structural property of the English noun
phrase has been used unsparingly in circumstances in which two competing goals
strive to be accomplished: one is to be as informative as possible, and the other
to use space as economically as possible. The perfect arena where these
383
384
opposing demands are attested is, for reasons that are not difficult to
understand, newspaper reporting.
In a corpus-based approach Biber (2004, 179) reports that newspaper prose
continues to rely on register-specific noun phrase structures such as non-finite
and appositive post-modifiers, as well as subordinated noun phrase premodifiers. The effects of such tightly-packed noun phrases are best seen after
rewording some of the original examples from Bibers corpus.
A single sentence featuring a noun phrase built around an abstract noun and
post-modified by a to-infinitive clause, e.g. Meetings on Friday morning also
ended without a decision to accept the deal which provides for Palestinian selfrule in the Gaza Strip (Biber 2004, 178), could have been replaced with a series of
short phrases and sentences as in the following reconstruction: The negotiators
met on Friday morning and, among other things, discussed the terms of a deal. It
was about giving the Palestinians self-rule in the Gaza Strip. The Israelis did not
accept the deal and the meeting came to an end.
Another example is that reconstructed from the original noun phrase
featuring an appositive post-modifier, as in Oliver Gillie, deputy editor of The
Independent Magazine and formerly medical editor of the newspaper (Biber
2004, 178). A less integrated alternative would break the noun phrase in two
separate sentences, for example, Olivier Gillie is deputy editor of The Independent
Magazine. He was also medical editor of the newspaper.
The last reconstruction at this point takes the head word system premodified by an intricate noun phrase involving multi-level subordination, HPs
automatic software distribution system (Biber 174), and distributes the phrase
content in two separate clauses: HP has got a system, and that system distributes
software automatically.
The three original structures illustrate that the result is a compressed style in
which extensive amounts of information are subsumed under phrase level,
avoiding repetition and consequently reducing the general number of sentences
in text.
According to Downing and Locke (493), a markedly nominal style makes
extensive use of abstractions and nominalisations, and is to be associated mainly
with formal and technical contexts of language use. Admittedly, the authors
observe that nominal density per se is a regular feature of any form of
communication, which is virtually impossible without nominal expressions, their
abstract varieties included. It is for that reason that the notion of nominal density
needs to be reinforced with that of nominal complexity. Indeed, there are studies
investigating degrees of nominal complexity in texts belonging to different
registers. Using a quantificational approach, Ni (170) found that texts with an
informational focus (i.e. first and foremost designed to inform the reader)
displayed a strong tendency towards nominal complexity and differed
significantly in that respect from their counterparts whose primary role was an
interactive one (i.e. engaging speakers in various forms of social interaction).
Research aims, methodology and corpus

The aim of this paper is to point out that the intricate structure of the noun
phrase and its ability to grow from a mere pronoun into a fully-fledged meaning
complex is not necessarily a property associated with one language only. It
would be reasonable to assume that there are languages other than English in
which the noun phrase can go from the simplest to the most complex form, in
which it can develop to its full structural potential. Similarly, press news reports
are expected to be found in an overwhelming majority of literate communities.
Regardless of the language they are written in, they ought to have at least one
communicative function in common: namely, to inform the reader (cf. Bell
2000). To this end, a language will tend to make use of those strategies and
resources that express maximum information in a relatively economical, spacesaving packaging, likely to yield elaborate yet compact and integrated meaning
blocks. It would not be unreasonable to assume that, should a language have at
its disposal nominal expressions which can undergo heavy modification if
required, such useful devices will be readily employed in informative texts such
as press news reports. One such language and the one selected for analysis on
this particular occasion is Serbian, which, apart from being the mother tongue
of the author of this paper, seems a likely candidate to incorporate tightly
integrated nominal structures in its newspaper prose.
The purpose of this small-scale research is to test the intuitive belief that the
integrated noun phrase in news writing is a widely exploited device in Serbian,
helping journalists to overcome restrictions of space. The results obtained for the
noun phrase structure in press news reports in English (cf. Biber 2004, Ni 2004)
are indirectly compared to those found in the pilot research at hand exploring the
structure of the noun phrase in press news reports in Serbian. The study purports
to demonstrate that, although the two languages may differ in the exact ways in
which they achieve the tight packaging of their noun phrases, the end result,
summed up under the notion of nominal complexity, remains essentially
unchanged.
The corpus underlying the study was composed of front page news
downloaded from the official site of Glas Srpske120, a national daily121, over a
period of two weeks in August 2009. The content of front page news was quite
diverse, covering a variety of topics and localities: regional, national and
120
121
www.glassrpske.com
The newspaper literally translates into English as The Voice of Srpska.
385
386
international political and financial news dominated the headlines, but were
occasionally interspersed with art reports and human interest stories.
The noun phrases selected for analysis were required to meet several
criteria. First of all, simple122 noun phrases were not taken into account,
simple referring either to those noun phrases comprising no more than the
head noun or pronoun alone or any one noun phrase in which the total number
of elements was lower than four. Discontinuous noun phrases, those with
elements separated from the head of the entire unit by intervening ones123,
were also disregarded.
The process of downloading news reports and selecting nominal
expressions therein continued until the noun phrase corpus reached a total of
300 complex units. A limited, manually-handled corpus compiled to meet these
criteria was obviously not meant to count the overall number of all noun
phrases in texts, but was instead designed to explore whether news texts in
Serbian were prone to nominal complexity in the first place, and if so, how this
complexity was expressed in terms of syntagmatic organisation and structure.
With these reservations in mind, the corpus was analysed combining
structural and semantic criteria: the noun phrases were classified into pre- and
post-head elements in general as well as according to their various specific
realisations (e.g. adjective phrase, relative clause etc.); both pre- and post-head
units were in their own right analysed for structural complexity (e.g. simple,
multiple etc.); if deemed relevant, the elements were also examined for their
semantic properties (e.g. abstract, personal etc.); finally, every result was
expressed in percentages and every classification tabulated.
One final caveat is in order before we proceed with a general overview of
the noun phrase structure in English and Serbian: the language that served as a
model and basis for comparison in this study was English, complete with the
descriptive procedures and the metalanguage it entails124. This decision was
taken in order to avoid technical pitfalls such as going through the trouble of
renaming structural terms that do not coincide in the two languages. If the
differences in the noun phrase structure were considered too great to be dealt
with in this simplistic manner, a neutral term was coined for the purposes of
the current research.
122
Note that the word simple is in this case more of a convenient shorthand than it is a technical
term.
123
See the following section for an illustration of nominal discontinuity in Serbian.
124
The way the noun phrase is described in Serbian does not necessarily coincide with the English
system, either functionally or formally. The following section will briefly discuss some conceptual
and related differences between the noun phrase structure in the two languages.
A general overview of the noun phrase structure in English and Serbian

According to Greenbaum and Quirk (1990, 375-405), among the most
common pre-modifiers in the English noun phrase are adjective and noun
phrases, along with ing and ed participles, as in the following examples: a
lovely young woman, ocean waves, your lying friends, ready-made clothes. The
less common pre-head structures include genitives, adverbials and sentences, for
example, yesterdays news, the after life, his nobody-is-as-good-as-me attitude.
The post-modifiers come in several forms too, some of which are more frequent
than others: post-modifying prepositional phrases, relative clauses and infinitival,
ing and ed non-finite clauses (e.g. the puppy in the little girls arms, students
who attend classes and do their homework, procedures to be followed, cats
purring by the fire, walls painted white) generally outnumber appositive postmodifiers, which can appear in syntagmatic or clausal form, adverb and adjective
phrases, along with postposed nouns (e.g. the Millennium Eye, one of Londons
more recent landmarks, the idea that you cant beat the unbeatable, the way in,
anybody clever enough, veal paprika).
Both pre- and post-modifiers are easily bound in relationships of
dependency or subordination, e.g. EU membership negotiations, in which EU
modifies membership, which in turn modifies negotiations, or the shocking
contents of the letter that his unsuspecting wife found under a pile of books in
the library, in which the letter from the immediately post-modifying
prepositional phrase of the letter is further post-modified by the succeeding
relative clause that his unsuspecting wife found under a pile of books in the
library. Likewise, it is fairly easy to make both pre- and post-modifiers in the
English noun phrase recursive, e.g. delicious savoury snacks, in which the first
pre-modifying adjective describes and the second classifies the head noun
independently of each other, or the TV in the guest room that broke down ages
ago, in which the head noun is post-modified independently by two separate
structures, first the prepositional phrase in the guest room and then the
relative clause that broke down ages ago.
Although this sketchy overview made use of relatively simple examples, the
inherent complexity of the noun phrase in English is one of its conspicuous
properties, a claim that was amply quoted in the introduction of this paper.
Indeed, coming up with a highly complex noun phrase should hardly present a
challenging task, e.g. the husband and wife real estate agency employees whose
services we first sought out when we were thinking of buying a second home in
Bristol, which turned out slightly out of our league (and this could go on for a
while more).
387
388
Unlike English, Serbian is a language with an elaborate seven-case system,

which has driven most of the noun phrase discussion in that direction125.
Relying heavily on the notions of congruence and supplementation (Simi 1999,
200), the noun phrase is described as a structure consisting of the
indispensable head noun and potentially flanked by two dominant functional
categories, attributive and appositive. Each can be realised by roughly the same
structures, notably adjective and noun phrases.
Adjective phrases are congruent with the noun (i.e. agree with it in gender,
number and case) whether they precede or follow it, whether they function
attributively or appositively126, e.g.
zgodan sg masc NOMINATIVE momak
handsome
fellow
(a handsome fellow)
djevojka, lijepa i pametna sg fem NOMINATIVE
girl beautiful and smart
(a beatiful smart girl).
Noun phrases can also both precede and follow the head noun (be
juxtaposed left and right to it), or supplement it in the form of another caseassigned noun following the head. Noun phrases too can act either appositively
or attributively, e.g.
Petar, zgodan
i vrijedan
momak sg masc NOMINATIVE
Peter handsome
and hardworking
fellow
(Peter, a handsome and hardworking fellow)
zgodan
i vrijedan
momak, Petar sg masc NOMINATIVE
handsome
and hardworking
fellow Peter
(Peter, a handsome and hardworking fellow)
djevojka sg fem NOMINATIVE crne kose sg fem GENITIVE
girl
black hair
(a girl with black hair)
srce sg neut NOMINATIVE
od kamena sg masc GENITIVE
127
heart
of stone
(a heart of stone)
125
For coverage of the noun phrase in Serbian, this paper has drawn largely from Ivi (2005) and
Simi (1999).
126
Attributes form closer semantic ties with the noun, whereas appositives are thought of as
providing additional information. However, their semantic properties do not necessarily affect their
distribution (i.e. both can occur before and after the head noun).
127
Note that the post-modifying noun phrase od kamena (which is, for that matter, attributive, as is
the one in the preceding example, crne kose) corroborates case with a preposition.
Although in Serbian prepositions are treated as case-assigners within noun

phrases, we have decided, based on the English model, to dub all the noun
phrases in the corpus that are preceded by a preposition prepositional phrases.
This decision was made in the hope that English-friendly labels will facilitate
reading of this text and make it easier to compare the results obtained with those
already reported for English.
To set them apart from the noun phrases introduced by a preposition as well
as those juxtaposed to the head noun with which they share the same case (i.e.
appositive noun phrases), the preposition-free post-modifying noun phrases that
supplement the head noun in the form of a different case will here be referred to
as oblique, e.g.
dani pl masc NOMINATIVE mira sg masc GENITIVE
days
peace
(days of peace)
All of the noun phrases illustrated so far have been presented as
uninterrupted sequences of elements; however, it must be observed that
discontinuity of the noun phrase in Serbian is one of the features adding to its
prospective complexity. Consider the adjective phrase radosni in the following
sentence:
djeaci pl masc NOMINATIVE su skakali radosni pl masc NOMINATIVE
boys
were jumping happy
(The boys were jumping happily.)
The adjective radosni agrees with the noun djeaci in gender, number and
case, and is understood as forming part of the noun phrase. Admittedly, it may
seem more appealling to classify radosni as an adverbial, but a purely adverbial
meaning would require a separate adverbial form, radosno, corresponding to the
English adverbial happily. Such and similar examples are discussed in Simi
(1999, 250) under the notion of exlocation.
This paper has also classified all Serbian quantifiers and referring pronominal
expressions128 (Piper 2005, 91-97) as adjectives since Serbian is in general
oblivious to the concept of determination as we find it in English.
Interestingly, whereas in English determination refers to a category of
function words that precede the noun, notably the articles, definite and
indefinite, along with demonstrative, possessive, quantifying and a few other
items, in Serbian the term is used to cover what is basically the domain of preand post-modification in English (Ivi 2005; Simi 1999). In order to avoid any
128
Some of those are demonstratives and possessives.
389
390
misunderstandings, we have decided to remain loyal to the English terminology

and classify as pre-modifiers all items that precede the head noun in Serbian, and
as post-modifiers all items that follow it. It is for the same reason that we have
tried hard not to overuse the notions of attribution and apposition, having
already acknowledged their high-profile status in the noun phrase in Serbian.
Here comes additional proof that the two languages interpret the same
terms in their own specific ways. In Serbian, post-modifying relative clauses
basically represent one more form with appositive function in the noun phrase
(Piper 2005, 74). In accordance with the English model, which differentiates
between relative and appositive clauses (cf. Greenbaum and Quirk 1990), this
paper too makes a distinction between those clauses that admit the relative
pronoun proper (e.g. who or which) and those that enter into intensive
relationships with the abstract noun they follow and obligatorily replace the
relative pronoun proper with a more general Serbian complementiser da, e.g.
planovi koje podravam present 1st person sg
plans which endorse-I
(plans that I endorse)
planovi da se otvaraju present 3rd person pl nova radna mjesta
plans that one opens
new work places
(plans to create more jobs)
For the sake of simplicity, appositive forms will in this paper be understood in
the English sense of the word with reference to a nominal post-head element.
Finally, as will become apparent in the discussion below, both pre- and posthead elements in the noun phrase in Serbian are liable to subordination and
recursion, as we have already acknowledged to be true for the noun phrase in
English129. In this paper, multiple modification is a term used to cover those noun
phrases that consisted of more than one pre- or post-modifier, provided that
none of them was subject to subordination. Complex modification, on the other
hand, pertained to noun phrases with single pre- or post-head elements which
were bound in a relationship of subordination, i.e. pre- or post-modifiers that
were themselves (pre- or post-) modified. If a noun phrase contained multiple
pre- or post-head elements, any of which were complex in the sense defined
above, they were made members of the complex-and-multiple category. Noun
phrases with single pre- or post-head elements not involving subordination at
any level qualified for the simple type of modification.
Although quite limited in scope, this brief overview will hopefully serve to
map out the main territory of the noun phrase in Serbian and facilitate
understanding of the forthcoming section.
129
As similarities here outweigh the differences, exemplification may not be necessary at this point.
Results and discussion

The general results show that the noun phrase in news reports in Serbian is
especially prone to post-modification, while pre-modifiers themselves point to
a reversed trend. Pre-head forms make a more significant contribution to the
noun phrase structure in news texts only when they occur in expressions that
also incorporate post-head elements, e.g.
(197)130
isti ljudi koji su bili kreatori ratnih zbivanja u BiH i Sarajevu131
same people who were creators war events in BH and Sarajevo
(the same people who were the masterminds of war in BH and Sarajevo)
(276)
aktivni policijski slubenik u Odjeljenju kriminalistike policije
active police officer in Department Criminal Police
(an active police officer in the Criminal Police Department)
The distribution of percentages for both pre- and post-modification is
presented in the table below:
Modification
Percentage
Pre-head
1
Post-head
65
Pre- and post-head
34
Table 1: Position of modification
In news reports in Serbian the pre-modifier literally marks the beginning of a

noun phrase that ends with post-modification, but is itself not to be taken as a
primary source of nominal complexity. This observation is further corroborated
with the finding that a vast majority of pre-modifiers in the corpus have neither
multiple nor complex internal structure. For a summary of the results see Table 2:
Pre-modification
Percentage
Simple
74
Multiple
16
Complex
10
Table 2: Simple versus recursive and embedded pre-modifying structures
130
The numbers reflect the order in which noun phrases appear in the corpus.
In order to save space and enhance readability, only a simplified annotation will be provided for
the noun phrases in Serbian (i.e. individual words are matched in the order in which they occur with
their English equivalents in the next line without providing the otherwise relevant morphological
information).
131
391
392
Unlike English, Serbian does not readily allow pre-modification in the form
of noun phrases, e.g. baggage inspection procedures132 (Biber 2004, 176).
Whether multiple or complex, pre-modifiers in the noun phrase in Serbian are
predominantly adjectival, e.g.
(84)
bezbrojna slubena putovanja u inostranstvo
countless official trips to foreign countries
(countless business trips abroad)
(285)
prilino racionalan pristup problemima drava kandidata i buduih
kandidata
rather rational approach problems state candidates and future
candidates
(a rather rational approach to the problems of present and future
candidate states)
The pre-modified noun phrases illustrate that this type of modification in
Serbian does not nearly match the potential reported for pre-modifying
sequences in media texts in English (Biber 2004, 174), possibly owing to a
restriction on nominal pre-head sequences133.
Rendering further support to this claim is the finding that pre-modifying
chains in the Serbian corpus only exceptionally exceed two individual words, as
reported in Table 3:
Pre-head items
Percentage
One
73
Two
21
Three
4
Four
2
Table 3: Number of pre-modifying words per noun phrase
A vast majority of the pre-modifying items are actually adjectives proper,

central members of the adjectival category, with participial and closed-class
adjectives making a significantly smaller contribution to the overall premodification scheme in news reports in Serbian. A summary of the results is
presented in the table below:
132
Such phrases usually translate to Serbian through post-modification, e.g. procedure provjere
prtljaga, which translates back to English as procedures for the inspection of baggage.
133
When the noun phrase does precede the head noun in Serbian, it actually behaves appositively,
but such instances are entirely absent from the corpus. For a quick reminder see section 3.
Open-class
adjective
Proper
Deverbal
Percentage
Closed-class
adjective
72
Quantifying
6
Pronominal
Table 4: Types of pre-modifying structures
Percentage
16
6
The initial assumption that adjectives proper and participles, unlike

pronominal and quantifying classes, will be more inclined to engage in
relationships of sub-modification has not gained support in numbers. Regardless
of their formal and meaning properties, adjectival pre-modifiers in general have
not expressed willingness to undergo extensive forms of sub-modification, as the
following examples suggest:
(113)
poslovni pakt vrijedan nekoliko milijardi evra
business pact worth several billion euros
(a business deal worth several billion euros)
(187)
dobro uvana tajna, koja se za sada moe uti samo nezvanino
well kept secret which one for now can hear only off-the-record
(a well-kept secret, which can for now only be heard off the record)
(72)
mnogo sluajeva da odreeni zakoni ne budu usvojeni u Narodnoj skuptini RS
many cases that specific laws not be passed in National Assemly RS
(many cases of specific laws that have not been passed by the RS Parliament)
Having documented that pre-modifying segments in Serbian news reports
are not critical in giving the noun phrase as a whole the name of a markedly
complex unit, we now turn to those elements that might as well live up to the
task and bring the noun phrase in Serbian closer to its English counterpart than
the pre-modification sphere proved capable of.
As illustrated in Table 5 below, simple post-modification is virtually nonexistent in the corpus, which, on the other hand, abounds in post-head units
embedding other units. Percentages also indicate a high frequency of postmodifiers that incorporate both embedding and recursion within a single noun
phrase. Interestingly enough, recursive post-modification is hardly ever
reported independently of noun phrases with complex post-modification. Such
a trend seems to promote dependency as a primary relationship within the
noun phrase post-modification in news texts in Serbian:
393
394
Post-modification
Percentage
Simple
1
Multiple
2
Complex
57
Complex and multiple
40
Table 5: Simple versus recursive and embedded post-modifying structures
The result is a rather lengthy noun phrase which contains a great deal of
information and presumably requires more processing effort from the reader.
The following is an example of post-modification which is both complex and
multiple:
(140)
navode iz saoptenja Ministarstva inostranih poslova BiH da je rekao
allegations from communiqu Ministry Foreign Affairs BH that said-he
da je Ilija Jurii, optuen za ratni zloin u sluaju Tuzlanska kolona
that Ilija Jurii indicted for war crime in case Tuzla convoy
polovinom septembra trebao da bude na slobodi
mid September should have been at large
(allegations in a BH Foreign Office communiqu that he said that Ilija Jurii,
indicted for war crimes in the Tuzla Convoy case, should have been released by
mid September)
(The head noun allegations is postmodified by a prepositional phrase and a
that-clause, and the that-clause itself contains another that-clause.)
The most common post-modifiers in news reports in Serbian include
oblique noun phrases along with prepositional phrases:
(119)
poslovni projekti suvlasnika najveeg lanca kockarnica u istonoj Evropi
business projects co-owner biggest chain casino in eastern Europe
Ritsio Entertainment, koji ima 25 hiljada zaposlenih
Ritsio Entertainment which has 25 thousand employees
(business projects launched by the co-owner of the biggest casino chain in
Eastern Europe, Ritsio Entertainment, which has 25,000 employees)
(200)
podaci
o
krivinim djelima ratnih zloina poinjenih nad Srbima
information
about criminal acts war crimes committed over Serbs
u Sarajevu tokom proteklog rata
in Sarajevo during recent war
(records about war crimes committed against Serbs in Sarajevo during the
recent war)
That these two post-modifying structures have the highest occurrence rate in
the study is not surprising: they merely exploit the morphological potential of a
case language like Serbian. For other types of post-modifying structures and
their frequency in press news in Serbian, see the table below:
Post-modifier
Percentage
Oblique noun phrase
31
Prepositional phrase
28
Relative clause
18
Appositive noun phrase
11
Appositive clause
8
Adjective phrase
4
Table 6: Types of post-modifying structures
Biber (2004, 177-8) lists several post-modifying structures that are especially
characteristic of newspaper prose in English: relative clauses, appositive noun
phrases and infinitival appositive clauses. All these are reported in the Serbian
corpus too, with relative clauses scoring somewhat better than appositive noun
phrases and clauses. However, regardless of the form a post-modifier takes, the
following heavily post-modified noun phrases all suggest a compressed style of
expression:
(80)
ti
koji e se morati dogovoriti i odluiti kako i na koji nain e
those who will have to negotiate and decide how and in what way will-they
raspodijeliti
imovinu, putem sporazuma izmeu dravne i entitetskih
divide property through agreements between state and entity
vlada
governments
(those who will have to negotiate and decide how and in what way to divide
the property, through agreements between the central and national
governments)
(116)
Dragomir Kari, potpredsjednik BK grupe i predstavnik ruske
Dragomir Kari vice-president BK Group and representative Russian
Trgovinsko-industrijske komore, roeni brat Bogoljuba Karia,
Commercial-Industrial Chamber own brother Bogoljub Kari
koga je Kotuniina vlada protjerala iz Srbije
395
396
whom did Kotunicas government exile from Serbia

(Dragomir Kari, vice-president of the BK Group and representative of the
Russian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, brother of Bogoljub Kari, who
was exiled from Serbia by Kotunicas government)
(263)
injenica da se ekonomski
i socijalni program, pa ak i planovi
fact
that are economic
and social programme and even plans
sveobuhvatne reforme penzijskog sistema, izrauju na osnovu procjena
overall
reform pension system made on basis evaluations
i zastarjelih podataka
and outdated information
(the fact that economic and social programmes, and even plans for the overall
pension scheme reform, are based on evaluation and outdated records)
The examples above are very telling of a degree of complexity the noun
phrase in Serbian is susceptible to, which seems to be, at least in the press news
register, unaffected by the choice of the head word, as the table below suggests:
Head noun
Percentage
Abstract
31
Deverbal
31
Personal/institutional
26
Other
12
Table 7: Classes of noun phrase heads
Whether referring to abstract notions (e.g. initiative, situation, result),

individuals or institutions (e.g. officer, councillor, commission), whether derived
from verbs (e.g. accusation, establishment, authorisation) or not, the nouns in
this study have proved exceptionally inclined to accept post-modification in a
variety of complex forms.
Closing remarks
News reporting has to be both informative and economical, with journalists
working under constant pressure to keep the information presented to the
reader within a manageable limit (Bell 1999). Studies have shown that news
reports in English have developed devices to assist them in reconciling these
competing demands (Biber 2004; Ni 2004). Newspaper prose tends to rely on
structural resources which are especially suitable for expressing their content
most economically, building noun phrase structures heavily modified with both
pre- and post-head elements. The result is a compressed style, in which the same
content that could be distributed over a number of separate clauses is

compressed into highly complex noun phrases, predominantly featuring
appositive structures and relative clauses as post-modifiers, and noun sequences
as pre-modifiers.
On the assumption that economy is a universally acknowledged principle in
news writing, this paper has attempted to demonstrate that news reports in
Serbian resemble those in English in their frequent recourse to tightly integrated
noun phrases. The general outcome was entirely supportive of the initial
assumption although, owing to their structural differences, the two languages did
not always achieve nominal complexity in completely identical ways. Serbian was
particularly prone to make the post-head spot the bulkiest segment of the noun
phrase, leaving the pre-head structure relatively unburdened. Also, Serbian
prevalently resorted to those types of post-modification that exploited its
potential as a case language, English obviously not sharing that feature.
Notwithstanding the differences, the noun phrase in Serbian has proved
capable of assuming remarkably complex forms, as exemplified in the section
above. It seems safe to conclude, then, that both English and Serbian share their
reliance on heavily modified noun phrases in informational registers such as news
reporting.
Bibliography
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Biber,Douglas. Compressed Noun-phrase Structures in Newspapers Discourse: the
Competing Demands of Popularization vs. Economy. Eds. Jean Aitchison and
Diana M. Lewis. London-New York: Routledge, 2004.
Bloor, Thomas, and Meriel Bloor. The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan
Approach. London: Hodder Arnold, 2004.
Dijk, Teun A, van. News Schemata. Eds. Charles R. Cooper and Sidney
Greenbaum. London: Sage, 1986.
Downing, Angela, and Philip Locke. A University Course in English Grammar.
London-New York: Routledge, 2003.
Greenbaum, Sidney, Randolph Quirk. A Students Grammar of the English
Language. London: Longman, 1990.
Halliday, Michael A. K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward
Arnold, 1985.
Halliday, Michael A. K., and Christian Matthiessen. An Introduction to Functional
Grammar. London: Hodder Arnold, 2004.
Ivi, Milka. Sintaksa savremenog srpskog jezika: prosta reenica. Beograd:
Beogradska knjiga; Institut za srpski jezik SANU; Matica srpska, 2005.
397
398
Ni, Yibin. Noun Phrases in Media Texts: a Quantificational Approach. Eds. Jean
Aitchison and Diana M. Lewis. London-New York: Routledge, 2004.
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za srpski jezik SANU; Matica srpska, 2005.
Simi, Radoje. Osnovi sintakse srpskoga jezika. Beograd: Nauno drutvo za
negovanje i prouavanje srpskog jezika; Niki: Jasen, 1999.
IMENIKA SINTAGMA U NOVINSKIM LANCIMA NA SRPSKOM JEZIKU: OBILJE U MALOM

PAKOVANJU
tampani mediji prirodno tee da budu to informativniji za svoje itaoce, ali

se istovremeno moraju povinjavati zakonima ekonominosti, nastojei da ponude
to vie materijala na to manje novinskog prostora. Stoga je razumljivo da se u
pisanju novinskih izvjetaja prednost daje upravo onim strukturama koje istovremeno posjeduju i izraajni i ekonomini potencijal.
Istraivanja novinskog registra na engleskom jeziku dokazala su dominantno
prisustvo krajnje razvijenih imenikih sintagmi, ostvarenih sloenom premodifikacijom u vidu subordinisanih imenikih sklopova i postmodifikacijom u obliku apozitivnih i relativnih struktura. Na taj se nain stvaraju koncentrisane sintagmatske
jedinice, iji sadraj bi, u duhu manje nominalnog stila, mogao da obuhvati i
nekoliko klauza.
Ovo pilot istraivanje ima za cilj da pokae da se u novinskim lancima na srpskom jeziku, kao i onim na engleskom, pribjegava sloenoj ali kompaktnoj strukturi imenike sintagme, koja predstavlja istinsko obilje u malom pakovanju. Iako
je razumljivo da e se konkretan format ovako integrisane sintagmatske jedinice
u dva jezika donekle razlikovati, shodno strukturnim razlikama izmeu dva sistema, krajnji rezultat potvruje pretpostavku da se informativni registri i u engleskom i u srpskom jeziku obilato koriste imenikom sintagmom kako bi donekle
pomirili suprotstavljene zahtjeve informativnosti i ekonominosti.
Kljune rijei: imenika sintagma, premodifikacija, postmodifikacija, viestruka modifikacija, subordinacija, novinsko izvjetavanje, engleski, srpski
UDK 811367.626:654.172
Polarizacija u politikom diskursu: upotreba

zamjenica u televizijskim intervjuima
Milica Vukovi
Apstrakt:Polarizacija diskursnih uesnika je opta pojava u politikom diskursu i odnosi

se na izdvajanje pozicija, odnosno formiranje nekoliko grupa koje su, po pravilu,
suprotstavljene. Na taj nain se politiki diskurs, a kroz njega i politika stvarnost, gradi
kroz opozicije mi protiv vas i mi protiv njih. Cilj ovog rada je da predstavi
referencijalne strategije koje uestvuju u graenju polarizacije u britanskim, amerikim i
crnogorskim politikim intervjuima u elektronskim medijima. Rezultati pokazuju da se u
pojedinim politikim kulturama vie istie linost politiara, dok je u drugima akcenat na
kolektivu.
Kljune rijei: polarizacija, politiki intervju, zamjenice, referencijalne strategije
Uvod
Promjena perspektive iz koje govori politiar vri se ili podsvjesno ili strateki
(Partington 63), ali u oba sluaja enkodira ideoloke pozicije, tj. daje uvid u to da li
se politiar istie kao individua ili sebe vidi kao pripadnika jedne grupe koja
obuhvata i publiku. Govorenje sa stanovita prvog lica jednine tipino je za
zapadni sociokulturni kontekst, gdje se govornik obino konceptualizuje kao
individua (Fetzer and Bull 277), to sa jedne strane istie politiara i dokazuje
njegovu linu ukljuenost (Beard 45), ali istovremeno umanjuje jainu argumenata (282), moe da ukae na njegovu egocentrinost (Halmari 259) i politiaru tovari breme odgovornosti za izreeno. Govorenje iz perspektive prvog
lica mnoine pomjera linu odgovornost sa individue na anonimniju grupu (Bull
and Fetzer 281), pojaava validnost izreenog, budui da vie osoba stoji iza
odreene propozicije, i potpomae proces graenja grupnog identiteta. Sociopsiholoki proces grupne identifikacije podrazumijeva stvaranje emocionalne
privrenosti prema osobama koje se smatraju pripadnicima odreene grupe
(Ensink 7), a u politikom diskurusu, identifikacija je zapravo ubjeivanje (Allen 3).
399
400
Suprotstavljanje prve i druge pozicije, dakle nas i vas, esto prati pozitivna
samoprezentacija i negativna prezentacija drugih (Van Dijk 36), koje Van der
Valk (2003: 317) definie kao semantike strategije.
Budui da politiki diskurs funkcionie indeksiki (Chilton 201), u ovom radu
baviemo se nainima na koji se diskursni uesnici polarizuju u politikim
intervjuima u elektronskim medijima. Pokuaemo da izvedemo zakljuke o tome
koliko je polarizacija izraena u ovom diskursu i izdvojimo referencijalne strategije
koje je signaliu.
Korpus koji je korien u ovom istraivanju sastoji se od 18 sati transkribovanog materijala televizijskih politikih intervjua (105 000 rijei). Podijeljen
je u tri jednake grupe: intervjue sprovedene u britanskim (11 intervjua koji su
emitovani na BBC1, BBC News, BBC World, Sky News, Channel 4 i britanskom
izdanju Euronews-a), amerikim (10 intervjua koji su emitovani na televizijama
CNN, CBS, ABC i Fox News) i crnogorskim medijima (8 intervjua emitovanih na
televizijama RTCG, TV IN i TV Vijesti). Svi intervjui su u formatu jedan na jedan,
tj. u njima je intervjuisan samo po jedan politiar, i preuzeti su u cjelosti.
Polarizaciju emo sagledati koristei vie metodolokih perspektiva. U
optem okviru analize diskursa koristiemo metode pragmatike, korpusne lingvistike i analize konverzacije. Diskursnu strategiju polarizacije emo ispitati zasebno
u trima grupama, to e i usloviti strukturu rada, a zatim emo pokuati da
donesemo zakljuke o funkcionisanju ovog fenomena u diskursu politike uopte.
Upotreba zamjenica u britanskim politikim intervjuima

U britanskom korpusu, politiari mnogo vie govore u svoje ime ili ime svoje
grupe, nego to govore o postupcima tree strane (zamjenica they). Kada je u
pitanju perspektiva prvog lica, uglavnom jednako govore u svoje ime (I kao
oznaka i profesionalnog i privatnog identiteta politiara) i u ime drugih (we kao
oznaka za pripadnost, uglavnom partiji ili vladi).
Tabela 1 sumira podatke o upotrebi linih zamjenica i prisvojnih pridjeva,
gdje je njihova frekvencija izraunata u odnosu na ukupan broj rijei u korpusu,
kako bi podaci u potpunosti bili uporedivi u trima grupama intervjua:
Britanski korpus
I
1,92%
We
1,73%
They
0,63%
Me
Us
Them
0,15%
0,2%
0,19%
My
Our
Their
0,25%
0,27%
0,20%
Ukupno
2,32%
2,21%
1,02%
Tabela 1. Distribucija zamjenica u britanskom korpusu
Kada govore u svoje ime, u 33,3% sluajeva politiari govore o misaonim

procesima i iznose svoja miljenja i uvjerenja. To su takozvani B-dogaaji, dakle
dogaaji kojima primarni pristup ima samo politiar kao persona i predstavnik
institucije, pa je jasno zato se za njih vezuje zamjenica I. Ove fraze obino ne
nose neko pravo znaenje, ve su najee rutinska sredstva za dobijanje na
vremenu dok intervjuisani ne formulie odgovor, a funkcionalno su tada u upotrebi kao diskursni markeri (filler type).
B-dogaaji pored navedenog ukljuuju jo izraavanje elja, osjeanja i odgovore na pitanja ta bi uradio govornik u postavljenim hipotetikim situacijama.
Fraza
Zastupljenost
I (dont) think
102
I mean
23
I (dont) know
9
I suppose
4
I believe
6
I understand
3
I feel
2
I hope
5
I want
16
I would/ Id
17
Ukupno
196
Tabela 2. Fraze sa zamjenicom I u britanskom korpusu
Kao to vidimo, zamjenica I se u 26,5% sluajeva svih njenih upotreba vezuje

za glagol think. Funkcija I think i srodnih fraza u politikom diskursu je takva da,
kada nose znaenje, gotovo iskljuivo se koriste kao signali za autoritet, a ne za
izraavanje sumnje ili nesigurnosti (Simon-Vandenbergen, A.M, 1997, 2001;
Fetzer, 2008). U svakodnevnoj komunikaciji obrnut je sluaj.
Interesantno je primijetiti da politiari svojataju samo jedan uzak krug apstraktnih imenica, tj. prisvojni pridjev my (u crnogorskom jeziku to je prisvojna zamjenica) slae se sa imenicama tipa credibility, opinion, view, point of view, vision,
faith, belief, conviction i sl. Ovo se podudara sa prethodno navedenim podacima
o vezivanju zamjenice I za glagole miljenja. Za razliku od svakodnevne komunikacije, repertoar glavnih rijei u takvim sintagmama je vrlo uzak i rijetko prelazi granice navedenog niza. Po svom znaenju, ove fraze su vrlo bliske sintagmi I think.
Slina tabela kolokacija se ne moe izvesti za zamjenice we i they, budui da
se za njih vee raznolikiji skup imenica i glagola. Meutim, svakako da se mogu
izvesti neki zakljuci.
Politiari u britanskom korpusu zamjenicu we vezuju preteno za modalne
glagole. U modalnim iskazima, uglavnom se nalazi u propozicijama koje iskazuju
ta bi moralo ili trebalo da se uradi (15.5%). Uz to, oni esto govore i o svojim
planovima, tj. o tome ta e uraditi (13.2%). Interesantno je da kad se govori o
buduim planovima, politiari gotovo 7 puta vie govore iz perspektive grupe
401
402
(sa zamjenicom we) nego to govore iz svoje perspektive (sa zamjenicom I), iako
su pitanja, kao to smo vidjeli, postavljena lino njima (sa zamjenicom you, za
koju se iz konteksta moe vrlo prosto utvrditi da se radi o zamjenici koja ih lino
i individualno adresira). Rije je, svakako, o jo jednoj od tehnika za ograivanje
od odgovornosti (primjer 1). Najvie prostora politiari ipak posveuju
prepriavanju onoga to su kao kolektiv uradili. U lino ime (sa zamjenicom I),
takvih primjera skoro i da nema:
(1) (B 5) BROWN: And the turbulent times started in America, there are
issues about the financial institutions and the reporting that they did
both of off balance sheet activities and now the write downs; that
has spread through to the rest of the economy, so it's essentially a
financial system problem that is affecting the rest of the economy
and our aim throughout has been to try and protect and insulate as
much of the economy from it as possible and that's of course why we
acted in relation to Northern Rock, in the way we did, to prevent the
problems of Northern Rock spreading, but that's why at all times, our
first priority was, as a low inflation, low interest rate economy, is to
maintain stability, so that we can then continue to have growth.
(BBC News, Politics Show, IR: Jon Sopel, IE: Gordon Brown,
25.01.2008)
Analizom konkordanci prisvojnog pridjeva our, dolazimo do zakljuka da se
on vrlo esto koristi u tzv. patriotskoj funkciji (npr. our police, our history, our
children, our armed forces, our national priorities, our food, our democratic
system i sl.).
Zamjenica they koristi se mnogo rjee nego zamjenice prvog lica, to navodi
na zakljuak da se trea strana mnogo ee direktno imenuje nego to se koristi
referenca u vidu zamjenice. Uglavnom se upotrebljava kao anafora, dok se
zamjenice I i we upotrebljavaju egzoforiki.
Upotreba zamjenica u amerikim politikim intervjuima

U amerikom korpusu, politiari uglavnom govore u svoje ime i to dosta ee nego u britanskom korpusu (23% frekventnije). Kao i politiari iz britanskog
korpusa, oni takoe na pitanja koja su upuena njima individualno skoro u polovini sluajeva odgovaraju sa zamjenicom we, pomou koje se predstavljaju kao pripadnici grupe i ograuju od odgovornosti. Ipak, najupeatljivija je injenica da se
u amerikom korpusu politiari gotovo dva puta vie oslanjaju na opoziciju I/we
they.
Ameriki korpus
Ukupno
I
We
They
2,84%
2,12%
1,73%
2,32%
Me
0,27%
My
0,25%
1,55%
Us
0,18%
Our
0,38%
0,94%
Them
0,36%
Their
0,43%
Tabela 3. Distribucija zamjenica u amerikom korpusu
U vie od treine sluajeva, I se vezuje za glagole koji izraavaju kognitivne ili

emotivne sadraje, pri emu mnoge od tih fraza imaju status i funkciju diskursnih
markera (Tabela 4). Pomou I think i I believe politiari najee promoviu sebe
kao ljude koji i imaju autoritet da donose odreene sudove, mada se ove fraze u
rjeim sluajevima mogu koristiti i kao diskursni markeri koji slue za dobijanje na
vremenu, to je obino sluaj i sa frazama, I guess i I mean. Fraza I dont know
uglavnom slui kao strategija za izbjegavanje odgovaranja. I hope, I want, I would
slue za iznoenje politikih planova i programa. I would se ak ee koristi za
iznoenje programa nego I will/Ill, to takoe spada u naine ograivanja.
Fraza
Zastupljenost
I (dont) think
149
I mean
15
I (dont) know
19
I believe
18
I understand
I guess
2
I hope
3
I (dont) want
16
I would(nt)/Id
20
Ukupno
245
Tabela 4. Upotreba zamjenice I u amerikom korpusu
Fraza I think i ovdje ima visoku incidenciju kao i kod britanskog korpusa i glagol think se zapravo gotovo iskljuivo koristi u ovoj frazi. Funkcije su identine kao
u britanskom korpusu.
Prisvojni pridjev my u amerikom korpusu se vee za svega devet imenica i
to: thought, mind, decision, belief, view, vision, judgement, speech i arrival. Od
ovih su samo dvije konkretne, dok su ostale apstraktne i predstavljaju ili prave
sinonime ili su gotovo sinonimne. Distribucija im je ujednaena i moemo rei da
se radi samo o stilskim zamjenama za I think. Kada je u pitanju posesivnost, u
politikom diskursu se moe primijetiti tendencija da se prisvajaju samo pozitivni
ili neutralni sadraji, a ovaj fenomen je naroito prisutan u amerikom korpusu.
403
404
Tako, na primjer, problem nije nikada my problem, pa ak ni our problem, nego je

uvijek a problem, the problem, this problem.
Kao to smo ve primijetili, u amerikom korpusu je upotreba zamjenice we u
odnosu na zamjenicu I dosta rjea, to znai da se politiari manje predstavljaju
kao pripadnici grupe, partije ili nacije, ve je akcenat vie na njima samima i
njihovoj individui. Razloge za to moda treba traiti u dvopartijskom sistemu i
uopte amerikoj kulturi koja istie pojedinca. Zapravo, kad uzmemo u obzir
samo intervjue sa amerikim politiarima, dolazimo do podatka da u gotovo 70%
sluajeva oni govore u prvom licu jednine, dok je kod britanskih politiara
procenat zastupljenosti zamjenica I i we otprilike jednak.
Za zamjenicu we se mnogo manje veu glagoli koji kazuju ta bi trebalo ili
moralo da se uradi (9,5%). Takoe se manje govori i o tome ta e se uraditi
(11,3%). Iako zamjenica prvog lica jednine znaajno preovlauje, budue radnje
se dvostruko ee izraavaju kroz prvo lice mnoine. Uz zamjenicu we zapravo
najee stoje sadraji u sadanjem prostom i trajnom vremenu koji opisuju
grupu, tj. politiku grupe ili radnje koje grupa sada preduzima:
(2) (A 1) MCCAIN: ...We have the most stringent and transparent policy;
we are winning in Iraq now...
(ABC News, Who Is, IR: Charles Gibson, IE: John McCain, 5.06.2008)
(3) (A 2) RICE: ...We are sending a team now.
(CBS News, 60 Minutes, IR: Charlie Rose, IE: Condoleezza Rica,
28.09.2007)
(4) (A 3) AHMADINEJAD: ...We are a cultured people, we are courageous
enough, we are strong and powerful... We are very clear in our
position.
(CBS, 60 Minutes, IR: Scott Pelley, IE: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,
20.09.2007)
(5) (A 6) PAULSON: ...We are working hard...
(CNN, Late Edition, IR: Wolf Blitzer, IE: Henry Paulson, 16.03.2008)
Interesantno je da je mnogo ea upotreba we i our iji je referent ameriki narod, tj. drava, nego partije, dok je u britanskom korpusu ta distribucija
uglavnom ujednaena.
Zamjenica they se najee koristi kao anafora za ameriki narod, to
uglavnom rade predsjedniki kandidati (6), ili u opoziciji mi-oni, to uglavnom
koriste predstavnici Buovog kabineta, koji najvie govore o ratovima i krizama
u svijetu i potenciraju opoziciju izmeu Amerike i odreenih zemalja (7):
(6) (A 1) MCCAIN: But, overall, a vast majority of Americans are fair,
decent people, and they're going to judge who they want to lead on
the basis of how they think that person can lead.
(ABC News, Who Is, IR: Charles Gibson, IE: John McCain, 5.06.2008)
(A 2) RICE: Ironically, the nuclear file is the way for the Iranians to access
us for broader discussions because we've made clear that if they
suspend then we will reverse the 28 years of American policy. I said
that I would meet my counterpart. I also said that we could talk
about anything. We didn't -- ironically, it's not within the Iraq context
that we will talk about anything because that's really about Iraq. But
within the nuclear framework, if they will suspend, we can talk about
whatever they'd like to talk about. So I've been pretty clear that I -- I
don't think the question is why won't we talk to them. I think the
question is why won't they talk to us.
(CBS News, 60 Minutes, IR: Charlie Rose, IE: Condoleezza Rica,
28.09.2007)
U primjeru (6), predsjedniki kandidat Mekejn koristi they kao anaforu za
Amerikance i, naravno, za ovu zamjenicu vezuje samo pozitivne kvalitete, vrlo
esto i pretjerujui. Jasno je da oni ee koriste patriotsko we i they, jer je to u
funkciji ubiranja glasova. S druge strane, Rajs istie opoziciju mi-oni u primjeru
(7), to je u sasvim drugaijoj politikoj funkciji (Rajsova sasvim svjesno govori o
Irancima, a ne reimu, vladi, predstavnicima ili predsjedniku Irana). Sa druge
strane, kada premijer Irana, Ahmadinedad, govori o Americi, nijednom ne
koristi ovu opoziciju u smislu da je they referent za ameriki narod, ve je
opoziciono they uvijek anafora za Buovu administraciju:
(7) (A 3) AHMADEINEJAD: I think Mr. Bush, if he wants his party to win
the next election, there are cheaper ways and ways to go about this.
I can very well give him a few ideas so that the people vote for him.
He should respect the American people. They should not bug the
telephone conversations of their citizens. They should not kill the
sons and daughters of the American nation. They should not
squander the taxpayers' money and give them to weapons
companies. And also help the people, the victims of Katrina. People
will vote for them if they do these things. But if they insist on what
they are saying right now, this will not help them. Again, nobody can
hurt the Iranian people.
(CBS, 60 Minutes, IR: Scott Pelley, IE: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,
20.09.2007)
405
406
Upotreba zamjenica u crnogorskim politikim intervjuima
Za potrebe analize upotrebe zamjenica u crnogorskom korpusu uzeli

smo u obzir paradigmu linih zamjenica ja, mi, oni i prisvojnih zamjenica moj,
na i njihov. Statistiki podaci ovdje iznijeti nijesu bliski podacima koji vae za
britanski i ameriki korpus, gdje je upotreba subjekta u svakoj reenici
neophodna i gdje zamjenice vrlo esto zastupaju subjekat.
Crnogorski korpus
Ukupno
Paradigma zamjenice Ja
0,73%
Paradigma zamjenice Moj
0,12%
0,85%
Paradigma zamjenice Mi
0,82%
Paradigma zamjenice Na
0,14%
0,96%
Paradigma zamjenice Oni
0,33%
Paradigma zamjenice Njihov
0,09%
0,42%
Tabela 5. Distribucija zamjenica u crnogorskom korpusu
Odnos u distribuciji zamjenica ja/moj i mi/na sliniji je britanskom korpusu

nego amerikom, gdje preovlauje zamjenica ja. U ovom korpusu je ta raspodjela
otprilike ujednaena, ali neznatno i na strani ee upotrebe zamjenice mi, ime
se, dakle, naglaava pripadnost grupi i ograuje od odgovornosti. Distribucija
zamjenica oni i njihov u odnosu na ostale zamjenice je takoe vrlo slina onoj u
britanskom korpusu.
Zamjenica ja se ne vee za ustaljene sintagme kako je to sluaj u engleskom
jeziku. Jedina fraza koja se u tom smislu moe izdvojiti je ja mislim (upotrebljava
se 60 puta), odnosno mislim (101). U odnosu na britanski i ameriki korpus,
incidencija ove fraze, tj. ovog oblika, je 18% i 26,8% manja. Poto ne moemo rei
da u svakodnevnom engleskom jeziku I think ima istu zastupljenost i funkciju kao
u diskursu politikih intervjua, ovu razliku ne moemo pripisati samo razliitim
optim jezikim konvencijama.
(Ja) mislim se rijetko koristi u svrhe ograivanja, kao i u ostalim korpusima,
zato to je politiarima u cilju da projektuju svoj autoritet i izgrade imid samouvjerenog voe. Sa druge strane, u svakodnevnom jeziku, situacija je obrnuta, budui da fraza (ja) mislim slui za ograivanje i distanciranje. Ovo znaenje se rijetko kada aktivira u politikom diskursu, mada moemo nai primjere kada ova
fraza funkcionie kao diskursni marker za dobijanje na vremenu, to se da lako
zakljuiti na osnovu konteksta prvenstveno fonolokih karakteristika, tj. pauza
koje mu prethode i/ili slijede, i mjesta fraze u reenici. Razmotriemo nekoliko
primjera:
(8) (C 3) INTERVJUISTA: Dobro, recite mi, recite mi, ja vas uporno jedno,
a vi mi samo odgovarate PZP je dio vlasti. Ako (zp) da li vi uvaavate
(zp) (zp) realnost u Crnoj Gori, recimo, da je Crna Gora nezavisna
drava?
MANDI: Ja mislim da (.) ti vai komentari nijesu na mjestu, vi me

pitate jedno, ja odgovaram drugo.
(RTCG, Intervju, IR: Radojka Rutovi, IE: Andrija Mandi, 10.10.2007)
(9) (C 1) INTERVJUISTA: - Mislite ovo oko jezika nije pomirenje ni
kompromis neki
MILI: - Ja mislim, samo da ovo zavrim, dozvolite.
INTERVJUISTA: Naravno, naravno,
MILI: Pomirenje je...
(RTCG, IR: Radojka Rutovi, IE: Sran Mili, 13.10.2007)
U navedenim primjerima, fraza je praena pauzom, a sadraj koji bi
eventualno modalno oznaila se uopte i ne pojavljuje. Konteksti fraze (ja) mislim
kada izraava autoritet su drugaiji:
(10) (C 6) KALAMPEROVI: Ili iz Italije, ili iz Albanije, ko zna kojim putem.
Dakle, toga e biti da se to otkriva i dalje, to govori o efikasnosti policija. I to znate kako se radi, prati se preko jedne drave pa se (zp)
sarauje se, pa se uhvati u drugoj dravi. Ja mislim da na tom planu,
kad je u pitanju verc, kad je u pitanju droga, kad su u pitanju, mnogo
uspjeha, mnogo uspjeha, ovdje se misli na ljude.
(Vijesti, IR: Duka Pejovi, IE: Jusuf Kalamperovi, 6.06.2008)
(11) (C 4) UROVI: Ali u svakom sluaju, ja mislim da je dobro to postoji
interesovanje za obrazovanje, znanje uvijek nae put da se afirmie
na tritu rada i u institucijama.
(In, IR: Darko ukovi, IE: Gordana urovi, 6.05.2008)
(12) (C 3) MANDI: - Ja moram da zavrim samo, ja moram da zavrim
poziciju, ja mislim da je to interesantno, je li to interesantno? Jeste.
U navedenim primjerima, kakvih je veina u naem korpusu, fraza (ja) mislim
nije umetnuta i njena interpretacija je moje je (vrsto) miljenje. Obino ima
inicijalnu poziciju i praena je subordinatorom da iza kojeg mora uslijediti neki
zavisni sadraj. Da se zaista radi o isticanju autoriteta vidi se i iz fraza i rijei koje
su u primjerima podvuene i koje su obino u funkciji intenzifikatora, a koje bi
izostale u sluaju da se istie samo neko vjerovanje od kojeg se poslanik ograuje
i na ijem bi mjestu bili ublaivai i ograivai (engl. hedging devices). Poto je
makromodalnost diskursa crnogorskih politiara u tonu sigurnosti i samouvjerenosti, u ovom kontekstu fraza (ja) mislim izraava upravo ovakvo znaenje.
407
408
Umjesto fraze I think, esto se koriste i fraze moja ideja, moja procjena, moja
logika, moja teza, moj stav, moje vienje, moje miljenje i sl. Zapravo, ovakva
upotreba prisvojne zamjenice moj, moja, moje pokriva gotovo sve sluajeve
upotrebe ove zamjenice.
Davanje obeanja i iznoenje planova za budunost je rijetko i to naroito sa
zamjenicom prvog lica jednine, pa se ovi govorni inovi ee izvode sa zamjenicom mi. Ipak, iz perspektive ove zamjenice se uglavnom iznose proli sadraji
(perfekat 35.3%) i aktuelne radnje (prezent 55%). Zastupljenost potencijala je
gotovo zanemarljiva.
Zamjenica oni upotrebljava se vrlo raznoliko. Sa jedne strane je to najee
referent za birae ili Evropsku uniju, a sa druge je to lan opozicije mi-oni, koja je
vrlo izraena kod pojedinih politiara iz ovog korpusa. Po ovim karakteristikama,
crnogorski korpus je sliniji amerikom nego britanskom korpusu:
(13) (C 3) Mi smo spremni da zastupamo vae interese...
.... mi smo to uradili iz potovanja prema glasaima PZP...
Mi smo dali sve od sebe da se Crna Gora uredi i da se u Crnoj Gori
svi pomire...
... mi emo nastaviti uporno da se borimo...
Oni su sada uspjeli da nau nekolika politiara da im to proe...
(negativan kontekst)
... neka je njima tamo sreno u vlasti... (ironino)
Kao to se vidi iz primjera, opozicija mi-oni moe biti veoma izraena, ali ipak
u njoj postoji odreena asimetrija. Naime, za zamjenicu prvog lica ee se vezuju
pozitivni sadraji, nego to se negativni vezuju za zamjenicu oni, dakle, da se
izrazimo politikim rjenikom, vie je pozitivne nego negativne kampanje.
Zakljuak
Iako su pitanja koja intervjuisti postavljaju upuena politiarima kao individuama, intervjuisani vrlo esto odgovaraju koristei perspektivu prvog lica mnoine. U britanskom korpusu, zastupljenost zamjenice prvog lica jednine je samo
neto vea u odnosu na zastupljenost zamjenice prvog lica mnoine. Drugaija situacija je u amerikom korpusu u kome individualizam igra veliku ulogu i gdje je
dominantno govorenje iz prvog lica jednine, dok je sasvim obrnuta situacija u
crnogorskim politikim intervjuima, gdje pojedinci govore iz perspektive grupe,
dakle kroz perspektivu zamjenice mi. Vidjeli smo, takoe, da se upotrebom
zamjenica u mnoini intervjuisani implicitno ograuje od odgovornosti i prebacuje je na grupu. Zabiljeili smo i poseban tip upotrebe line i prisvojne zamjenice
prvog lica sa takozvanom patriotskom funkcijom, koja postoji u svim korpusima,

ali preovladava u amerikom.
Kada je u pitanju zamjenica treeg lica mnoine, u svim korpusima ona se
daleko manje koristi u odnosu na zamjenice prvog lica. Ova zamjenica koristi se
kao anafora, odnosei se na ono to je ranije pomenuto u intervjuu (ovaj tip upotrebe je dominantan u britanskom korpusu), dok se u amerikim i crnogorskim
politikim intervjuima vrlo esto koristi u opoziciji sa zamjenicom prvog lica mnoine. U sutini, ovaj fenomen se svodi na pripisivanje pozitivnih sadraja grupi kojoj politiar pripada (zamjenica mi) i negativnih sadraja drugim grupama (zamjenica oni), tj. polarizaciju diskursnih uesnika. Politiari rijetko govore o buduim
planovima i daju direktna obeanja, a ukoliko to ine, uvijek se trude da to uine
iz perspektive grupe, ime zapravo ograniavaju svoju odgovornost za njihovo
ispunjenje.
Zamjenicu I povezali smo sa brojnim diskursnim i pragmatskim markerima u
britanskom i amerikom korpusu, gdje je fraza I think bila najuestalija. U crnogorskom korpusu takoe smo naili na ovu frazu u slinom znaenju, ali korelacije
nije bilo kada su u pitanju ostale ustaljene sintagme sa ovom zamjenicom. Upotreba fraze I think, tj. ja mislim, u politikom diskursu znatno odudara od njene
upotrebe u svakodnevnoj komunikaciji. Naime, umjesto da unosi odreenu dozu
neizvjesnosti i nesigurnosti u sadraj, ova fraza slui kao signal za autoritet ili
distanciranje.
Kod prisvojnih zamjenica, primijetili smo da su one u svim korpusima uglavnom atributi apstraktnim imenicama koje imaju ulogu u koheziji diskursa, dok se
rijetko nalaze u onim situacijama koje su tipine za svakodnevnu komunikaciju,
gdje bi se, dakle, oznaavao pravi odnos pripadnosti.
Nai rezultati pokazuju da se u amerikoj politikoj kulturi gaji kult linosti politiara, to se u velikoj mjeri moe rei i za britansku politiku. Nasuprot tome, u
crnogorskoj politici istie se kolektiv i dosta se polae na graenje grupnog identiteta, polarizaciju diskursnih uesnika, a time i polarizaciju politike stvarnosti.
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POLARISATION IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE: THE USE OF PRONOUNS IN BROADCAST POLITICAL
INTERVIEWS
Polarisation is entrenched in political discourse. This polarization results from
the process of diverse positioning, i.e., dividing discourse participants into several
opposing groups. Political discourse and, through it, political reality are therefore
constructed on oppositions of us vs. you and us vs. them. The aim of this
paper is to present the referential strategies involved in the construction of
polarisation in British, American and Montenegrin broadcast political interviews.
The results suggest that some political cultures are personality-driven, whereas
other favour the collective.
Key words: polarisation, political interview, pronouns, referential strategies
411
412
UDK 811.131.1:070
Vrste novinskih naslova italijanske dnevne

tampe: titolo brillante i titolo di richiamo
Deja Pileti
Apstrakt: Prouavanje jezika novinskih naslova, koji predstavljaju poseban i karakteristian segment jezika novina, veoma je zanimljivo i viestruko korisno. Osim to se
ovim putem upoznajemo sa trenutnim stanjem savremenog jezika, pravcima kretanja
njegovih promjena i njihovim moguim ishodima, istovremeno potvrujemo kolika je
mo jezika i otkrivamo to sve moe da se postigne razliitim kombinacijama jedinica na
svim njegovim nivoima. Ovaj rad govori o vrstama naslova savremene italijanske
dnevne tampe, s posebnim osvrtom na dvije vraste impresivnih naslova: titolo brillante
(briljantni naslov) i titolo di richiamo (naslov koji upuuje na neki poznati sadraj).
Kljune rijei: novinski naslov, vrste novinskih naslova, italijanska dnevna tampa,
jezika analiza, titolo brillante, titolo di richiamo.
Novinski naslov, kao sloena komunikacijska forma u

kojoj se jezik ukrta sa vizuelnim kodom, predstavlja
rezultat bliske interakcije izmeu informativnih strategija, ikonikih izbora i vrijednosti i naroito koncentrisanih
i primamljivih stilistiko-ekspresivnih tendencija.
(Proietti 117)134
Prema jednoj od definicija naslov predstavlja skup lingvistikih znakova [...]
koji mogu da stoje na poetku nekog teksta kako bi ga oznaili, naveli na njegov
globalni sadraj i kako bi ga odveli do ciljane publike (Perovi 10).
Dok kod knjievnog djela naslov ne mora obavezno da ukazuje na sadraj,
glavni zadatak novinskog naslova jeste upravo da u najsaetijem obliku predsta134
Modalit comunicativa complessa, all'incrocio tra lingua e codice visivo, il titolo del giornale la
risultante di una stretta interazione di strategie informative, di scelte e valenze iconiche, di tendenze
stilistico-espressive particolarmente concentrate e catturanti. (Proietti 117)
413
414
vi sadraj lanka koji uvodi. I u prvom i u drugom sluaju naslov mora biti
efektan da bi privukao panju potencijalnih italaca.
Iako prvi kontakt, kako sa knjievnim djelom tako i sa novinskim lankom,
ostvarujemo preko naslova, on se u oba sluaja pie tek na kraju. Ono to je
zajedniko za ove dvije vrste naslova jesu i tekoe u njihovom sastavljanju i
odabiru, s tim to u prvom sluaju ovaj posao obino obavlja sam autor knjievnog djela, a u drugom neko iz redakcije lista. Naime, svi naslovi u dnevnim
novinama djelo su jednog ovjeka koji se u italijanskoj novinskoj praksi zove
titolista.135
Slavica Perovi navodi:
O naslovima moe se govoriti s aspekta novinarskog zanata i umijea,
dakle o disciplini koja je vrlo zahtjevna jer naslov mora da zadovolji vrlo
stroge kriterije i zbog toga i nije novinarev, ve urednikov posao. U zavisnosti od politike lista, on e biti bombastian, intrigantan, zanimljiv,
skretae panju na sebe, bie dramatian, i u svakom sluaju pokuae da
na neki nain privue itaoca da proita tekst. S novinske take gledita
vaan je psiholoki momenat gdje pravilno odabran naslov obezbjeuje
itaoevu panju i tako zaokupljenog uvodi ga u tekst. (10)
Naslovu, dakle, pripada posebno mjesto u dnevnim novinama. Tih nekoliko
rijei od presudnog su znaaja za sudbinu lanka koji uvode, a generalno
gledano, i za sudbinu novinske kue.
U istoriji italijanskog novinarstva teak i zahtjevan zadatak sastavljanja
naslova pripadao je i mnogim kasnije veoma uglednim novinarima i linostima
iz svijeta knjievnosti. Jedan od poznatih novinara redakcije lista Corriere della
Sera sedamdesetih godina, Enco Betica, prisjea se:
135
U odnosu na ostale vrste naslova, naslov dnevnih novina formulie se u jednoj sasvim drugaijoj
situaciji i na jedan savim drugaiji nain. Dok drugim komunikacijskim inovima naslov obino daje
sam autor, novinske naslove po pravilu ne sastavlja autor novinskog lanka, ve neko drugi, tj. specijalizovani urednik titolista, koji, u skladu sa precizno utvrenim kriterijumima redakcije, sastavlja i
rasporeuje naslove tako da privuku panju i da imaju ujednaen stil (Eco 1971: 354). Svi naslovi
jednih dnevnih novina zajedno predstavljaju jednu vrstu teksta paralelnog sa tekstom lanaka istih
tih novina.
Rispetto ad altri tipi di titolazione il titolo del quotidiano formulato in una situazione e con
modalit completamente diverse. Mentre per i titoli di altri atti comunicativi di solito il titolo dato
dall'autore del prodotto stesso, nella titolistica dei quotidiani il titolo di norma non composto
dall'autore del pezzo ma da un altra persona, un redattore specializzato, il titolista. Questi, in linea
con precisi criteri redazionali, compone il titolo e lo impagina in modo da attirare attenzione e che
possieda uno stile unitario (Eco 1971: 354). L'insieme dei titoli configura una sorta di testo parallelo
a quello costituito dall'insieme dei pezzi presenti nel giornale stesso. (Proietti 1992: 118).
Jednog dana uh kako me sa dna jednog mranog hodnika neko doziva

po imenu. Bio je to on. Trao je za mnom maui jednim od prvih lanaka
koje sam napisao za kulturnu rubriku u Il Corriere della Sera. Pogledaj
odgovara li ti ovaj naslov. Bilo me je sramota da pogledam. Znao sam da
je poznat kao neko ije je umijee u sastavljanju naslova nemogue dostii. Ipak, uspjeh da mu konano uputim rijei koju mi je on uvijek zabranjivao da izgovorim: Savren je. Hvala, te pobjegoh zbunjen, u nevjerici,
skoro izgubljen. Bio je to Dino Bucati. To i jo mnogo toga to nikada neemo saznati. (Betizza 48)136
Oblik i funkcija novinskog naslova vremenom su se mijenjali. U prvim italijanskim dnevnim listovima (zvali su se gazzetta po noviu koliko je stajao jedan
primjerak) naslovi ak i ne postoje. Faustini nam daje nekoliko primjera iz bolonjskog lista Gazzetta (21. novembar 1643): Di Basilea avvisano, Si avvisa di
Francoforte i sl., iza ega bi slijedio nastavak novosti. Dalje nam navodi primjere iz prvog broja lista Libert (27. januar 1883) gdje vijesti nose naslove koji
vie lie na dananje testatine, tj. naslove pojedinanih rubrika. Lokalne novosti,
na primjer, postaju naslovljene Entro le mura, Da Roma naslov je za vijesti
iz prijestonice, Dalla Platea za vijesti iz pozorita itd (Faustini 17). S poetkom
rata, italijanski dnevni listovi se pune naslovima koji su suvoparni, hladni, strogo
informativni, a vrijeme velikih, ideoloki obojenih naslova, esto hukakih koji
se obilato koriste mitolokom funkcijom rijei i jezika, jeste vrijeme faizma:
Solo con il fascismo troviamo grandi titoli spesso e volentieri di propaganda, di
apologia, di incitamento: L'Italia in armi, Viva il Duce fondatore dell'Impero,
La parola d'ordine vincere, I dadi sono gettati, Popolo italiano corri alle
armi! (Faustini 17)
Ovi primjeri ilustruju nastanak dvije razliite, krajnje suprotne vrste novinskih
naslova. To su s jedne strane informativni, a s druge impresivni naslovi. Ove dvije
vrste su konstanta, a sve ostale predstavljaju njihove mnogobrojne nijanse i
varijacije. Koje od njih i u kojoj mjeri e biti prisutne i u kojim dnevnim novinama,
zavisi od novinske tradicije, tipa dnevnog lista i stava novinske kue.
Svjesne da su primat nad informacijom izgubile i da na tom polju televizija,
kao mlai ali snaniji medij, danas praktino dri monopol, dnevne novine su
obogatile svoj sadraj kako bi i dalje zadrale mjesto na savremenoj medijskoj
mapi, a informacije koje vie nisu iz prve ruke dopunile su raznim komentarima,
procjenama, ilustracijama, intervjuima, itd. Sve to dovelo je u italijanskoj tampi
136
Un giorno, mi sentii chiamare per nome dal fondo di un corridoio buio. Era lui che mi rincorreva,
agitando in una mano uno dei primissimi articoli che avevo scritto per la terza pagina del Corriere.
Guarda se ti va questo titolo. Mi vergognai di guardare. Conoscevo la sua fama di titolista
imbattibile. Ma gli potei dire, finalmente, la parola che lui mi aveva sempre impedito di pronunciare:
Grazie, perfetto, e me ne scappai via confuso, incredulo, quasi smarrito. Questo era Dino Buzzati.
Questo e tante altre cose che non sapremo mai.
415
416
do niza znaajnih strukturnih promjena. Sa svojim novim odnosom prema

informaciji, dnevne novine poele su sve vie da lie na nedjeljne, a vijest da se
stapa sa komentarom.
Ovakvim promjenama prilagodio se i novinski naslov, koji pored izraene
sklonosti ka senzacionalnosti sa jedne strane i tenje ka slikovitosti i neposrednosti u prenoenju dogaaja sa druge, karakterie i slaba odvojenost informacije
od komentara, to je vrlo pogodno za manipulaciju
Jedan od prvih zahtjeva koji se danas postavlja pred onog ko sastavlja naslov
jeste efektnost. Pored efektnosti, novinski naslov mora karakterisati i saetost i
informativnost. Naime, u dananjem dobu brzog ivljenja esto nemamo vremena da sluamo ili itamo sve novosti dana. Tu u odnosu na ostale medijume
prednost ima dnevni list. Skoro svako od nas ima svoj list koji voli da prelista, uz
jutarnju kafu, u prevozu, ili gdje mu odgovara, kad mu odgovara. Zahvaljujui tome to dananje dnevne novine posjeduju jasno odvojene i naslovljene rubrike,
odmah pronalazimo ono to nas interesuje. Ostale novosti emo samo prelistati
(itaj: proitati naslove). A naslovi, opet, moraju da nam saopte neto novo sa
malo rijei, i to tako da poelimo da proitamo lanak koji oni naslovljavaju, a ako
za to nemamo vremena, da nas zadovolje osnovnom informacijom koju pruaju.
To zaista nije nimalo lak zadatak, pa u tenji da budu to primamljiviji mnogi naslovi i nisu ba tako sreno sastavljeni. Nasuprot njima, pak, imamo naslove koji
nas privlae svojom ingenioznou, ironijom ili duhovitou.
Vrste naslova
Moemo govoriti o raznim vrstama novinskih naslova. Meutim, ne postoji
neka njihova jedinstvena i terminoloki ujednaena klasifikacija. Mi emo ovdje
navesti neke od postojeih.
Prije svega, novinske naslove emo podijeliti na naslove sa naslovne strane
dnevnog lista i naslove pojedinanih rubrika.
Dnevni list se itaocu predstavlja svojom naslovnom stranicom. Ona sadrajem i oblikom lanaka i naslova, njihovim rasporedom i odnosom prema fotografijama i drugim vrstama ilustracija mnogo govori o stilu i politici odreene novinske kue. Naslovna strana ima takoe funkciju sadraja i vodia kroz odreeni
list, odreenog datuma. Najee je u njenom vrhu velikim slovima istaknut glavni naslov koji uvodi vijest dana. Pored njega prisutni su jo jedan ili dva naslova
koji se obino odnose na vijesti iz unutranje politike ili crne hronike i jo nekoliko
manjih naslova koji upuuju na lanke za koje se smatra da bi mogli da zainteresuju itaoca. Naslovi na naslovnoj strani dnevnog lista s razlogom su, dakle, veoma smisleno sastavljeni: efektni, najee u obliku slogana, ili parafrazirane ili saete izjave neke bitne linosti iz svijeta politike, esto istrgnute iz konteksta.
Odsjeni, ali emotivno nabijeni izborom rijei visoke konotativne vrijednosti
(Magistretti 9-22), tu su da nam zagolicaju panju i probude radoznalost, esto

obeavajui ekskluzivne informacije u vezi sa ve poznatim dogaajima.
Kada je u pitanju sadraj, praktino svi lingvisti razlikuju dvije osnovne vrste
naslova dajui im pritom razliita imena. To su hladni, hroniarski, indikativni,
informativni ili denotativni sa jedne i vrui, dramatini, briljantni, emotivni,
impresivni ili konotativni naslovi sa druge strane, pri emu je osnovni cilj prvima
da prenesu jedan ili dva glavna podatka vezana za novost, a drugima da koristei
se prevashodno leksikim i sintaksikim instrumentima jezika privuku panju
italaca.
I kada je u pitanju nain predstavljanja informacije, spominju se dvije osnovne vrste naslova, kao dvije krajnje suprotnosti meu kojima se nalazi mnogo nijansi. Bonomi (2003: 140) razlikuje procjeniteljske (titoli valutativi) i neprocjeniteljske naslove (titoli avalutativi). Prvi se odnose na naslove koji stavljaju
informativnost u drugi plan, i na manje ili vie eksplicitan nain, koristei se odreenim strategijama i jezikim sredstvima, prenose komentare i procjene novinara
(novinske kue) u vezi sa odreenim dogaajem ili odreenom temom. Nasuprot
njima, drugi se odnose na naslove koji koristei se preteno deskriptivnom
funkcijom jezika tee da itaocu prue informaciju bez ikakvih komentara.
U odnosu na isti kriterijum, Faustini takoe govori o dvije razliite vrste naslova samo im daje neto drugaija imena (2000: 94). Na jednoj strani on navodi
mitsko-procjeniteljske naslove (titoli mitico-valutativi), a kao njihovu krajnju
suprotnost referencijalne naslove (titoli referenziali) na drugoj strani.
Referencijalni naslovi, kako dalje navodi Faustini, karakteriu slubene glasnike, biltene, izvjetaje, slubena saoptenja koja se prenose u dnevnim novinama.
U modernom novinarstvu praktino ih vie i nema. Glavni razlog tome jeste njihova monotonost. Koriste se za turo prenoenje neke informacije, i nisu podvrgnuti nikakvoj intervenciji redakcije.
Nasuprot referencijalnim naslovima stoje mitsko-procjeniteljski naslovi tipini
za pristrasno novinarstvo (giornalismo schierato) koje se ne libi ideoloki orijentisanih procjena, ponekad tako vjeto utkanih u naslov da je nemogue
razluiti novost od komentara novinara.137
Uz procjeniteljske naslove, Faustini dalje nabraja i ironine naslove. U stvari,
o njima ne moemo govoriti kao o dvije razliite vrste. tovie, esto su procjeniteljski naslovi ironini, a ironini su obavezno i manje ili vie procjeniteljski.
Ironine naslove redakcija namjenjuje itaocima koji umiju da cijene naslove koji
137
Mitsko-procjeniteljski naslovi karakteristini su za pristrasno novinarstvo, novinarstvo koje se

priklanja odreenoj strani, koje ne oklijeva u pribjegavanju stereotipima preuzetim iz kolektivne
svijesti kako bi proizvelo ideoloki orjentisane procjene. Ovakvi naslovi zahtijevaju itaoevo aktivno
uee u njihovoj interpretaciji.
I titoli 'mitico-valutativi', tipici di un giornalismo schierato, di parte, che non esita a fare ricorso a
stereotipi presi a prestito dallimmaginario colettivo per produrre valutazioni ideologicamente
orientate (richiede la partecipazione interpretativa del lettore). (Faustini 95)
417
418
pokatkad informativnost rtvuju zarad domiljatosti (Faustini 2000: 95). Dnevni

list koji je izumio ovu vrstu naslova je La Repubblica ali se njima u posljednje vrijeme, u veoj ili manjoj mjeri, efikasno slue i ostale ugledne italijanske nacionalne novinske kue.
Na kraju ove podjele Faustini navodi deskriptivne ili hroniarske naslove kao
naslove sa najduom tradicijom u italijanskoj novinskoj praksi. Deskriptivni naslovi su i danas prisutni u dnevnim listovima s tim to se rjee koriste za uvoenje
informacija koje obiljeavaju dan. Ove naslove odlikuje neutralan ton i najbolje
ispunjavaju kriterijume saetosti i informativnosti.138
Italijanske dnevne novine se sve ee koriste impresivnim i procjeniteljskim
naslovima. Deskriptivnost koja bi trebalo da bude glavna funkcija jednog novinskog naslova danas sve vie ustupa mjesto emotivnoj i pragmatikoj funkciji.
Naslovi sve ee predstavljaju govorne inove kojima je osnovni cilj da ostave
utisak na itaoca na emotivnom planu ili da unaprijed formiraju njegovo miljenje
u vezi sa odreenim dogaajem.
Stile brillante i titolo brillante

Kada se govori o razvoju jezika italijanskih novina, neizostavno se spominju
sedamdesete godine, godine televizijskog buma koje predstavljaju prekretnicu
u italijanskoj dnevnoj tampi. Dnevne novine se tada odluno poinju odvajati od
dotadanjih tradicionalnih novinskih stereotipa i u jeziku i u formi. Stazu novom
jeziku novina, jednostavnijem, prisnijem, i to je najvanije razumljivijem, u kome
je osjetan upliv govornog jezika, utro je jedan dnevni list roen tih godina: La
Repubblica. Za ovaj list i ovaj period vezuje se nastanak jednog novinskog stila
(stile brillante) koji osim jednostavnosti karakteriu ekspresivnost, ivost, duhovitost i domiljatost ostvarene upotrebom rijei sa izraenom konotativnom vrijednou, tuica i neologizama esto kratkog vijeka, ali veoma izraajnih i stilskih
figura (posebno metafore) kao nepresunih izvora jezike kreativnosti novinara
(Bonomi 1994: 700). Tokom vremena ovaj stil pisanja je zadrao svoje izvorne
osobine ali se i znatno obogatio novima. U dananje vrijeme on predstavlja glavnu osobinu jezika novina, a njegov veoma vaan segment ine naslovi koji na razliite naine tee da zabave i zadive itaoca.139 To su takozvani titoli brillanti.
138
Svakako drugaiji i upeatljiviji od onih banalno referencijalnih, ipak se ne mogu porediti sa

neposrednou ironinih naslova. Ima ih, zaista, u svim dnevnim novinama, ali su napustili naslovne
stranice i mjesto nali na drugim, prije svega na stranicama lokalne hronke. Ipak, njihova upotreba,
kao pokazatelj potovanja prema itaocu, ostala je karakteristina za dnevne novine duge tradicije
kao to su Il Corriere della Sera ili Il Messaggero. (Faustini 95)
139
Posljednjih godina se, kako navodi Manji: 1992, naroito u nedjeljnicima, sve ee pojavljuju
duhoviti naslovi ili oni koji makar tee da to budu. Ovu vrstu naslova isti autor potkrepljuje
sljedeim primjerima: Bionde, affascinanti, assassine (Primamljive, plavue, ubice naslov je lanka
Jedna od glavnih strategija ovih naslova jeste upotreba neobinih, esto

duhovitih kombinacija rijei i igre rijei:
t: IL CALCIO SERVITO ALL'ORA DI PRANZO E AL LUNED;140 stt: La proposta
delle tv: campionato spalmato su tre giorni, a tutte le ore. Si inizia al sabato
(CS, 11-5-2004)
(Vijest da e se fudbalske utakmice prenositi preko cijelog dana, pa i u
vrijeme ruka, ovaj novinski naslov prenosi aljivom slikom fudbala koji se
servira i ampionatom koji se razmazuje na tri dana);
t: IO SONO JAMES BLOND; stt: Craig: "Quel che mi ha detto Connery lo
tengo per me" (Msg, 15-12-2006)
(Naslov se aljivo poigrava sa prezimenom poznatog filmskog junaka
Dejmsa Bonda koje dobija oblik Blond, upuujui na plavu kosu glumca
kome je povjerena uloga poznatog tajnog agenta. Naslov se dakle, ironino
ukljuuje u polemiku oko izgleda novog detektiva 007 koji se ne poklapa sa
tamnoputim, markantnim junakom na kog smo svi navikli);
t: CARO OMBRELLONE QUANTO CI COSTI (Rep, 11-4-2004)
(U ovom naslovu je jasno poigravanje sa dva znaenja pridjeva caro:
drag i skup- Dragi/skupi suncobrane, koliko nas kota);
t: CAMIONISTA IRANIANO /BLOCCATO IN AUTOSTRADA /E I SUOI
TAPPETI VOLANO (CS, 15-12-2006)
(Persijski tepisi u datom konteksu i u stvarnosti postaju letei);
t: VENTENNI IN IRAN. LA DANZA SUI VETRI DI UNA GENERAZIONE (M, 2112-2005)
(Tragino, la danza del ventre trbuni ples se igrom rijei pretvara u la
danza sui vetri - ples po staklu);
koji govori o jednoj anketi vezanoj za cigarete. Duhovit efekat stvara se upotrebom imenice bionda,
ije osnovno znaenje jeste plavua, ena plave kose, ali u argonu zani i cigareta.). Giunse lEco
in tutto il mondo ('Rairi se Eho po cijelom svijetu kao naslov lanka koji govori o veoma
popularnom romanu, Umberta Eka, Ime rue, prevedenom na mnogobrojne jezike. Duhovit efekat
proistie iz poigravanja sa Ekovim prezimenom. Naime, eco u italijanskom jeziku znai eho). Tir e
molla senza fine (Povuci-potegni bez kraja lanak uveden ovim naslovom objanjava zato se trajk
vozaa kamiona za meunarodni transport (TIR) oduio danima bez izgleda na pozitivan ishod).
Duhovitost se i u ovom sluaju zasniva na igri rijei: imenica tiremmolla u italijanskom znai povucipotegni. natezanje, preganjanje (Magni 1992: 121-122)
140
Svi navedeni primjeri preuzeti su iz nekoliko italijanskih dnevnih listova (La Repubblica, Corriere
della Sera, La Stampa, Il Messaggero, il Giornale, l'Unit, Libero, Liberazione) u periodu izmeu
2004. i 2008. godine. U odabiru dnevnih novina za korpus vodili smo se prevashodno njihovom
dugogodinjom tradicijom i velikim tiraom.
Prilikom navoenja primjera novinskih naslova koristimo se italijanskim skraenicama: t (titolo/
naslov), spt (soprattitolo/ nadnaslov), stt (sottotitolo/ podnaslov).
419
420
t: VILLA CELIMONTANA, LA STATUA PERDE LA TESTA; stt: Il giallo della

fontana dell'ex Casino Mattei: la Divinit del Fiume decapitata di netto
(Msg, 21-12-2005);
(Naslov u kome se igra rijei razvija oko bukvalnog i figurativnog znaenja
izraza: izgubiti glavu/perdere la testa)
t: ECCO LA TOMBOLA DELL'INTER/ MORATTI SA PRENDERSI IN GIRO
(Rep, 21-12-2005)
(U ovom, kao i u prethodno navedenom naslovu imamo upotrijebljenu
frazeoloku sintagmu koju, meutim, treba shvatiti u njenom bukvalnom
znaenju).
Titoli di richiamo
(Naslovi koji upuuju na neko poznato djelo, reenicu ili istorijski koncept)
Takoe izuzetno efektni, kada su na pravi nain shvaeni, jesu titoli di
richiamo, naslovi koji zvue poznato, upuujui na naziv nekog knjievnog djela,
filma, popularne pjesme, na neku izreku, citat, slogan ili neki istorijski koncept. U
pitanju je jedna vrsta igre rijei, tzv. kalambur koja se ogleda u korienju neke
ve poznate sintagme ili reenice (ee njihovog dijela) za izraavanje novog
sadraja.141
Karla Bacanela objanjava:
Balans staro/novo u korelaciji sa informativnom reeninom strukturom
na neki nain biva prenesen na jedan novi nivo znaenja gdje staro
upuuje na izvor polifonog ponavljanja142 koji se pretpostavlja ili podrazumijeva kao poznat, a novo upuuje na novost koja se eli prenijeti. Na taj
nain nova informacija biva usidrena u zajednikom iskustvu koje je
pojaava bilo na osnovu kontrasta, bilo na osnovu analogije. Polifono ponavljanje djeluje kao metafora [...] budui da izaziva asocijacije ne samo u
odnosu na sami termin ve i u odnosu na razna konceptualna polja koja
su sa njim u vezi. Istovremeno, polifono ponavljanje aktivira analogije,
141
Istraivanje koje je sproveo Enriko Tijoco (Enrico Tiozzo, 2002) na uzorku italijanskog dnevnog
lista Il Messaggero, pokazalo je da veliki broj ovakvih naslova ne ostvaruje svoj efekat zato to
veina italaca ne prepoznaje ovu vrstu igre rijei: [questo] si spiega con laccentuazione, ormai
spinta spesso ai limiti estremi, delloriginalit a tutti i costi e con la differenza del bagaglio culturale
(anche di cultura generale) del titolista rispetto a quello del grande pubblico dei lettori. Quelli che,
per il titolista, sono riferimenti culturali ovvi, si rivelano in realt imperscrutabili per una persona di
media cultura o anche di cultura medio-alta ma non sufficientemente esperta nel campo
cinematografico, musicale o letterario. (Tiozzo 971)
142
Polifono ponavljanje je termin kojim Karla Bacanela naziva na kalambur navodei: U sluaju
polifonog ponavljanja, osnovu ponavljanja ini zajedniko iskustvo tj. enciklopedija jedne odreene
zajednice (Nel caso della ripetizione polifonica la fonte della ripetizione [...] [] la conoscenza
condivisa o enciclopedia di una data comunit, Bazzanella 2004: 241).
poreenja, prizvuke i kontraste koji obogauju i na neki nain transformiu reenini sadraj. Pretpostavljena iskustvena podloga, meutim, nije uvijek prisutna, pa ovakva igra esto ne postie efekat.
(Bazzanella 249)143
Ilustrovaemo to naim primjerima:
Naslovi koji upuuju na naslov nekog djela
t: COS PARL GOMEZ PEREIRA, REGISTA DI REINAS, PRIMA PELLICOLA
SUL MATRIMONIO GAY (Msg, 21-12-2005) (upuuje na naslov djela Fridriha
Niea Tako je govorio Zaratustra, koji u prevodu na italijanski glasi: Cos parl
Zaratustra);
t: LA GUERRA E I PREGIUDIZI (CS, 21-12-2005) (upuuje na naslov djela
engleske knjievnice Dejn Ostin Gordost i predrasude, na italijanskom
Orgoglio e pregudizio);
t: LE MILLE E UNA LOTTA PALESTINESI (M, 18-5-2004) (upuuje na
poznatu istonjaku zbirku pripovjedaka Mille e una notte - Hiljadu i jedna
no. Naslov je utoliko efektniji to govori o dogaajima koji se tiu podruja
sa kog ova zbirka potie.);
t: L'IMPORTANZA DI CHIAMARSI MARIANGELA (CS, 7-5-2004) (upuuje
na naslov djela Oskara Vajlda Vano je zvati se Ernest, na italijanskom
L'importanza di chiamarsi Ernesto);
t: LO STRAPPO PACIFISTA/ E LA SPONDA CHE NON C' (CS, 14-5-2004)
(drugi dio novinskog naslova upuuje na "lIsola che non c'", italijanski
prevod ostrva Neverland/Zemlja Nedoija iz poznate bajke Petar Pan D. M.
Barija).
Naslovi koji upuuju na naziv nekog filma ili na njegove glavne aktere
t: MANCINI E ANCELOTTI/ NON CI RESTA CHE VINCERE (Rep, 21-122005) (izjava pod navodnicima upuuje na naziv poznatog italijanskog filma
Roberta Beninjija i Masima Troizija Non ci resta che piangere);
143
La bilancia vecchio/nuovo, correlata alla struttura frasale informativa, viene in qualche modo
riportata su un secondo livello di significazione, in cui il vecchio rimanda alla fonte della RP [ripetizione
polifonica], che viene presupposta e considerata come scontata, ed il nuovo alla notizia che si intende
diffondere; linformazione risulta cos ancorata ad una conoscenza condivisa, che la rafforza, per
contrasto o per analogia. La RP agisce come la metafora [...], facendo scattare delle associazioni non
solo relativamente al singolo termine, ma ai vari campi concettuali ad esso collegati. Nello stesso modo
la RP attiva analogie, risonanze, confronti e contrasti, che arricchiscono e trasformano in qualche
modo il contenuto proposizionale. In realt linformazione presupposta non sempre posseduta, ed il
gioco spesso non sortisce effetto.
421
422
t: AMARCORD DEGLI ANNI VENTI/ MAX RAABE CANTA A LECCE (CS, 1512-2006) (upuuje na Amarkord, poznati Felinijev film iz 1973. godine);
t: MORRICONE, C' UNA VOLTA L'OSCAR (U, 15-12-2006) (upuuje na
naslov filma Sera Leonea C'era una volta il West (1986), poznatog i po
muzici koju je za njega komponovao upravo Enio Morikone, otuda ovakav
izbor ini naslov jo efektnijim);
t: UN PESCE DI NOME HALL, LO SBRUFFONE DELLE PISCINE (Rep, 15-72004) (upuuje na naslov komedije Un pesce di nome Wanda (1989) u reiji
arlsa Krajtona);
t: UN'ALTRA TV, LA MISSION ORA POSSIBILE (U, 15-12-2006) (upuuje
na ameriki televizijski serijal 60-ih i 70-ih godina, ili na istoimeni film iz tri
dijela razliitih reditelja (1996, 2000, 2006), koji u originalu glasi Mission:
Impossible, a u italijanskom prevodu Missione impossibile. U ovom sluaju
imamo jedan dio naslova na engleskom a drugi na italijanskom, to
predstavlja jo jednu od strategija savremenih novinskih naslova za
postizanje efektnosti);
t: NUOVO ROCKY CERCASI/ PER SFIDARE FOREMAN (CS, 15-4-2004)
(upuuje na film Rocky, Jona G. Avildsena (1976). Roki, ime boksera
protagoniste popularnog serijala filmova postalo je antonomazijom te
profesije. Istovremeno, naslov aljivo podsjea na mali oglas u kome se trai
novi bokser, dobar kao poznati filmski junak Roki Balboa, koji bi mogao da
izazove uvenog Dorda Formana);
t: IL DISASTRO DI BUSH/ LO ZORBA AMERICANO (Rep, 15-12-2006)
(upuuje na Zorbu, protagonistu filmovanog romana grkog pisca Nikosa
Kazancakisa Grk Zorba, koji je poznat kao sredovjeni optimista to uvijek sa
osmijehom uspijeva da prebrodi teke ivotne situacije. U naem primjeru
oigledna je ironija u izboru ovakve apozicije uz biveg amerikog
predsjednika);
t: LA DIFESA DELLO 007/ MAI VENDUTO NOTIZIE; stt: Mancini sotto
torchio. Tavaroli: nessuna super-agenzia (S, 15-12-2007)
(007 ili slovima zero zero sette - oznaka tajnog agenta Dejmsa Bonda
protagoniste romana Ijana Fleminga, i kasnije serijala holivudskih filmova,
obezbijedila je sebi mjesto imenice u italijanskim rjenicima, a u novinskim
naslovima u potpunosti potisnula rije spia i agente segreto. Osim toga vrlo
esto se aljivo koristi umjesto investigatore/ispettore della pubblica
amministrazione).
Naslovi koji upuuju na izreke i poslovice

t: FATTI, NON INSULTI (G, 15-12-2006) (upuuje na: Fatti, non parole,
prevod latinske sentence: Res, non verba - u naem prevodu: Djela, ne rijei);
t: LA FORLEO IN FERIE, I BANCHIERI BALLANO (L, 21-12-2005) (upuuje na
poslovicu Quando il gatto non c', i topi ballano - u naem prevodu: Kad
make nema mievi kolo vode).
Naslovi koji upuuju na poznate izjave
ili reenice preuzete najee iz knjievnih djela
t: VEDI POSITANO E POI SCRIVI. FIRMATO STEINBECK (CS, 17-7-2004) (po
poznatoj reenici: Vedi Napoli e poi muori koja se pripisuje Gabrijeleu
d'Anunciju: Vidi Napulj, pa onda umri);
t: FRA LUPI E CERBIATTI, A RIVEDER LE STELLE; stt: Nel parco
dell'Amiata tre notti di osservazioni per astrofili e scienziati (dio naslova pod
znacima navoda upuuje na poznati segment stiha iz Boanstvene komedije
Dantea Aligijerija kojim se zavrava Danteovo i Vergilijevo putovanje kroz
Pakao: "E quindi uscimmo a riveder le stelle").
Ovim naslovima emo dodati i naslove sa formulom karakteristinom za
zapoinjanje bajki (c'era una volta... - bio jednom jedan/bila jednom jedna...).
Njima se izraava al za prolim vremenima i dogaajima:
t: CERA UNA VOLTA LA SQUADRA GIOELLO/ DA CUI NESUNO SOGNAVA
DI FUGGIRE (CS, 15-12-2006);
t: CERA UNA VOLTA AMERICUS (M, 18-5-2004) (ovaj naslov ujedno
podsjea i na naslov filma Sera Leonea Cera una volta in America, a uvodi
lanak koji govori o malom, skoro ugaenom amerikom mjestu Americus na
jugu Dordije).
Naslovi koji upuuju na neki istorijski koncept
Domenico Projeti u titoli di richiamo svrstava i naslove koji upuuju na neki
istorijski koncept, tj. naslove koji se koriste sloganima, maksimama i izrazima koji
su karakterisali neko politiko razdoblje i to potkrepljuje velikim brojem raznovrsnih primjera (Proietti, 1992: 149). Jedan od primjera koje on nabraja nalazimo i
u naim novinskim naslovima:
t: S AI DOCENTI SPECIALIZZATI/ MAESTRO UNICO? NO GRAZIE (CS, 155-2004), gdje No grazie, predstavlja dio slogana Energia nucleare? No, grazie,
423
424
poteklog od ekolokih i antinuklearistikih pokreta koji su karakterisali

osamdesete godine.
Zakljuak
Kada je stil novinskih naslova italijanske dnevne tampe u pitanju, primjetne
su dvije glavne karakteristike, koje u osnovi nastoje da privuku itaoevu panju.
To su izraen senzacionalistiki ton i nastojanje da se impresionira i zabavi italac.
I jedno i drugo postie se razliitim jezikim sredstvima.
Ovaj rad posvetili smo naslovima koji efekat na itaoca ostvaruju igrom rijei i
upuivanjem na neke potencijalno poznate sadraje. Onaj ko ih sastavlja tei da
armira itaoca svojom ingenioznou, ali i da ga, laskajui njegovoj pronicljivosti i kulturnoj potkovanosti, zainteresuje za sadraj lanka koji naslovljava.
U naslovima ove vrste vidljiva je tenja za efektnou koja danas predstavlja
glavnu osobinu novinskih naslova. Ovdje nismo govorili o gramatikim osobinama
jezika novinskog naslova, niti o mnogobrojnim drugim nainima postizanja
efektnosti kojima se slue novinski naslovi italijanske dnevne tampe. To
ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku.
Prouavanje jezika novinskih naslova kao jednog od bitnih segmenata
novinskog stila zanimljivo je sa vie aspekata i donosi viestruku korist. Osim to
se ovim putem indirektno upoznajemo sa trenutnim stanjem savremenog jezika,
pravcima kretanja njegovih promjena i njihovim moguim ishodima, istovremeno
potvrujemo kolika je mo jezika i otkrivamo to sve moe da se postigne
razliitim kombinacijama jedinica na svim njegovim nivoima.
Literatura:
Bazzanella, C. Ripetizione polifonica' nei titoli dei giornali. Generi, architetture
e forme testuali. Atti del VII convegno SILFI (Roma, 1-5-ottobre 2002).
Volume primo. Ed. P. D'Achille. Firenze: Cesati, 2004. 241-56.
Bonomi, I. La lingua dei giornali del Novecento Storia della lingua italiana.
Volume secondo (Scritto e parlato). Ed. L. Serianni e P. Trifone. Torino:
Einaudi, 1994. 667-96.
Bonomi, I. La lingua dei quotidiani. La lingua italiana e i mass media. Ed. I.
Bonomi, A. Masini e S. Morgana. Roma: Carocci, 2003. 127-63.
Bettiza, E. Via Solferino. Milano: Mondadori, 1982.
Faustini, G. (ed.). Le techniche del linguaggio giornalistico. Roma: Carocci, 2000.
Magistretti, S. Le ipotesi e il discorso. Un quotidiano popolare. Ed. G. Richeri e
Alberto Abruzzese. Milano: F. Angeli, 1980. 9-12.
Magni, M. Lingua italiana e giornali di oggi. Milano: Mursia, 1992.
Murialdi, P. Come si legge un giornale. Bari: Laterza, 1975.

Perovi, S. Naslov kao tekst. Lingvisticke analize. Ed. Slavica Perovi i Vesna
Bulatovi. Podgorica: ISJ, 2004. 1-67.
Proietti, D. La vetrina del giornale. Funzioni comunicative e caratteri stilisticogrammaticali della titolistica dei quotidiani tra lingua e codice iconico. Il
linguaggio del giornalismo. Ed. M. Medici e D. Proietti. Milano: Mursia, 1992.
117-68.
Tiozzo, E. Critica della ragion bura. Calembour e citazione nella titolistica di
richiamo della stampa italiana di oggi. Romansk Forum. XV Skandinaviske
Romanistkongress. Oslo: Goteborgs universitet, 2002.: http://www.duo.uio.no/roman/Art/Rf-16-02-2/ita/Tiozzo, pdf. 967-74. 15.09.2010.
LA TIPOLOGIA DEI TITOLI DI QUOTIDIANI ITALIANI: TITOLO BRILLANTE E TITOLO DI RICHIAMO

Lanalisi linguistica dei titoli di giornali che rappresentano un segmento
specifico del linguaggio giornalistico si dimostra interessante e utile da vari punti
di vista. Oltre al fatto che in questo modo veniamo a conoscenza dello stato
attuale e delle tendenze di sviluppo della lingua standard, ci rendiamo conto
anche della potenza della lingua e di quanto si pu ottenere combinando le sue
unit su diversi livelli linguistici. Questa relazione parla della tipologia dei titoli di
giornali quotidiani italiani, soffermandosi in particolare su due tipi di titoli
impressivi: il titolo brillante e titolo di richiamo illustrati con vari esempi trovati
nella stampa quotidiana italiana.
Parole chiave: il titolo giornalistico, la tipologia di titoli giornalistici, i
quotidiani italiani, lanalisi linguistica, titolo brillante, titolo di richiamo.
425
426
UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA
Potovani autori,
Prilikom pisanja i predaje rada molimo da se rukovodite sljedeim
uputstvima:
Radovi se predaju u elektronskoj formi u Word formatu, na adresu
foliaredakcija@gmail.com.
Obim lanka ograniite na maksimalno 7000 rijei ukljuujui naslov,
vae ime i ime institucije, spisak bibliografskih referenci, apstrakte na 2
jezika i kljune rijei.
Na poetku rada daje se apstrakt (do 300 rijei) i do 10 kljunih rijei na
jeziku na kojem je pisan rad. Isti podaci ispisuju se na kraju teksta na
jednom od svjetskih jezika (engleskom, njemakom, francuskom,
ruskom).
Formatiranje teksta svedite na minimum ili se korisitite jednostavnom
opcijom Normal koju nudi Word program (ukljuujui naslove i
podnaslove).
Podnaslove odvojite sa dva prazna reda od prethodnog pasusa,
odnosno jednim redom od narednog pasusa.
Grafike sadraje molimo ne slati zasebno, ve ih ukljuiti u tekst kao
integrisanu sliku.
Isticanje u tekstu vri se iskljuivo upotrebom kurziva (italics), a nikako
polucrnim (boldovanim) fontom, navodnicima, podvlaenjem, s p a c i o
n i r a n j e m, verzalom (ALL CAPS), i slino.
Koristite navodnike odreene normom jezika na kome je napisan rad.
Molimo da u radu ne mijeate razliite tipove navodnika.
Polunavodnike (m) koristimo jedino unutar navodnika.
Citat koji je dui od tri reda vaeg kucanog teksta upiite kao posebni
pasus.
Izostavljanje originalnog teksta unutar citata oznaava se sa tri take
unutar uglastih zagrada [].
Iako to va kompjuterski program ponekad ne radi, molimo vas da
pravite razliku izmeu crte i crtice.
Bibliografske reference navoditi po MLA obrascu (MLA Citation Style).
Detaljnije uputstva pronaiete na adresi www.ff.ac.me.
Redakcija
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Dear authors,
While writing and preparing your paper for the submission, please respect
the following instruction:
Submit your paper electronically in a Word format, to the following
address: foliaredakcija@gmail.com
The length of your work must not exceed 7000 words, including the
title, your name and the name of your institution, the list of references,
two abstracts (in 2 languages) and key words.
An Abstract (up to 300 words) and up to 10 key words precede the
paper and are written in the language in which the paper is written.
The same information is translated in one of the world languages
(English, German, French, Russian) and repeated at the end of the text.
Formatting of your text should be minimal (including titles and
subtitles), please use the option Normal your Word provides under
the title Style.
Subtitles should be separated by two empty lines from the text
preceding it, and by one empty line from the text following it.
Graphics, tables, illustrations, pictures, etc should not be sent
separately but as part of the papers and as integral images.
Emphasis is provided exclusively by the use of italics, and not by bold
letters, quotation marks, s p a c i n g, ALL CAPS, etc.
Use double quotations marks consistently and as required by the norms
of the language in which the paper is written. Use single quotations
marks (m) only within quotations.
Quotations longer than three lines of your typed paper should be
inserted as a separate paragraph.
Avoiding parts of original text within quotation should be marked by
the following sign: [].
Please make difference between dash and hyphen!
Use MLA citation style for bibliographical references.
For more details please visit www.ff.ac.me.
Board of Editors
427
428
CIP
,
80+82
FOLIA linguistic et litteraria : asopis za nauku o jeziku i
knjievnosti / urednik Marija Kneevi. 2010, br. 1- . Niki
(Danila Bojovia bb) : Filozofski fakultet, Institut za jezik i
knjievnost, 2010 (Niki : Kolo). 25 cm
Godinje.
ISSN 1800-8542 = Folia linguistica at linguistica at litteraria
(Niki)
COBISS.CG-ID 17541392

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Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA:

Institut za jezik i knjievnost

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Ureivaki odbor / Board of Editors:

Recenzenti / Reviewed by:

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

Sadraj / Table of Contents

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Black Dogs: Metaphysics, History and Utopia

enski glasovi u svjetu proze / Female Voices in the World of

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

Svijet teatra / The World of Theatre

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Jezik medija / The Language of Media

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

Folia linguistica et litteraria je asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti, koji

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

gramofon bosanskog pisca Sae Staniia, Maren Kaizer sa Univerziteta Fridrih

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Brane Zoran Koprivica razmatra filmske adaptacije uvene ekspirove drame i

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

naslova italijanske dnevne tampe: titolo brillante i titolo di richiamo koleginice

Folia linguistica et litteraria zahvaljujui ovim radovima nudi avanturu itanja i

U ime Ureivakog odbora,

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

From the Board of Editors

Folia linguistica et litteraria, a journal of language and literary studies, was

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Languages, University of Lisbon. Discussing Lawrences conception of existence,

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

The first of the essays on contemporary literature is Milena Kostis analysis

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

constructions of noun phrases in English newspaper articles and compares them

Folia linguistica et litteraria, thanks to the variety of papers present here,

On behalf of the Board of Editors,

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

D. H. Lorens kao putopisac

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

D. H. Lawrence: a Traveller through Cultures

Abstract: Travelling is a fundamental experience in our society and, particularly in the

Travelling is a constant element of human experience which can be

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

travel writing seems to be a congenial genre for an age of exploded,

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

and intense appeal, and in whose works, as a consequence, place

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

Nigel Thrift-Mike Crang, eds., Thinking Space, London: Routledge, 2000.

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

It is reflected in a number of his characters who follow in his footsteps, leaving

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

As to his own motherland, Lawrence expresses contradictory feelings

asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti

Almost as soon as D. H. Lawrence left England for the first time in

Folia Linguistica et Litteraria

now I cannot really consider them in thought. I shrink involuntarily