Chap.

5: Soil Compaction [()]

5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Compaction Principles
5.3 Proctor Test
5.4 Compaction on Cohesive Soil
5.5 Compaction on Cohesionless Soil
5.6 Field Compaction
5.7 Specifications for Field Compaction
5.8 Field Compaction Quality Control
5.9 Special Field Compaction Techniques

5.1 Introduction
What is compaction?
Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically
increasing the density of soil by reducing volume of air through
external compactive effort.
soil (2) > soil (1)

Load

Air

Air
Water

Water

Soil
Matrix

Compressed
soil
Solids

Solids

soil (1) =

WT1
VT1

soil (2) =

WT1
VT2

What is compaction?

MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIP

Compactive
effort

+ water =

5.1 Introduction

Purposes of Compaction
z Application of energy to soil to reduce the void ratio
- This is usually required for fill materials, and is sometimes used for
natural soils

z
z
z
z

Reduces compressibility/settlements under working loads

Reduce the permeability (makes water flow through soil more difficult)
Increases the soil strength
Prevent liquefaction () during earthquakes

5.2 General Compaction Principles

( )

z rollings mechanical energy

densification
compaction

z
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

z 5.1
(0) d 0
()

(opt)

()

(optimum moisture content, OMC)optopt

(compaction curve)Proctor ()


()

Proctord
W

W
=
V
5.1
d

d =
1+
5.2
(5.2)d
5.2e
GsS
e = G s / S(5.3)

Gs w
d =
1+ e

d =

G s
1 + G s / S

= S(

w
1

)
d Gs

5.3

5.4
5.5

()
S=100%S=1 (5.4)
zero-air-void unit weight zav zav

zav =

1 + Gs w

1 / Gs + w

5.6
(5.6)Gs zav
zero-air-void curve5.2Gs

(5.6)
d 5.2 S=60%, S=80S=100% d
4E
peakline of
optimum
Impossible

z Factor Affecting Soil Compaction:

()

1 - Soil Type being compacted

2 - Water Content (wc) of soil
3 - The Amount of Compaction Effort (Energy) Used
4 Compaction Method Used
Soil Type
V
ZA

5.3a

ASTM D698

Impossible

 Water Content
LeeSuedkamp (1972)35
5.3bA
3070B
1.5

d
Q
P
PdB
30C30
70D
dLL>70

 Compaction Effort
E
J/m3 (ft-lbf /ft3)1 J ()1 N-m Proctor

Wh * H * N L * N B
Impossible
E=
(5.7)
Vm
Wh = impactN
H = m
NB =
NL =
Vm = m3
E5.2E1>E2>E3>E4
E
5.2E1>E2>E3>E4
dmax
opt
Increasing compaction energy

Lower OMC and higher dry density

 Compaction Method

impact(kneading)
(static)(vibratory)
SeedChan (1959)
(5.4)

5.3 Proctor Test Lab. Compaction ()

5.1 ASTM
ASTM D698-91

ASTM D1557-91

600
12400

2700
56000

kN-m/m3
ft-lbf/ft3

Vm cm3
ft3

944
1/30

944
1/30

2124
1/13.33

944
1/30

944
1/30

2124
1/13.33

mm
in

101.6
4

101.6
4

152.4
6

101.6
4

101.6
4

152.4
6

mm
in

116.3
4.58

116.3
4.58

116.3
4.58

116.3
4.58

116.3
4.58

116.3
4.58

W h N
lbf

24.4
5.5

24.4
5.5

24.4
5.5

44.5
10

44.5
10

44.5
10

H mm
in

305
12

305
12

305
12

457
18

457
18

457
18

NL

NB

25

25

56

25

25

56

#4
0.42mm

3/8 in
9.5mm

3/4 in
19mm

#4

3/8 in

3/4 in

Proctor
E:

E=

Wh HN B N L 24.4 N 0.305m 3 25
=
= 5.91 106 N m 3 = 591 kN m 3
6 3
m
m
944 10 m
Vm

Soil Compaction in the Lab:

1- Standard Proctor Test
2- Modified Proctor Test

Standard Proctor Test

Modified Proctor Test

Soil Compaction in the Lab:

1- Standard Proctor Test

Gs w
dry=
1+e

ZAV =
Dry Density

1+ Wc Gs
Sr

Zero Air Void Curve

Sr =100%

5.5 pound hammer

d max

Gs w

H = 12 in

2
5
1

25 blows
per layer

wc1

wc2

wc3

wc4

wc5

d1

d2

d3

d4

d5

Wet to
Dry to
Optimum Optimum

(OMC)
Optimum
Moisture
Content

Increasing Water Content

4 inch diameter compaction mold.
(V = 1/30 of a cubic foot)

dry =

wet
1+

Wc%
100

Compaction
Curve
Water
Content

Soil Compaction in the Lab:

1- Standard Proctor Test
ASTM D-698 or AASHTO T-99
Energy = 12,375 foot-pounds per cubic foot

Zero Air Void Curve

Sr = 60%
Zero Air Void Curve
Dry Density
Sr =100%

d max
Zero Air Void Curve
Sr < 100%

d max

2- Modified Proctor Test

ASTM D-1557 or AASHTO T-180

Compaction
Curve for
Modified
Proctor

Energy = 56,520 foot-pounds per cubic foot

Compaction
Curve for Standard
Proctor
(OMC)
(OMC)

Moisture
Content

Number of blows per layer x Number of layers x Weight of hammer x Height of drop hammer
Energy =

Volume of mold

Example:
The laboratory test for a standard proctor is shown below. Determine the
optimum water content and maximum dry density. If the Gs of the soil is
2.70, draw the ZAV curve.
Solution:
Volume of
Proctor Mold
(ft3)

Weight of wet
soil in the mold
(lb)

Water Content
Wc (%)

Volume of
Mold
(ft3)

Weight of wet
soil in the mold
(lb)

Wet Unit
Weight
(lb/ft3)

Water Content
Wc(%)

Dry Unit
Weight
(lb/ft3)

1/30
1/30
1/30
1/30
1/30
1/30

3.88
4.09
4.23
4.28
4.24
4.19

12
14
16
18
20
22

1/30
1/30
1/30
1/30
1/30
1/30

3.88
4.09
4.23
4.28
4.24
4.19

116.4
122.7
126.9
128.4
127.2
125.7

12
14
16
18
20
22

103.9
107.6
109.4
108.8
106.0
103.0

dry =

wet
1+

115

wc %
100

114
113
112
111

ZAV

110
109
108
107

Gs w
1 + wc Gs

106

Sr

105
104
103
102
101
100
10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

 5-2
(Proctor)E5-2
O.M.C.

E5-2

%
%
8.17
8.17
10.21
10.21
11.63
11.63
14.10
14.10
16.32
16.32
18.45
18.45

Excel(OMC)

99%[
89]

3
g/cm
g/cm 3
1.741
1.741
1.830
1.830
1.886
1.886
1.882
1.882
1.808
1.808
1.733
1.733

O.M.C. = 12.73%( d ) max = 1.885g / cm 3

5.4 Compaction on Cohesive Soil

( )

(opt)
opt(dry of optimum)opt
(wet of optimum)opt
(near or at optimum)

. (Structure of Compacted Clay Soil )

Seed Chan (1959)

Lamb(1958)

(flocculated)5.5A
Erandom

dispersed
5.5
CD
5.5D

II.

:
1. stiffness
SeedChan1959
5.6
-

()

ductility

2. (shear strength)
5.6

5.7
UU

3. (permeability)

(a)
Lambe19585.8

10~100

Lambe
1958

5.7
(SeedChan, 1959))

(b) compactive efforts

Mitchell1965

5.11

(c) compaction method

impactstatic
kneading

5.12

5.11 k

5.10 k

z Olson1963
clod model

clods
void

hard clods
soft clods

z Mitchell
1965
5.10

(d) clods

k
310-7cm/sec
910-9 cm/sec
(e) Plasticity
indexPI
PIk

4. Shrinkage
and Swelling
Seed and Chan1959

5.4

5.13

5.2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

5.5 Compaction on Cohesionless Soil

()

()

(
)
(proctor)

5.3GW

5.3
(kN/m3) Proctor (kN/m3)
GW

18-19

20-22

22-23

GM

17-19

18-21

21-23

GP

18

18-20

22

SW

15-17

18-21

21

SM

13-16

18-20

19-21

SP

14-16

16-19

18-20

 Terzaghi(1925)(Compactibility factor)F
e e min
F
F = max
(5.8)
e min
0.5-2.0F
0.5-1.0F1.5-1.8
Dr (relative density)
(density index) IDDr
Terzaghi(1925)(loose
0<Dr<1/3)(medium dense1/3 < Dr < 2/3 )(Dense2/3
< Dr < 1)5.45
SPT-NCPT

5.4
Dr (%)

0-15

15-35

35-65

65-85

85-100

d (kN/m3)

<14

14-16

16-18

18-20

>20

SPT-N

<4

4-10

10-30

30-50

>50

CPT (MPa)

<5

5-10

10-15

15-20

>20

<29

29-30

30-36

36-41

>41

()

5.6 Field Compaction ( )

Effect of Energy on Soil Compaction
Increasing compaction energy

Lower OMC and higher dry density

Higher
Energy

Dry Density

E1

In the lab
increasing
compaction energy
= increasing
number of blows

V
ZA

E2
E3

E4 (< E3 < E2 < E1)

Water Content

In the field
increasing
compaction energy
= increasing
number of passes
or reducing lift
depth

Field Compaction Equipment

(roller)

(vibrating plate)(vibrating rammer)

a. [smooth(steel) wheel (drum) roller]

b. (pneumatic rubber-tired roller)
c. (sheepsfoot roller )
d. (grid roller)
e. (vibratory roller)

(lift thickness)

Soil Compaction equipment in the Field:

5- Sheepsfoot Roller ()

1- Rammers
()

2- Vibratory Plates
( )

3- Smooth-Wheel Rollers
()

4- Pneumatic
Rubber-Tired
Roller
()

6- Dynamic Compaction ()

Field Compaction Equipment

Smooth Wheeled Roller

Compacts effectively only
to 200-300 mm; therefore,
place the soil in shallow
layers (lifts)

100%
380kPa
(proof rolling subgrade)
10-15
()

Field Compaction Equipment

Vibrating Plates

for compacting very small areas

effective for granular soils

Field Compaction Equipment

Pneumatic rubber tired roller

46
80%
700kPa
<50Ton15>50Ton
45()

Field Compaction Equipment

Sheepsfoot Roller

Provides kneading action;

walks out after compaction
Very effective on clays

25-80cm2
8%-12%
1400kPa-7000kPa
15-30cm

Field Compaction Equipment

Impact Roller

Provides deeper (2-3m) compaction. e.g., air field

Field Compaction Equipment

(grid roller)

50%
1400kPa-6200kPa

(vibratory roller)

1
m

Factors Affecting Field Compaction

z

1.

4.14

2. (no. of passes)
5.15
()

5.16
4-8

4-8
15-20

3. (thickness of lift)
(1)
(2)
5.14(3)

5.17A(4)
A

()

50-100kPa

(400-700kPa)

5.7 Specifications for Field Compaction

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

(1)(end-product
specification) (2)(method specification)

5.7 Specifications for Field Compaction

Compaction performance parameters are given on a

construction project in one of two ways:
1- Method Specification ( )
Detailed instructions specify machine type, lift depths,
number of passes, machine speed and moisture content. A
"recipe" is given as part of the job specifications to
accomplish the compaction needed.
2- End-Product Specification ()
Only final compaction requirements are specified (95%
modified or standard Proctor). This method, gives the
contractor much more flexibility in determining the best,
most economical method of meeting the required specs.


z
(relative compaction)(percent
compaction)

z Rc(dry density ratio)

d, fProctorProctor
d, f
d ,max,l
Rc (%) =
100
d ,max,l

rd , f
Rc (%) =
100
rd , max,l
(5.9)
(granular soil)
D r (%) =

d , f d , max d , max
(
) 100
d , max d , min d , f

z Ro =d,min/d,max(5.10)
Ro
Rc (%) =
1 D r (1 Ro )

(5.10)

(5.11)
z LeeSingh(1975)47
Rc = 80 + 0.2Dr
(5.12)

(criteria)
z A
(95%()Proctor
)
5.18
(Seed,1964)
5.18

EA > EB> EC
90%
EAa
da
dEA
90%

c
EC
EC
(EB)
optc

5.18
(Seed,1964)

(overcompaction)
z B
ProctorProctor

z C
Proctor
Proctor

5.8 Field Compaction Quality Control

- a systematic exercise where you check
at regular intervals whether the
compaction was done to specifications.
e.g., 1 test per
1000 m3 of
compacted soil

Minimum dry density

Range of water content

Field measurements (of d) obtained using

sand cone
nuclear density meter

Laboratory Compaction Test

- to obtain the compaction curve and define the
optimum water content and maximum dry density for a
specific compactive effort.

Standard Proctor Test:

hammer

Modified Proctor Test:

3 layers

5 layers

25 blows per layer

25 blows per layer

2.7 kg hammer

4.9 kg hamer

300 mm drop

450mm drop

1000 ml compaction
mould

Compaction Quality Control Test

Compaction
specifications

Compare!
wc

d,field = ?
field, V= ?

compacted ground

Field Soil Compaction

Because of the differences between lab and field compaction methods, the
maximum dry density in the field may reach 90% to 95%.
Field measurements (of d) obtained using
z sand cone
z rubber balloon
z nuclear density meter
Dry Density

ZAV

d max
95% d max

(OMC)

Moisture
Content

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

Three methods are used:
1 - Sand Cone Method (ASTM D1556-90)
2 - Rubber Balloon Method
3 - Nuclear Density Method (ASTM D2292-91)
1 - Sand Cone Method (ASTM D1556-90)

()
A small hole (6" x 6" deep) is dug in the compacted material
to be tested. The soil is removed and weighed, then dried
and weighed again to determine its moisture content. A soil's
moisture is figured as a percentage. The specific volume of
the hole is determined by filling it with calibrated dry sand
from a jar and cone device. The dry weight of the soil
removed is divided by the volume of sand needed to fill the
hole. This gives us the density of the compacted soil in lbs
per cubic foot. This density is compared to the maximum
Proctor density obtained earlier, which gives us the relative
density of the soil that was just compacted.

1.

W
2. Ws =
W/(1 + )
3. ()5.19
:
(
)d,s5.19(a)

WT
Wc ()
W2 = WT Ws - WcV
V = W2 / ds
4. V

W
d, f = s
(5.13)
V
5. Rc

Rc =

d, f

d , max

100%

5.19 (a)

(5.14)

d,maxProctorProctor

2 - Rubber Balloon Method

()

The same as the sand cone,

except a rubber balloon is
used to determine the
volume of the hole.
5.19(b)

V(ASTM D2167-84
)

5.19(b)

3 - Nuclear Density Meter Method (ASTM D2292-91)

()

Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate way of determining
density and moisture content. The meter uses a radioactive isotope source
(Cesium 137) at the soil surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed into
the soil (direct transmission). The isotope source gives off photons (usually
Gamma rays) which radiate back to the mater's detectors on the bottom of
the unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and the
readings reflect overall density. Water content (ASTM D3017) can also be
read, all within a few minutes.

3 - Nuclear Density Meter Method

z
(nuclear density meter method)

(cesium 137)(Gamma)

(Geiger-Muller Counter)-
(backscatter
mode)
(direct transmission mode)
4.20

z-(americium 241beryllium)
-3
(helium-3 detection tube )

5.9 Special Field Compaction Techniques

I. (preloading or precompression method)

(surcharge)

II. (heavy tamping)

(dynamic compaction)(dynamic
consolidation)
(10~40ton)1040m
()

1930

(depth of influence), dim

di = n Wh

(4.14)

W(Ton)h(m)n
0.3 ~ 1.0n
n0.5 ~ 1.0n0.3 ~ 0.5
Leonards, CutterHoltz (1980)n = 0.5

[] 20Ton
15mdi =
[] n = 0.5

di = 0.5 20 15 = 8.66m

II. Dynamic Compaction

- pounding the ground by a heavy weight
Suitable for granular soils, land fills
and karst terrain with sink holes.

Pounder (Tamper)

solution cavities in
limestone

Crater created by the impact

(to be backfilled)

II. Dynamic Compaction

Pounder (Tamper)
Mass = 5-30 tonne
Drop = 10-30 m

II. Dynamic Compaction

III. (vibroflotation)
z

1930

0.3 ~ 0.5m3 ~
8m(vibrator)

30 ~ 50Hz
220KN
25mm

0.8MPa3m3/


1. 1 ~3m/

2.
3. 30cm/
4.
10m0.27 ~ 1.8m3

II. Dynamic Compaction

1.5 ~ 3m2 ~
2.5m

(a) 5.22
12
3

(b) Brown (1977)

(suitability number)SnSn
Sn = 1.7

3
+
D50 2

1
+
D20 2

1
D10 2

(4.15)

D10, D20, D50mmSn

Sn
Sn
0-10
10~20
20~30
30~50
>50

(excellent)
(good)
(fair)
(poor)
(unsuitable

5.22

III. Vibroflotation
Suitable for granular soils
Practiced in several forms:
vibrocompaction
stone columns
vibro-replacement

Vibroflot (vibrating unit)

Length = 2 3 m
Diameter = 0.3 0.5 m
Mass = 2 tonnes
(lowered into the ground
and vibrated)

III. Vibroflotation

Stone Columns

vibrator makes a
hole in the weak
ground

()

hole backfilled ..and compacted Densely compacted

stone column

1.5 ~ 3m2 ~
2.5m

(a) 5.22
12
3

(b) Brown (1977)

(suitability number)SnSn
Sn = 1.7

3
+
D50 2

1
+
D20 2

1
D10 2

(5.15)

D10, D20, D50mmSn

Sn
Sn
0-10
10~20
20~30
30~50
>50

IV. (blasting)
(shock wave),
?

IV. Blasting
For densifying granular soils

Fireworks?

Aftermath of blasting

Appendix: Earthmoving Equipment

Large Excavator (see
minivan on left for
scale)

Grader for spreading soil

Van

Earthmoving Equipment

Loader

Bulldozer for spreading soil evenly

Backhoe

Crawler mounted
Hydraulic Excavator

Earthmoving Equipment

End of Chapter 5

Rock Breaker