CHAPTER XIV Pumps, Compressors, Blowers, and Ejectors Section 1 Pumps 1.1 Fundamentals. ‘The energy added by a pump to the liquid passing through it is often referred to as the total head, which is equal to the total suction head of the liquid when it enters the pump subtracted from the total discharge head of the liquid when it leaves the pump. If the total suction head is negative, it is usually referred to as total suction lift and would be added to the total dis- charge head, The head or energy per unit mass flow rate of a liquid is generally considered to consist of: 1. apressure head due to the force per unit area ex: erted by the liquid, 2. a dynamic or velocity head, which is a measure of the liquid’s kinetic energy, and 3. potential or static head due to the elevation of the liquid above a given horizontal reference plane or datum. Referring to Fig. 1, and using subseripts s and d to refer to conditions at locations A and B, respectively, the total head developed by the pump in the system shown is equal to 144 py, VE ] Ha | Ps Es 2+ Hy [ po ag ps Ps p taza) a Bet 2, Hy where H = total head, ft = liquid pressure above (+) or below (—) atmo- spheric pressure, psig p = liquid density, pef V = liquid velocity, fps Z = static head above (+) or below (—-) the datum elevation, ft Hy = friction and turbulence losses in discharge pipe from pump to point B, ft H,,= frietion and turbulence losses in suction pipe from point A to pump, ft g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/s? For either a vertical centrifugal pump with a double-sue- tion first-stage impeller or a horizontal centrifugal pump, the datum elevation is established by the horizontal plane that passes through the first-stage impeller’s centerline, and for a vertical centrifugal pump with a single-suetion first-stage impeller it is defined by the horizontal plane that passes through the first-stage impeller’s entrance eye. For rotary and reciprocating pumps the datum eleva- tion is established by the horizontal plane that passes through the centerline of the pump’s inlet port [1]. ‘A modification to equation (1) ean be made to permit the specific gravity of the pumped liquid to be used in liew of density to caleulate total head, as shown by Pete | Va- Vi 2) Wo Vasant ag te et Hat Me where sg is the liquid specific gravity, based on 1.0 for fresh water at a temperature of 68 F. ‘There are two fundamental types of pumps: the kinetic type, which includes the centrifugal, regenerative turbine, and vertical turbine pumps; and the positive-displacement type, which includes rotary, reciprocating, and diaphragm pumps. 1.2. Centrifugal Pumps. a, Classification, A centrifugal pump basically eon- sists of a vaned impeller mounted on a shaft that rotates within a stationary casing. As it turns, the impeller trans- fers energy to the liquid flowing between its vanes. In general, as liquid enters a centrifugal pump's impeller its flow is primarily in the axial direction. If there is a tangential component to the inlet flow, it is often referred toas “prewhirl” or “prerotation.” An impeller that has an inlet, referred to as the eye, on only one side is classified as a “single-suetion” impeller, while those that receive liquid simultaneously from both sides are classified as “double-suction” impellers. Impellers are also classified as being designed for radial-flow, mixed-flow (radial and axial), or axial-flow operation. These classifications refer to the primary orientation of flow at the discharge from the impeller with respeet to the axis of rotation, The type of impeller required for a particular appliea- tion can often be predicted from the pump's specific speed, No, whieh can be calculated using the equation NQve He where Nis the operating speed (rpm) and Q the volumetric flow rate or capacity in gallons per minute (gpm). The 481 N,= 8)482 SUCTION PIPE Fig. values of capacity, Q, and total head, #7, used in equation (8) are those at the pump’s best efficieney point. In addi- tion, for a multistage pump, which can be thought of as multiple single-stage pumps arranged in series, the value of H used to calculate specific speed is the total head developed per stage. In addition to being useful in pre- dicting the efficiency that can be expected from a new design and, therefore, the size of the driver required, the specific speed can also be useful in approximating the radial shape of a new pump impeller. A lower specific speed represents a relatively high value of total head with respect to the capacity being delivered. This combination of performance requirements results in the use of an im- peller with a relatively large outside diameter and narrow waterways. Conversely, the impeller in a high specific speed pump will tend to have a smaller outside diameter due to the relatively low head developed, and wider water- ways to aecommodate the higher flow rate. The three flow orientation categories for centrifugal pumps generally correspond to the following specifie speed ranges: FLOW ORIENTATION Sprciric SPEED Radial (single suetion) < 4200 (double suction) < 6000 Mixed (single suetion only) 4200 to 9000 Axial > 9000 A radial- or mixed-flow impeller can also be classified as being: closed, which has vanes sandwiched between both a front and a rear shroud that enclose the waterways [see Fig. 2(a)]; semiopen, which includes vanes that are attached to a single rear shroud or sidewall [see Fig. 2(6)]; or open, in which the vanes are attached to the periphery of a hub and, in some cases, to a partial rear shroud [see Fig. 2(c)]. The rotating element in an axial-flow pump is frequently referred to as a propeller [see Fig. 2d]. An additional characteristic that is sometimes used to classify DISCHARGE PIPE oe MARINE ENGINEERING L Typical pump ond system impellers is the curvature of their vanes. A cylindrical or straight-vane impeller has vanes that are curved only around the axis of rotation (ie., the front and back faces of each vane are parallel to the axis of the pump's shaft), ‘The use of straight-vane impellers is generally limited to low specific speed (NV; < 1000) radial-flow applications. Franeis or screw-vane impellers have vanes that are curved in two directions or twisted. These impellers are often utilized in the design of high specific speed (2000 < Nz < 4200) radial-flow pumps [2]. b. “Euler” head, Based on the conservation of angu- lar momentum, the net torque applied by a centrifugal pump impeller to the liquid passing through it is equal to the time rate of change in the liquid’s angular momentum with respect to the axis of rotation. Using this principle, an expression for the theoretical increase in the energy of the liquid being pumped (i.., the energy transferred from the impeller to the liquid) can be developed. In the following equations, c refers to the liquid’s absolute veloc- ity with respect to the casing, w refers to the liquid’s relative velocity with respect to the rotating impeller, and 1u refers to the peripheral or tangential velocity of the impeller at a given radius, all in feet per second (fps). In addition, subscript u refers to the peripheral component ‘and subscript m to the meridional component of the liq- uid’s absolute and relative velocities. The meridional ve- locity is the portion of the liquid velocity that is normal to the corresponding peripheral velocity, and can consist of components in both the radial and axial directions (3). The vectors that the above symbols represent can be used to form flow velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of the impeller. Velocity triangle diagrams for radial- and axial- flow pumps are shown in Fig. 3, The angular momentum of liquid at any radius in the impeller is equal to the moment arm, or radius, multipliedPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS 483 (2) Closed impeller (6) Semiopen impeler le) Open impeller (eh Propeller Fig. 2. Contifugal pump impellers (Courtery Dresser Pump Division} CYLINDRICAL SECTION NEAR RIM, Ry CYLINORICAL SECTION NEAR HUB, Ri AW UIE vane (2) Rodlalfiow Rat soar EO i ON Sy ZT” 7 fh fo" Se Me (6) Axiol-low Fig. 3. Contitugal pump velocity diagrams by the product of the liquid’s mass times its peripheral velocity about the shaft axis, or L=R 6, a where L = angular momentum, ft-lbs ‘m = mass, Ibm R = radius, ft 9. = gravitational constant, 32.17 ft-lbm/Ibf-s* ing a dot “." to signify a change with respect to time, with steady-state flow the rate of change of the angular momentum equals @) where 7i is the flow rate, Ibm/s. ‘The torque, 7; applied to the liquid pumped at any given ofthe impeller is equal to L; therefore, using sub scripts 1 and 2 to refer to conditions at the inlet and outlet of the impeller, respectively, with a constant mass flow rrate the net change in torque applied to the liquid passing through the impeller is equal to 2 ta ~ ar= Rew) @ where ATs the change in torque, ftlbf. ‘The theoretical rate of energy transfer to the fluid be- ing pumped, or power, is equal to the product of the net change in torque multiplied by the impeller’s angular ve- loeity, as shown by the following:484 Ey = To = . (Re ea ~ Ry eu) @ theoretical rate of energy transfer, ftlbf/s angular velocity, rad/s ‘fis equal to the peripheral speed of the impeller, x, at radius R; therefore 8) m Ban = (Ws ea ~ hi Cur) ‘The theoretical rate of energy transfer per unit mass flow rate equals 1 m Ge This is referred to as the “Euler equation,” and H, is called the “Euler head,” which is expressed above in ft- Ibf/Ibm. If, however, g is substituted for g, in equation (9), the resulting unit of measurement for H, will be feet. Referring to Fig. 3(a), for radial-flow pumps Gt = che + Che @ Ms Cus) (20) In addition, we = Chg + (ty — C42)® ay By equating the two expressions that can be derived for nz from equations (10) and (11), it ean be seen that, Ws Ce = ; (ef + uf — ws) (2) Similarly: Cun = ; (2 + uy? — wy") (13) The substitution of these values into equation (9) results in the following alternative form of the Euler equation A, z fee ~ 01) + (ug? — wi) + (wn? — «9 ag The first term in the above equation represents the in- crease in the kinetic energy or dynamic head of the liquid being pumped due to its acceleration from the inlet to the outlet of the impeller. The second and third terms represent an increase in the statie pressure head of the liquid being pumped. The velocity of an actual liquid is never constant across a flow channel; therefore, average velocities are often used in the above equations. Using the velocity components shown in Fig. 3(a): Cua = Ue — Wye (a5) lay = My = Wa (a6) Additionally, Wya = Wy COt By a7) Wy, = Ws Ct By 2g) where 8 is the relative flow angie in degrees. 1», which ‘MARINE ENGINEERING is the relative meridional velocity of the liquid traveling through the impeller’s channels, can be found from @ 4488 An, as) Wy where A = total area of impeller's flow channels measured normal to the meridional flow, ft? 2, = volumetric efficieney, which accounts for losses due to internal leakage flow recirculated within the pump, %/100 By substitution, equations (15) and (16) ean be rewritten as _ @ Oe Me agg apy, Ot Re ” and _ Q Cu = T8847. =“ cot By (21) If the above expressions for ¢, are now inserted into equa- tion (9), the result is n=l ( 8 ig OG. [Ga Ag, @ (0 gafaon)] If prerotation, ¢,,, is assumed to be zero, the above equa- tion can be reduced to (22) MO 88 dan, Ot ) ” ‘This form of the Euler equation shows that the total head developed at a given capacity and, therefore, the slope of the pump's performance curve of total head developed versus capacity delivered, referred to as the pump's head capacity curve, is affected by the relative discharge flow angle. Impellers with radial or backward-curved vanes (Bp < 90 deg) are used in most radial and mixed-ftow centrifugal pumps; therefore, the total head developed by these machines generally remains constant or increases as the capacity delivered is reduced. “The above equations are also valid for axial-flow pumps. However, in these machines u, = w, at any given radius of the propeller, and the total Euler head developed by the entire propeller is equal to the integrated average of the head developed by each of the propeller’s cylindrical sections. c. “Ideal” head. The Euler head calculated above can never be developed by a centrifugal pump. One reason for the reduction in the actual head developed by a radial- flow impeller is “‘slip." As the impeller rotates, the liquid along the front faces of its vanes is at a higher pressure than the liquid adjacent to the back of each vane. Because of this pressure gradient, there also exists a velocity gra- dient across the impeller’s flow channels, with the lower liquid velocities occurring along the front face of eachPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS vane, As a result of this variation in velocity, the average relative flow angle of the liquid being discharged from the impeller, 8., is less than the actual discharge angle of the vane. The reduction in ¢,» that results from this, deviation in fluid flow is often referred to as the “slip” of the impeller. From equations (9) and (22) it ean be seen that a reduction in By and the corresponding reduction in result in a reduction in the total head developed by the impeller. After the Euler head is reduced to account for slip, it is sometimes referred to as the “ideal head” (4), and is equal to H.-H, 4) ideal head, ft (or ft-lbf/Ibm) lip factor ‘The slip factor for a particular impeller is generally deter- mined based on the number of impeller vanes and the vane discharge angle using equations or curves derived both theoretically and empirically. Included among the most commonly used slip factors are those developed by Sto- dola and Busemann [4,5]. 4. Actual head. The ideal head, H/, represents a re- duction in the Euler head, #,, based on the flow deviation of an ideal liquid. However, it does not include the effect of flow losses in the impeller due to friction and turbu- lence, and it includes none of the hydraulie flow losses that occur in the pump’s casing. These losses are repre- sented by an additional correction factor called the hy- draulie efficiency. Using the hydraulic efficiency, the ac- tual head developed by the pump, #, equals H= Hom where 7, is the hydraulie efficiency, %/100. ¢. Power requirement. Based 'on equation (9), re- written in terms of volumetric capacity and horsepower, the hydrautie power required by a centrifugal pump is equal to (25) HQ(s9) _ HQ (s9) 3960 3960, where P, is the hydraulic horsepower, hp. Because of additional losses not accounted for in the hydraulic effi- ciency, the actual horsepower required to drive the pump exceeds P,. The sources of the additional losses include the following: ‘+ Mechanical losses, which include losses due to frie- tion in the pump's bearings, seals, and packing. In gen- eral, the power necessary to overcome mechanical losses as a percentage of the hydraulic power increases with decreasing specific speed and capacity. + Disk friction, which includes the loss due to the frie- tion between the liquid in the pump's casing and the outer surfaces of its rotating impeller. The power necessary to ‘overcome this loss, therefore, increases with the pump's impeller diameter and operating speed. + Internal leakage flow across wearing rings, in- terstage bushings, and internal balancing devices, which results in the recirculation within the pump’s easing of a portion of the liquid being discharged from the impeller. Py 26) 485 LEGEND EFFECT OF viscosiTY Mex EFF. PUMPING WATER AT ROOM TEMP STMAK EFF: Sthe Bute Wer OIL Ar 2000 Su PUMP EFFICIENCY, % @ ans of 3 ovation CENT fafoeal FLO “PrbELt ET Fo. 4 Representative punp efficacies venus spect speed ond cpocty Tor various opplications ‘The energy needed to pump this additional liquid is ac- counted for in the volumetric effieieney, m,..In general, the volumetric efficiency increases with specific speed and the capacity delivered. ‘The above losses can be combined with the hydraulic horsepower to determine the total power required to drive the pump as follows: HQ (sg) Pe 3960 msn, HQ (s9) 3960 9, + Py t P= en) rake horsepower (bhp) required to drive the pump, hp ‘ny = overall pump efficiency, %/100 Pa, horsepower to overcome disk friction, hp P,, = horsepower to overcome mechanical losses, hp A correlation of typical pump efficiencies versus specific speed and capacity is shown in Fig. 4. Similar charts correction factors for operating speed and surface are included in reference 6.486 \ Fig. 5 Volute-type centifugel pump casing f. Casings. Centrifugal pump casings can be split along a plane that passes through the shaft axis, referred to as axially split, or along a plane that is perpendicular to the shaft, referred to as radially split. Many pump casings used in marine applications are designed to be mounted vertically, which typically requires less deck space than horizontal mounting. ‘The casing performs three important functions related to the pump’s hydraulic performance: 1. It guides the liquid being pumped from the inlet of the suction nozzle to the eye of the impeller. In some cases guide vanes may be added to the suetion nozzle to straighten the flow entering the impeller, and to break up vortices formed by liquid that may be recirculated back out of the impeller’s eye. 2, It collects the liquid being discharged from the riphery of the impeller, and converts @ portion of the ki netie energy or velocity head in the liquid to pressure head. This is often referred to as pressure recovery or diffusion, and is necessary due to the liquid’s high abso- Iute velocity when it leaves the impeller. 3. It guides the liquid discharged from the pressure- recovery device to the inlet of the next stage in a multistage pump, or to the outlet of the pump’s discharge nozzle. Collectors and pressure-recovery devices that are com- monly used include the following: + Volutes. The volute or scroll, as shown in Fig. 5, is characterized by a channel with a gradually increasing radius and cross-sectional area that surrounds the periph- ery of the impeller. Volutes are used with many single- stage radial and mixed-flow centrifugal pumps. A volute is sometimes designed so that the increase in its cross- sectional area is proportional to the angular advancement from the tongue or eutwater to the throat. With this con- figuration the pumped fluid is assumed to have a constant average velocity in all seetions of the volute during opera- tion at the design capacity, which is generally at or near the best efficieney point. As an alternative to maintaining fa constant velocity, a volute may be designed so that the fluid passing through it maintains a constant angular momentum (ie., Re, = constant) at the design eapacit When this latter method is used to size the volute, it is assumed that the peripheral velocity of the fluid decreases MARINE ENGINEERING Casing ZN Diffuser ipeler Fig. 6 Diffusertype centrifugal pump cating as the volute’s radius increases. The radial clearance be- tween the outside diameter of the impeller and the volute's tongue should be small to limit the amount of liquid reeir- culated around the volute; however, if the gap is too small excessive pressure pulsations, turbulence, and noise can result (2,4,7]. This gap or cutwater clearance is frequently sized to optimize pump performance with the range of impeller diameters that may be used in the casing. To reduce hydraulic shock and separation losses, the angle used for the volute’s tongue often matches the absolute fluid flow angle at the design capacity. In lieu of a spiral volute, some centrifugal pumps are furnished with a circular or concentric collector that has a constant radius and cross-sectional area around the pe- riphery of the impeller, Except when operating at shutoff (with a closed discharge valve and no through-flow), the velocity in this type of a collector increases as the flow channel progresses angularly from the tongue to the throat. A modified- or semi-concentrie casing is a variation of the coneentrie design in which the radius and cross- sectional area of the collector remain constant over only a portion of the casing’s cireumference. ‘Volute-type multistage pumps often have axially split casings, with the flow passages between successive stages, referred to as crossovers, being either integrally cast or welded onto the casing. Liquid collected in each interstage volute is frequently decelerated in the corres- ponding crossover before being directed to the eye of the ‘impeller in the pump's next stage. The pumped liquid is also usually decelerated in the casing’s discharge nozzle, which forms the transition from the throat of the last stage volute (this would be the only volute in a single- stage volute-type pump) to the pump’s outlet port. ‘+ Multi-vaned diffusers. In multistage pumps where pressure recovery must be accomplished in the limited space between adjacent stages, multi-vaned diffusers are often used. This type of a pressure-recovery device, which is illustrated in Fig. 6, is also used in some single-stage radial-flow pumps due to its typically high peak efficiency. A multi-vaned diffuser consists of a number of diverging vanes mounted in a ring that surrounds the periphery ofPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS. 487 2 o DRS UY £SPOUC y ite Sean cms ‘THRUST BEARING CINE. BEARTNCS. sine beim AND brs CONDENSATE. TRIECTION SHAFT SEALS a the impeller. In diffuser type multistage pumps, the flow channels from the discharge of one stage to the suction of the next are generally formed by a series of vanes located on the back side of each diffuser or included in the diaphragms, also referred to as stage pieces, that separate adjacent stages (see Fig. 7). With this configura- tion, the pump's rotor, together with its stationary dif fusers and stage pieces, can often be inserted into a radi- ally split easing as an assembled cartridge. Because of the casing’s cylindrical shape, these units are frequently referred to as “barrel” pumps. ‘Many axial-flow pumps are also fitted with a diffuser that is located downstream from the discharge of the propeller. The “axial diffuser” is used to not only convert the tangential velocity component of the absolute flow eaving the propeller into pressure head, but also to straighten this flow so that the pumped fluid is discharged from the casing in an axial direction, + Vaneless diffusers. When a wide range of operation is anticipated, a radial-flow centrifugal pump is sometimes fitted with a vaneless diffuser. The pressure recovery with this type of a casing occurs in an annular passage that surrounds the impeller. Neglecting friction, fluid passing through this channel, whieh can have a constant width o can flare outwards slightly, is assumed to follow free-vortex flow (i.e., Re, = constant). For a vaneless diffuser with parallel walls, the reduction in fluid velocity will, therefore, be proportional to the increase in the ra- dius of the diffuser’ flow channel. A volute-type collector is often attached to the outlet of a vaneless diffuser. ng Regardless of the configuration used, the casing is a pressure-containing boundary. Therefore, its thickness must be sufficient to withstand the pump's design pres- sure. In addition, structurally a pump’s casing must be suitable to withstand not only hydrostatic pressures but also the hydraulic forces in its waterways, stresses that. result from vessel motion, and nozzle loads imposed by the ship's piping. In some cases, external ribs may be added to the casing to increase its strength and rigidity. g. Impellers and wearing rings. The strength of the impeller’s vanes and shrouds must be sufficient to with- stand hydraulic forces, which \clude reaction forces on the vanes that are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the forees that are transmitted to the liquid being pumped, together with the centrifugal loads that result from the impeller’s rotation. To improve the pumps volumetric efficiency, when a closed-type single-suction impeller is used, leakage along the outside of the front shroud back to suetion is generally reduced by maintaining a close clearance between the impeller’s outer hub (the outer portion of the shroud adja- cent to the impeller’s eye) and the casing. With a double- suction closed impeller, a close clearance is maintained at both outer hubs. So that this clearance can be periodically renewed, adjacent casing surfaces are typically fitted with replaceable wearing rings. A stationary wearing ring can also be mounted behind the rear shroud of a single- suction impeller to reduce the hydraulie axial unbalance. In addition to the stationary rings, rotating wearing rings488 may be installed over the impeller’s outer hubs. The leak- age through the annulus formed between the casing wear- ing ring and the impeller’s outer hub or wearing ring is a function of the length of the overlap between these two surfaces, their configuration, the differential pressure across them, and the radial clearance between them. To reduce leakage, serrations or circular grooves are some- times added to the inside surface of the easing ring or the outside diameter of the mating impeller hub or ring. In addition, intermeshing labyrinth-type wearing rings may be used. Serrations and grooves can also reduce the poten tial for damage due to either an occasional, inadvertent rub oceurring during operation or the presence of foreign particles in the pumped liquid. When a centrifugal pump is fitted with an open or a semiopen single-suction impeller, wearing rings are not required on the suction side of the impeller. However, to reduce the leakage or slippage of liquid across the impeller’s vanes, a close axial clearance must be main- tained between the unshrouded edges of the impeller’s rotating vanes and the inner walls of the easing. So that this clearance can be periodically renewed, casings used with open impellers are often fitted with replaceable inter- nal wear plates. In multistage pumps a leakage path can exist between adjacent stages. To control interstage leakage, which re- duces the volumetrie efficiency, a close radial clearance is typically maintained between the shaft and areas of the casing, diffusers, or stage pieces that separate the pump’s stages. Replaceable stationary bushings are frequently used to enable the running clearances to be periodically renewed. h. Loads applied to a centrifugal pump’s rotating assembly. Radial reaction. The volute of a centrifugal pump is often designed so that the hydraulie pressure around the periphery of the impeller is nearly uniform at a flow rate close to the pump's best efficiency point. However, as the flow rate is reduced, the nonuniformity of the pressures and velocities within the volute results in a radial load on the impeller that rises to a maximum value at shutoff. ‘The radial load on the impeller also increases at eapacities exceeding the pump’s best efficiency flow rate. In addi- tion, the changes in the magnitude of this force with flow rate are accompanied by changes in the direction in which it is applied. This load, which is called “radial reaction,” results in inereased shaft deflections and bearing loads. ‘To reduce the radial reaction, double-volute casings are sometimes used. With a double-volute design, the easing has two volutes with cutwaters that are located approx mately 180 deg apart (see Fig. 8). The flow around the impeller is, therefore, divided, resulting in two radial forces that are very close in magnitude but opposite in rection. Consequently, the net radial reaction during operation off the best efficiency point is greatly reduced from the radial reaction in a single-volute pump. A similar effect is often obtained in multistage volute casings by arranging the angular orientation of adjacent stages 50 that the net radial load is minimized. The use of eoncentrie MARINE ENGINEERING Spuriten vane Fig. 8 Dovble-vel centifuga-pump casing Ny Fig. 9. Pressure distribution on © single-sucton impeller and modified concentric casings, and of multi-vaned fusers, has also been found to reduce radial reactions during off-design operation when compared to the loads measured with single-volute casings [8,9]. The radial reac- tion typieally increases with the diameter and width of the impeller, the total head developed, and the specifie gravity of the pumped fluid (8). Impeller hydraulic axial unbalance, When a centrifu- gal pump with a double-suction impeller is used, the hy- draulie axial load is theoretically zero. Although a net unbalance can exist due to differences in the flow to each side of the impeller, it is generally negligible. When a single-suction impeller is used, however, there can be a significant net axial thrust. For a closed radial-flow impel- ler, this thrust results from the difference in the pressure of the liquid acting on each side of the impeller’s back shroud adjacent to the inlet or eye (see Fig. 9). While the liquid acting on the inside of this section of the shroud is essentially at the suction pressure, the outside of the shroud is exposed to liquid that has already been dis- charged from the impeller. Due to the absence of a front shroud, the pressure applied to the outside of the entire rear shroud of a semiopen impeller is only partially bal- anced by the pressure inside the impeller. Consequently, the resulting hydraulic axial unbalance can be greater than with a closed impeller. ‘As shown in Fig. 9, the pressure acting on the outside of a rotating impeller’s shroud is not constant, but actuallyPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS, pene Fg, 10. Impeller with balancing holes and a back wearing ving decreases at smaller radii, This reduction in pressure is due to the rotation of the liquid located between the shroud and the casing’s side wall, and the resulting con- version of a portion of the liquid’s pressure head to veloc- ity head. In some pumps, external vanes or ribs are added to the impeller’s back shroud to increase the velocity at which the liquid behind the shroud rotates, which reduces the liquid’s pressure and the axial thrust acting towards the suction. Conversely, stationary radial vanes are some- times added to the easing adjacent to the impeller’s back shroud to reduce the velocity of the fluid behind the impel- ler and to increase the thrust towards the suction. An additional method used to reduce hydraulic axial thrust is, to drill multiple axial “balancing holes” in the impeller’s back shroud and to install a back wearing ring (see Fig. 10). This arrangement results in a reduced outer pressure in the center portion of the back shroud and, therefore, in a lower differential pressure over the unbalanced area Bh. To reduce the hydraulic axial thrust in a multistage pump, single-suction impellers are sometimes mounted on the shaft so that approximately one half of the impellers face in opposite directions (see Fig. 11), In lieu of an oppos- ed-impeller arrangement, the impellers in a multistage pump an be mounted with their inlets facing in the same direction, and the axial thrust ean be reduced in each stage individually with back wearing rings and axial balancing holes. Alternatively, the hydraulic axial thrust acting on the entire rotating assembly can be reduced with a balanc- ing drum, a balancing disk, or a combination of these two devices. A balancing drum is composed of a drum that rotates within a close-clearance stationary sleeve [see Fig. 12(a)]. By locating the drum behind the laststage impeller, its inner face is subjected to full discharge pressure less the pressure recovery in the last stage. The pressure of the liquid acting on the opposite face of the drum is reduced by the breakdown that occurs when this liquid passes through the close-clearance annulus formed by the drum and its sleeve; therefore, the net axial thrust acting on the drum will be opposite in direction to the thrust acting ‘on the impellers, Because the axial forces cannot be fully 489 balanced at all capacities, in practice balancing drums are generally sized to give only 90% to 95% axial balance. This helps insure that the residual axial thrust always aets in the same direction, which prevents thrust reversals. ‘A balancing disk is similar to a balancing drum, except that in lieu of containing a close-clearance annulus, the pressure breakdown across this device is accomplished through a small axial gap maintained between the rotat- ing disk and the stationary disk head [see Fig. 12(6)]. An advantage of the balancing disk is its ability to be self- adjusting to compensate for wear in the mating surfaces of the disk or the head and in response to changes in the pumps axial thrust. The net thrust applied to the disk results from the difference between the liquid pressure acting on its front face and the pressure in the balancing chamber. The pressure acting on the inner portion of the balancing disk’s front face is essentially equal to the pump's discharge pressure less the laststage recovery, while the pressure acting on the portion of this face that is adjacent to the stationary balancing head varies from the discharge pressure at the head’s inside diameter to the balancing chamber pressure at the disk’s periphery. ‘The balancing disk’s various diameters are sized so that the axial thrust applied to it during normal operation will be equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the axial thrust acting on the impellers. If the axial thrust on the impellers exceeds the opposing thrust, the axial gap between the balancing disk and the stationary head will be reduced, inereasing the pressure breakdown across the device. This results in a reduced liquid pressure in the balaneing chamber, which increases the opposing axial thrust on the disk and restores the rotor’s axial balance. A reduction in impeller thrust or an increase in the balancing disk’s axial gap due to wear will have the opposite effect. An orifice is generally installed in the recirculation port that connects the balancing chamber to the pump’s sue- tion so that the balancing chamber pressure will exceed the pump’s suction pressure when the axial gap between the disk and the head is at its maximum value, which is necessary for the proper operation of the balaneing disk. The axial thrust applied to an axial-flow propeller, which has no shrouds, results from the differences in the pressure of the fluid acting on the front and back faces of its vanes, together with the differential pressure across the opposite ends of its inner hub. Shaft axial unbalance. In pamps with an overhung impeller, liquid entering the impeller acts against the sub- merged end of the shaft. When this liquid is not at atmo- spheric pressure, a piston effect is created that imposes an axial load on the pump’s rotor. This load is equal to the gage pressure of the liquid aeting against the submerged end of the shaft multiplied by the shaft’s cross-sectional area. Change in momentum. As liquid is pumped through a radiai-flow impeller, its travel path is redirected from an axial to a radial direction. When a single-suetion impeller is used, the change in the momentum of the liquid due to the reduction in the axial component of the liquid’s veloc- ity results in the generation of an axial thrust away from the suetion. This axial thrust will also be generated, to a490 MARINE ENGINEERING. Lecend casinc Ipeuuer STAGERIECE CASING WEARING RING sear suetves THRUST BEARING UNE BEARING Fig. 11 Multistage centifugol boiler feed pump with on oxilly split casing GR Lee SLLLLL. \ Ser . A oa =r (by Bolancing disk Fig. 12. Bolancing devices lesser extent, in a mixed-flow pump depending on the amount of radial flow in the liquid being discharged from the impeller. The axial thrust due to this change in the liquid’s direction of travel in radial- and mixed-flow impel- lers can be calculated as follows: ae ~ Cas) Fue (28) axial thrust due to change in momentum, Ibf axial component of absolute velocity in impel- ler’s eye, fps xxial component of absolute velocity at impel ler's discharge, fps i, Bearings. The net axial and radial loads applied to the pump’s rotating assembly are transmitted to the bearings that support its shaft. The pump's “thrust bear- ing” absorbs loads that are applied in the axial direction. So that the pump's shaft is free to expand and contract in response to changes in axial load or temperature, it should be constrained axially at only one location. A pump shaft that is rigidly coupled to the shaft of its driver, therefore, is generally not fitted with a separate thrust bearing but is, instead, supported axially by the thrust bearing in the driver. The remaining pump bearings, which are typically configured so that they absorb only radial loads, are fre- quently referred to as “line bearings.” Ina single-stage pump with an impeller centered on the rotor, a bearing is typically installed at each end of thePUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS ep ep oo LEGEND 1 casing 2 IMPELLER 3 CASING WEARING RINGS 3 SHAFT S SuAFTsucevE 7 STUFFING BOx PACKING 8 GtaNos. {THRUST BEARING 10 LINE BEARING 31 BEARING HOUSINGS. 12 PUMP ease 12 MOTOR ORACKET 4 COUPLING. Fig. 19. Vertical, single-stage, double-rction centrifugal pump with an oxi ‘aly split casing shaft. This configuration, which is shown in Fig. 13, is sometimes referred to as a “between bearings” design. When an overhung impeller arrangement is used, the shaft is supported by bearings that are located behind the impeller, As shown in Fig. 14, in some of these units the pump’s rotating parts are mounted directly onto an extension of the driver’s shaft, which is referred to as a “close-coupled” design. With a close-coupled configura- tion, radial and axial loads developed within the pump are frequently absorbed by the bearings installed in the 491 ‘CASING AND SUCTION HEAD Gab Weanaws nae SHAFT Steve SO ee Sulncer Fig, 14 Horizontal, close-coupled centrifugal pomp driver; however, if radial loads are high or the shaft exten- sion is long, the pump may be fitted with additional inter- nal radial bearings to reduce shaft deflection. Internal radial bearings are also frequently installed in multistage pumps. ‘The type of bearing used in any specific application Gepends on the magnitude and orientation of applied loads, the operating environment, the range of operating temperatures and speeds, and the method of lubrication. Single-row deep-groove ball bearings are installed in ‘many centrifugal pumps. Because this type of an antifrie- tion bearing is able to absorb radial loads combined with moderate axial thrust, it ean often be used as either a line bearing or a combined line and thrust bearing. When an increased load-carrying capability is needed, it is some- times necessary to use a double-row deep-groove ball bearing. In addition, double-row self-aligning ball bear- ings, multiple-row angular-contact ball bearings, and vari- ‘ings are frequently lubricated with grease. This is generally satisfactory, provided that the grease is of the proper type and has the proper tempera- ‘ture rating, and that the dn value [bearing bore (mr) ‘speed (rpm)] does not exceed 200,000 (10). In addition, this type of lubrication is often preferred because grease is not affected by vessel motion, is generally easier to con- tain than oil, and is superior to oil at keeping contaminants away from the bearing. The bearing housing is typically fitted with inlet and outlet ports that are used for the addition and the removal of grease during relubrication, So that grease will be retained in the housing and to protect the bearing from contaminants, stationary seals are generally installed at openings provided for the492 pump's shaft. In addition, one or both ends of a ball bear- jing can be fitted with shields, which help keep grease in the bearing and contaminants out. To provide additional protection for the bearing, a slinger or flinger is fre- quently mounted on the pump’s shaft external to the hous- ing. This rotating part acts to prevent dirt and moisture that may be traveling along the shaft from reaching the bearing housing. When high-temperature liquids are to be pumped, the use of special bearings with increased running clearances or jacketed liquid-cooled bearing hous- ings is sometimes required. In some cases, the use of fluid-film bearings, which inelude tilting-pad or pivoting-shoe thrust bearings and cylindrical journal or sleeve-type line bearings, is neces- sary due to operating conditions, such as high speeds, temperatures, or loads for which antifriction bearings are not suitable. Tilting-pad bearings and sleeve bearings that are external to the casing are frequently lubricated with oil. Sleeve bearings installed inside the easing, however, are generally submerged in and lubricated by the pumped liquid. J. Shaft design. In addition to being sufficiently strong to withstand applied forces and moments, a pump shaft must be stiff enough to prevent its axial and radial deflections during operation from resulting in contact be- tween the pump’s rotating and stationary components. The shaft should also be designed so that natural frequen- cies of the pump's rotating assembly are a sufficient dis- tance away from foreing frequencies, such as the op- erating speed. In general, the lowest frequency of interest is the rotor’s first bending natural frequeney, which is also often referred to as the pump's first eritical speed. A pump that operates below its first critical speed is fre- quently classified as a “stiff-shaft” unit, while a pump that operates above the first eritical speed is sometimes called a “flexible-shaft” unit. ‘A pump’s critical speed can typically be inereased and the radial deflection of the pump’s shaft can be reduced by reducing the shafts bearing span, or its unsupported length if an overhung design is used, by increasing the shaft’s diameter, by reducing the weight of the rotating assembly, or by using a shaft material with a higher mod- ulus of elasticity. The critical speed can also be affected by the “Lomakin effect.” This refers to the stiffness and damping generated in ciose-clearance annular seals, such as wearing rings, bushings, and internal balancing drums, resulting from a hydrodynamic fluid film effect similar to that produced in journal bearings and a hydrostatic effect due to variations in the rate of fluid leakage around the circumference of the annulus when the rotor moves off center [11]. However, the increase in a pump’s critical speed due to the Lomakin effect will be reduced as the clearances in annular seals increase with time due to wear; therefore, relying on this effect to prevent potential vibra- tion problems should be done with caution. k. Packing and mechanical seals. ‘The openings provided to enable the shaft to pass through the casing must be sealed to reduce or, in some cases, prevent the leakage of the liquid being’ pumped. The shaft seal is sometimes formed by multiple rings of packing that are ‘MARINE ENGINEERING: inserted into a stuffing box. The mating portion of the shaft that passes through the stuffing box is usually pro- tected against wear by a sleeve that is either hardened or faced with a wear-resistant coating. To limit the tempera- ture increase from frietion between the rotating sleeve and the stationary packing, a certain amount of leakage must typically be maintained through the stuffing box to cool and lubricate the packing. ‘The leakage rate is controlled by adjusting the axial position of the gland that holds the packing in place. If the pressure of the liquid at the base of the stuffing box is below atmospherie pressure, air can be drawn into the pump. In addition to resulting in a loss of lubrication to the packing, air entering the casing through the stuff ing box can have a detrimental effect on pump perform- ance. Whenever it is possible for the base of the stuffing box to be under a vacuum, high-pressure liquid is often injected into the stuffing box through a lantern ring or seal cage that is sandwiched between two of the interme- diate rings of packing. Pumps furnished for applications involving contaminated fluids may also be fitted with a lantern ring so that clean liquid ean be injected into the stuffing box to flush contaminants away from the pack- ing. When it is impractical to provide clean high-pressure liquid to the stuffing box, grease is sometimes injected through the lantern-ring connection, ‘To reduce shaft sleeve wear and the continuous leakage that must be tolerated with packing, many pumps are fitted with mechanical end-face seals in lieu of packed stuffing boxes (see Fig. 15). The primary sealing surfaces in a mechanical seal are the polished faces of one station- ary ring and one rotating ring that are separated by a thin film of fluid. One of these mating faces is frequently a hard material, such as aluminum oxide or tungsten car- bide, while the second is a softer material with some inher- ent selflubrieity, such as carbon, Two secondary seals prevent leakage from occurring between the rotating ring and the shaft, and between the stationary ring and the gland. In many seals, the rotating ring is flexibly mounted on the pump’s shaft with springs or with either a metallic or an elastomeric bellows. This arrangement enables the face of the rotating seal ring to remain parallel to that of the stationary mating ring with limited radial or axial shaft movement, and permits the axial position of the rotating ring to be self-adjusting to account for minor wear of the two mating surfaces. Although it is not as, ‘common, in some mechanical seals itis the stationary ring that is flexibly mounted. Mechanical seals are frequently cooled and lubricated by a portion of the pumped liquid that is recirculated through either an internal port or an external line connect- ing the discharge side of the casing to the seal area, Pumped liquid that contains a limited amount of abrasive particles often passes through a cyclone-type abrasive separator prior to being injected into the seal area. When the pumped liquid cannot be adequately cleaned, the me- chanical seal may be flushed with high-pressure liquid supplied from an independent source or, in some cases, a double hard-face mechanical seal may be used. In thisPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS, 2° BRDUGY cRorarmnc) SEAL mane 3 marine (Sarton) SEAL Rane A Rtennergkr seat cian (eon sort IN ADUILIARY STUFFING 8H) > NUXILTARY packiNG (WO BE Tweets SRG EN Tue Ever OF a nach 5 AURILIAAY PAZnING ctaNo 5 Pome tines 4 FuUsuine convecrrow 3 Prwnnt a6 Soooan seat, co-mtna) Ti MAtinG RING sxconARY SEAL (0-RENO) Fig. 15. Mechanica! shoft seo! (with auxiony stuffing box) type of a mechanical seal, both the rotating and the sta- tionary seal faces are made from an abrasion-resistant ‘material, such as tungsten of silicon carbide. ‘The mechanical seals used in many critical applications are furnished with a gland that has a builtin auxiliary stuffing box (see Fig. 15). In the event of a mechanical seal failure, two or more rings of packing can be installed in this stuffing box to enable pump operation to continue until the mechanical seal can be replaced. However, be- cause the auxiliary packing would receive no lubrication when the mechanical seal is functioning properly, it is important that this packing be installed only after a me- chanical seal failure has occurred, ‘The actual replacement of a leaking mechanical seal can be time consuming if a partial disassembly of the pump is required to permit both the seal being replaced and the new seal to pass over the end of the shaft. One way to eliminate the need for this is to use a split mechanical seal. By splitting the mechanical seal’s sealing elements into halves, they can be replaced without removing other parts of the pump. When high-temperature fluids are pumped, packing and mechanical seals are often cooled by circulating liquid through a jacket that surrounds the pump’s sealing area. When zero leakage must be achieved, the use of a seal- less pump is often required. In a canned motor pump, an end-suetion impeller is mounted directly on the shaft of 493, the driving motor. However, unlike a conventional close- coupled pump, the pump and motor in this sealless unit form a single hermetically sealed assembly. A portion of the liquid being discharged from the impeller is circulated through the motor for cooling and to provide lubrication for the unit's bearings. In a magnetically coupled pump, torque is transmitted from the driver to the pumps shaft through a magnetic coupling. Because the two halves of the coupling are not in physical contact, the need to pro- vide an opening for the shaft in the pump’s casing, to- gether with the need for a shaft seal, is eliminated. 1. Couplings. In ail but close-coupled pumps, the torque developed by the driver is transmitted to the pump’s shaft through a coupling. Flexible couplings per- mit some relative movement between the driven and the driving shafts. Included among the various types of flexi- ble couplings used are the following: + Gear couplings, which have hubs with external gear teeth that mesh with a sleeve containing a mating set of internal gear teeth. (A gear coupling with teeth on both hubs is a flex-flex type. If gear teeth are on only one hub and the opposite hub is flanged, the coupling is a flex- rigid type.) + Shidertype couplings, which have two metal hubs with jaw-like flanges that are connected with a floating center member, referred to as the spider. The spider is often made from an elastomer. Disk couplings, which have several thin metallic ‘ings that are alternately bolted near their outer diameter to the driven and the driving hubs. + Diaphragm couplings, which have one or more me- tallic membranes that are typically bolted near their outer diameter to the driving hub and near their inner diameter to the driven hub. + Elastomer-type couplings, which have two metal hubs that are joined by an elastomeric material located between them. + Spring-grid couplings, which have two metal hubs that are joined by a flexible steel grid. ‘The grid fits into slots that are located around the periphery of each hub. + Pin-and-bushing couplings, which have one flanged hub with axial pins and a second with a mating set of holes that are fitted with bushings. The two hubs are joined by inserting the pins into the bushings, If the thrust bearing in the driver is used to support the pump’s shaft axially, a rigid type of coupling should be used. For the pump’s rotating assembly to be properly centered within its casing, precision alignment between the two halves of a rigid coupling is critical. Although flexible couplings ean often compensate for slight changes in the pump-to-driver alignment that occur during normal operation, they are not intended to correct for excessive amounts of continuous misalignment. In ad- dition to the detrimental effects that misalignment can have on the coupling, it can also result in the transmission of axial loads and bending moments to the pump’s shaft- ing and bearings, and can increase vibration. Therefore, even when a flexible coupling is used, the pump and driver should be accurately aligned prior to the initial startup, and this alignment should be maintained.494 Leceno ‘009 3000 000 000 9000 HEAD/ HEADgep EFFICENCY/ EFFICENCY agp BHP? BHP pee CAPACITY CAPACITY pep Fig. 16 Typicol effect of specific peed on centifugal pump performance: ‘The gap between the ends of the pump and driver shafts is sometimes increased to permit a spacer to be installed between the driving and the driven halves of the coupling. The use of a “spacer-coupling” can often eliminate the need to open the pump's casing or disturb the driver when maintenance is performed on the inboard bearing or seal. m. Centrifugal pump performance characteristics, Representative performance curves showing normalized values of total head, pump efficiency, and brake horse- power plotted versus capacity for pumps with various values of specific speed are shown in Fig. 16. In general, the head-capacity curve becomes steeper as the specific speed increases. In addition, although the brake horse- power required to drive low specific speed pumps typically inereases with capacity, for high specific speed units the reverse is usually true. ‘The operating point for a centrifugal pump is deter- mined by the intersection of its head-capacity eurve with the curve of total head versus capacity for the system in MARINE ENGINEERING * FROTCET llscuance "THROTTLING EAD RATIO =HEAD/HEAD AT RATED CAPACITY ! \T pew NX {ose A Serer ce area 1s bw natig's row matte Pow Fig. 17 Copacity-head and efficiency chorectristcs of © centrifugal pump {ot various speeds which it operates. A system head curve, which is illus- trated in Fig. 17, includes a statie component and a dy- namic component. The static component results from the differences between both the liquid’s pressure and its elevation at the beginning and at the end of the system, and is constant with capacity. The dynamic component, which includes losses due to friction and turbulence in the system’s piping, valves, and fittings, as well as entrance and exit losses in the system, varies approximately with the capacity squared. The point of intersection between the pump's head-ca- pacity curve and the system head curve in Fig. 17 ean be thought of as the point of equilibrium. If the pump at- tempts to force liquid through the system at a higher capacity, the total head developed by the pump will no longer be sufficient to overcome the system resistance, and operation will return to the equilibrium point. Con- versely, if the capacity being pumped drops, the system head requirement will be less than the head developed by the pump, and more liquid will be forced through the system until operation returns to the equilibrium point. As shown in Fig. 17, the point of intersection between the pump and system curves ean be changed by varying ‘the pump's operating speed, N, or by throttling the system discharge valve, The performance of an existing radial- ‘or mixed-flow pump ean also be altered by changing the impeller’s average outside diameter, d. The effects that changes in N and d have on the capacity delivered, Q, the total head developed, H, and the brake horsepower required, P,, can be estimated as follows: 29) (80)PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS [Nz d]° Pn = Pn [ES] where subseripts 1 and 2 refer to equivalent operating conditions with the original outside diameter and speed, and with the new diameter and speed, respectively. The above equations do not include effects that changes in speed or impeller diameter have on pump efficiency. In addition, because effects due to changes that oceur in vane angles, waterway lengths, and channel areas when an impeller’s outside diameter is changed are not reflected in the above equations, they cannot be relied on to accu- rately predict performance variations resulting from large changes in impeller diameter. Furthermore, pre tions calculated with these equations generally underes mate actual performance variations resulting from impel- ler diameter changes in mixed-flow pumps [2, Net positive suction head. The suction condition for a centrifugal pump is often expressed in terms of net posi- tive suction head (NPSH). NPSH is the amount by which the total suction pressure of the pumped liquid exceeds its true vapor pressure at the pumping temperature. When referring to NPSH, it is necessary to differentiate be- tween the amount available to the pump, and the amount required by the pump. ‘The NPSH available, which is a function of the system design on the suction side of the pump and the liquid being pumped, can be calculated using the following Pat Pea Pe VE (31) NPSHA = ++ Z,—H, 82 A ABs (sg) 2 2 Hy (82) where NPSHA = net positive suction head available, ft atmospheric pressure (at suetion pressure gage), psia p, = true vapor pressure of liquid entering pump, psia Po Vor Hy» 89, and Z, are as defined for equations (1) and 2. Pa Although the NPSH required can be affected by the characteristies of the liquid being pumped, it is primarily a function of the pump design and ean be thought of as a measure of the loss in the liquid’s head as it travels from the pump-suetion flange to the inlet of the first-stage impeller. Unlike NPSHA, which is calculated, values of required NPSH are determined by test. A method com- monly used to perform this type of a test is to gradually reduce the NPSH available to the pump during operation ata constant capacity until a specified reduction, usually 8%, is measured in total head. The NPSH available at this, point is considered the minimum NPSH required by the pump at the test capacity. This test is repeated at various capacities. The reduction in total head that is measured is, caused by the gasification of the liquid being pumped, which occurs when the local pressure drops below the liquid’s true vapor pressure. The vapor bubbles formed interfere with the normal flow of liquid through the pump. In addition, as these bubbles travel into higher-pressure regions of the impeller, they collapse and release their 495 energy of vaporization. This collapse is often violent and can generate very high local pressures. If the reduction in NPSH available continues, the vapor bubbles will even- tually fill the eye of the impeller and the total head devel- oped by the pump will drop sharply. The formation to- gether with the subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles, which is referred to as cavitation, has a detrimental effect ‘on not only the total head developed by the pump but also on its efficiency. The resulting uneven flow through the impeller, combined with the impingement against the im- peller’s waterway boundaries of the liquid that rushes in to fill the voids created by the collapsing vapor bubbles, can increase noise and vibration and can cause severe pitting of the impeller. ‘The NPSH required by any specific pump is affected by many factors, but its value can sometimes be predicted using the following simplified relationship, which is based on the absolute and relative velocities of the liquid enter- ing the impeller, o, and 1,, respectively Kiet | Kew? 2g NPSHR = (33) where NPSHR = net positive suction head required, ft Ky = shroud coefficient K, K, and Kz, which are derived empirically, vary with both capacity and operating speed. Based on testing performed with centrifugal pumps fitted with Francis-type impellers, some typical values found for coefficients K, and K, when operating at the shockless capacity, or the capacity at which incidence (the difference between the vane angle and the relative flow angle) at the inlet to the impeller is equal to zero, were K, = 1.40 and K, = 0.085 for a com- plete breakdown in the total head developed, and K, 1.97 and K, — 0.23 for a reduction in total head of 0.5% 13). ‘As shown in Fig. 18, a centrifugal pump’s NPSH re- quirement based on a 3% reduction in total head, NPSHR,,, generally increases as the capacity being deliv- ered inereases. Within the operating range from 100 to 150% of the best efficiency point, the effect that an in- crease in capacity will have on NPSHRyx can sometimes be estimated by using the approximation that NPSHR,. in this performance region varies in proportion to the ratio of the capacity increase squared [14]. Although a 3% drop in total head is generally used as the criterion to establish minimum NPSH requirements, in critical applications re- ductions in total head of as little as 1% are sometimes used to establish values of NPSHR. In addition, the NPSH required to prevent ineipient cavitation, NPSH,, which is the point at which the first cavitation bubble initially be- gins to form, can be many times greater than the corre- sponding value of NPSHRg. A typical curve of NPSH,, which is shown in Fig. 18, reaches a minimum value at the shockless capacity and peaks at the capacity at which suetion recirculation begins (15). ‘The suction capability of a centrifugal pump is often classified by the suction specific speed, S, as follows: vane coefficient496 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD REQUIRED CAPACITY/ CAPACITY sHocKL ess Fig. 18 Net positive suction head versus copacty fr a centrifugal pump NQY (NPSHR,,* As with the calculation of N [see equation (3)}, Vis speed in rpm and Q is capacity in gpm. In addition, NPSHR,, is in feet of liquid. When S is used to classify the suction capability of a specific design, it is generally based on the capacity delivered and the NPSH required with a full- diameter impeller operating at the best efficiency point [14]. In addition, beeause S$ is an index of the impeller’s suction performance, for double-suction impellers the value of Q used in equation (34) should be only one half of the pump’s actual capacity. To reduce the potential for problems eaused by cavitation or suction recirculation, it is sometimes recommended that the maximum operating speed for standard pump designs be based on limiting to 8500 [1]. However, in some applications for which standard impeller designs are not suitable, special low- NPSHR first-stage impellers with S values exceeding 8500 are used. The eapacity range of these high suction specific speed impellers is often reduced due to suction recirculation. ‘Reductions in the pump’s NPSH requirements may be achieved by installing an inducer in the inlet of the first- stage impeller. As shown in Fig. 19, an inducer is essen- tially an axial-flow impeller fitted with helically shaped vanes that are swept back from the hub to their outer periphery. Because the diameter of these vanes inereases as the axial distance to the impeller's eye is reduced, hy- draulic shock and entrance losses are distributed over a much broader area than in a conventional impeller. As a result of this larger area and due to the low number of vanes, blockage from cavitation that may oecur within the inducer is reduced [16]. The inducer also acts as a booster stage and raises the pressure of the liquid being pumped, which lessens the potential for cavitation in the main im- peller. During operation at the best efficiency point, the s (4) MARINE ENGINEERING (2) Suction reireuotion Fig. 20 Internal flow recirculation (6) Discharge reccuation use of an inducer can sometimes reduce values of NPSHR,, by up to 50%; however, inducers can also result in an increase in NPSHRj., at capacities outside the region of improvement. ‘An additional factor affecting suction performance is that centrifugal pumps handling hot water or certain hy- drocarbon liquids will often operate satisfactorily with less NPSH than the amount found to be required during testing with cold water [17]. A chart for estimating the reduction in NPSHR,, that can be tolerated when pump- ing some specific hydrocarbon liquids and high-tempera- ture water is included in reference 1. However, this infor- mation is based on test data from pumps handling pure liquids; therefore, it is not recommended for use with pumps that will handle liquids containing entrained or dissolved noncondensable gases, Suction and discharge recirculation. Suction recireu- lation, which is illustrated in Fig. 20(a), refers to the flow reversals that occur at low capacities within the eye of a centrifugal pump impeller. The interaction of the rotating annulus of liquid being recirculated out of the impeller’s,PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS, eye with the liquid entering the impeller through the cen- ter of the annulus results in the formation of high-velocity vortices. Although suetion recirculation oceurs in all cen- ‘rifugal pumps, the capacity at which it begins generally gets closer to the best efficieney point with increasing values of suction specific speed and larger impeller-eye diameters. Suction recirculation can eause erosion of the vanes near the inlet to the impeller and of the easing’s suction area due to cavitation in the low-pressure cores of the recireulation vortices; it can also cause increased noise and vibration, and flow surges in the suction of the pump 118}, In addition to suction recireulation, at low capacities discharge recirculation, shown in Fig. 20(b), occurs at the discharge tips of the impeller’s vanes. The capacity at which this form of recirculation begins usuaily gets closer to the best efficiency point as the peak hydraulic effi- cieney and the ratio of the head developed divided by the peripheral speed at the discharge of the impeller increase [19] Discharge recirculation results in the formation of high velocity-vortices due to the interaction of the liquid being discharged from the impeller with the liquid being returned to it. Detrimental effects from discharge recireu- lation can include erosion of the vanes and shrouds near the discharge of the impeller and of the easing’s volute ‘tongue or diffuser vanes tips due to cavitation, and in- creased vibration due to axial unbalance. The effects of internal flow recirculation are generally more severe in high-energy applications and should be considered when the minimum recommended capacity for a centrifugal pump is established. Equations that can be used to estimate the capacities at which suction and dis- charge reeireulation will begin are included in reference 18, In addition, empirically derived criteria for predicting the severity of the effects of recirculation in speeifie de- signs are presented in reference 20. Priming and gas entrainment. A centrifugal pump cannot pump a gas; therefore, the differential pressure necessary for flow will not be created if the impeller is full of air or vapor. Consequently, prior to start-up, a pump's casing should be filled with liquid and vented of all gases. In applications where the pump must operate with a suction lift, a vacuum must initially be ereated to draw the liquid from its source into the eye of the impeller. Methods used for priming a centrifugal pump include the following: + The pump can be connected through vents to a cen- tral priming system. This type of a system is fitted with either vacuum pumps or air ejectors, and is generally used to prime multiple pumps on the vessel. + The pump can be fitted with an integral or indepen- dent vaeuum pump. + A special centrifugal pump that is designed to be self-priming, such as the one shown in Fig. 21, ean be used. This type of a pump is typically fitted with a suction chamber that retains liquid when the unit is not operating. Once started, this liquid, together with any air that may be mixed with it, is pumped through the impeller, and enters a second chamber installed at the pump’s dis- charge. While the air contained in the fluid is vented 497 Fig. 21. Seltpriming centrifugal pump through the top of the discharge chamber, the liquid is returned to the casing through either an internal or an external port. As this liquid reenters the impeller, it mixes with a portion of the air that has been drawn into the evacuated suction chamber, and the priming cycle is re- peated. Each time the stored liquid is recirculated through the pump, an additional amount of air is removed from the suction line. Because of the limited air-handling capa- bility of many self-priming centrifugal pumps, their use is generally not recommended when large volumes of air or other gases must be removed from the suction piping. + A foot or check valve may be used to retain liquid within the suetion line when the pump is shut down. How ever, liquid can leak past the valve while the pump is not operating. In addition, the valve inereases the suetion line's friction losses and reduces the NPSHA. In addition to priming considerations, if air or other noncondensable gases are entrained in the liquid being pumped, there will be a reduetion in the pressure devel- oped by the pump that exceeds the reduction attributable ‘to the decrease in the average density of the fluid due to the presence of a gas (21]. With high flow rates and low gas volumes, some of the bubbles entering the pump are carried through the impeller by the liquid flowing past them. However, as either the capacity is reduced or the ‘gas volume is inereased, a point will be reached where the liquid entering the pump can no longer clear the impeller498 TT iE veagvs.caPaciry| alg 2 2/= ate aR r— p65 MEAD 28 sean | | | io Bie oe ak i200 sau” Ko eos’sst waren [°° 3 ae v2 jas & Sle '* Jerriciencrvs Flow waren SB os t Ze [pees Ios * 2000 s8u Zo ! = °o 02 04 a6 08 10 ua 14 actual Flow ration ©" aveD FLOW Fig. 22. Effect of viscosity an centitugal pump performance eye of bubbles, and the flow through the pump will stop. Standard centrifugal pumps usually become “gas-bound” when handling fluids with a gas content of 5 to 8% by volume. The effect that gas has on pump performance becomes more detrimental at capacities above and below the best efficiency point. Fluid viscosity. The viscosity or resistance to flow of the liquid being pumped has a significant effeet on the performance of any centrifugal pump. As shown in 22, an increase in viscosity above that of water causes the total head developed, capacity delivered, and pump efficiency to be reduced. In addition, because the deterio- ration in efficiency is greater than the reductions in head and capacity, there is an increase in the power required to drive the pump. For pump performance with a viscous liquid to be evaluated, the liquid’s viscosity at the pumping temperature and the effect that shear rate has on this viscosity must be known. Reductions in capacity, total head, and efficiency can be estimated for radial-flow pumps that deliver viscous Newtonian liquids at capacities, up to 10,000 gpm using correction charts included in refer- ence 1. In addition, an extended chart that permits viscos- ity performance corrections to be made for pumps deliv- ‘ering capacities up to 100,000 gpm is included in reference 22. Overheating. At low capacities the majority of the power required to drive a centrifugal pump is no longer converted into useful work, which is evidenced by the corresponding reduction in pump efficiency. The excess energy results in an increase in the temperature of the pump and the fluid passing through it. At shutoff no useful work is done and all of the energy added by the driver is available to heat the fluid trapped within the pump casing. The effects that an increase in temperature can have on the pump include a reduction of internal running clear- ances, overheating, possible failure of the bearings and seals, and, in extreme cases, the eventual seizure of the MARINE ENGINEERING rotor. An increase in temperature ean also lead to a haz- ardous situation when liquids with low flash and fire points are being pumped. Equations that can be used to calculate the temperature rise of liquid passing through a centrifugal pump and the minimum flow rate required to limit the increase in the temperature of the liquid to a specified value are given in reference 14. Pump operation in series. A single pump is not always capable of developing the total head required during all of the system's modes of operation. In addition, the speed required to prevent cavitation is sometimes too low for ‘one pump to develop sufficient head to overcome the sys- tem baek pressure. In these situations, two or more pumps are often operated in series. With this arrangement the first pump ean be run at a lower speed than the other units and used as a booster or inducer pump. Its discharge is then directed into the suetion of the second pump, which due to the increased NPSHA can operate ata higher speed and develop a much greater total head than the first unit. If necessary, the discharge from the second unit can be directed to additional pumps. The total performance of two or more pumps operating in series can be determined by adding the total head developed by each unit at values of equal capacity. Pump operation in parallel. In some applications, the capacity that must be delivered can, at times, exceed the capability of a single pump. When this is the case, two or more pumps in the system may be operated in parallel. ‘The combined performance of pumps that operate in par. allel in a common system ean be found by adding the capacity delivered by each unit individually at values of equal total head. If pumps operating in parallel have simi- lar performance characteristies, are running at the same speed, and have approximately the same suction pressure, they will each deliver approximately the same capacity. However, if one pump develops a higher head at a given capacity than the other units, it ean force the lower dis- charge head pumps to deliver lower eapacities. In addition, if the system curve intersects the combined pump per- formance curve at a point where the system head exceeds the maximum head developed by any of the pumps, the affected units will be forced to operate at shutoff. To prevent this, if the pumps used or their suction conditions are not similar, their relative speeds should be adjusted so that an adequate flow will be delivered by each unit. 1.3 Regenerative Turbine Pumps. Regenerative tur bine pumps are used in some marine applieations that require a high total head to be developed at a relatively low capacity. This type of a pump, which is illustrated in Fig. 23, is fitted with a solid disk-shaped impeller con- taining multiple radial vanes around its periphery that rotates within a close-clearance casing. Liquid entering the pump’s casing is divided evenly and admitted to each side of the impeller. As this liquid enters the rotating impeller’s vanes it is thrown outward radially, which in- creases its velocity head. After leaving the impeller the liquid’s velocity is gradually reduced in the easing, re- sulting in an increase in its pressure, Due to the annular shape of the casing’s passage, the liquid is then redirected back into the rotating impeller and the eyele is repeated,PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS LEGEND + uners 2 mpecven 2 CASING A covER © oRINGseaLs 5 WELLER BUSHING 6 reccen NUT 3 IELCER NUT WASHER eB saaer 9 PACKING SLEEVE ra PackinG cLAND 11 Seat cace Fig. 23. Regenerative turbine pump The recirculation into and out of the impeller continues until the liquid has traveled around the circumference of the circular casing, at which point it is discharged from the pump. These multiple recirculation cycles enable re- generative turbine pumps to develop their characteristi- cally high heads. The total head developed and the power required by a regenerative turbine pump typically reach their peak values at shutoff, and are both reduced as the capacity delivered increases. A close radial clearance stripper in the casing reduces the amount of liquid that can be recirculated from the discharge back to the suction and, therefore, improves the regenerative turbine pump’s volumetric efficiency. Due to the stripper, a regenerative turbine pump is considered to be self-priming and can typieally operate with relatively large amounts of entrained air or vapor, provided that the casing is initially filled with liquid at start-up. However, because of their small flow passages and close operating clearances, regenerative turbine pumps are not recom- mended for applications involving viseous liquids, or liq- uids that contain abrasives or other solids. A regenerative turbine pump's impeller is hydraulically balanced axially, and ean either be centered on a shaft that is mounted between bearings, or overhung on the 499 Space coping A ones coun ae scp (sin CT Fig. 24 Vertical turbine pump end of a cantilevered shaft that is supported by bearings located behind the impeller. Although the pump shaft is generally flexibly coupled to that of the driver, when fit- ted with an overhung impeller, these pumps can be fur- nished in a close-coupled configuration. Sealing of the casing in the area of shaft penetrations is aceomplished with either packing or mechanical seals. So that internal running clearances can be renewed, the casing’s sidewalls are often fitted with replaceable plates that surround the impeller. 1.4. Vortical Turbine Pumps. A vertical turbine pump (VTP), which is shown in Fig. 24, is a centrifugal pump with impellers that are submerged within the liquid being pumped. The bow! assembly is located at the lower end of500 the pump, and consists of the casings, referred to as bowls, and the impellers, which ean be stacked vertically to form multiple stages. The number of stages used in the bow! assembly is based on the specific speed of each stage, and on the total head that must be developed by the pump. Joints between adjacent bowls are either threaded or flanged. A sleeve-type journal bearing is generally in- stalled in each bowl to support the impeller shaft. To permit internal running clearances to be renewed, each bowl is often fitted with a replaceable wearing ring adja- cent to the outer hub of the impeller. Impeller wearing rings are also sometimes used. The impellers can be held in place on the shaft with tapered lock collets or keys and snap rings. A suetion bell or case installed at the bottom of the first-stage bowl serves as the inlet to the pump. Although some VTP's are fitted with an overhung first- stage impeller, in many units the lower end of the shaft extends through the eye of the first-stage impeller and is supported by a bearing installed in the suction bell. If the liquid being pumped contains foreign particles, a strainer is sometimes mounted at the pumps inlet. Pressure recov- ery in the VIP typically takes place in multi-vaned dif- fusers that are integrally east in each bowl. ‘The liquid discharged from the upper bow! travels to the discharge head through the column pipe. This pipe also encloses the line shaft that transmits the torque de- veloped by the driver to the impellers. When furnished with long lengths of column pipe and line shafting, which can exceed 60 ft in some marine applications, VTP's are also referred to as deepwell pumps. Support for the line shaft is provided by sleeve bearings installed in retainers, referred to as “spiders,” that are sandwiched between the mating ends of adjacent column sections. Although a VIP can be furnished with an enclosing tube that surrounds the line shaft and enables its bearings to be lubricated by oil supplied from an external souree, the bearings in many pumps are lubricated by the pumped liquid. The individual sections of column pipe can be joined with threaded sleeve type couplings or flanged joints. In some pumps the bowl and column assemblies are connected through a special axially split spool piece. The use of this spool piece, to- gether with a quick-disconnect coupling between the lower line shaft and the impeller shaft, permits the re- moval of the bow! assembly to be accomplished without the need to disassemble the entire pump. Information on the determination of natural frequencies for VTP’s is in- cluded in reference 23. ‘The discharge head serves as a 90-deg elbow to redirect the flow of the fluid leaving the vertical column pipe, and forms the link between the pump and the discharge piping. It also supports the column and bowl assemblies, and the pump’s driver or right-angle gear. The penetration for the pump’s shaft in the discharge head can be sealed with packing or mechanical seals. When packing is used itis often lubricated by the fluid being pumped or, in some cases, by grease that is injected into the stuffing box. ‘When a mechanical seal is used it must have liquid cireu- lating around it for cooling and lubrication. Various ar- rangements can be used to flush the mechanical seal with MARINE ENGINEERING. the pumped fluid or with liquid supplied from an external souree Because of the weight of the pump’s rotating assembly and the hydraulic unbalance that results from the single- suction design of vertical turbine pump impellers, the net axial load that must be supported by a VTP's thrust bear- ing is usually directed downward. However, when the total head developed is low or the capacity is high, the net axial thrust may, at times, be directed upward. This is most likely to occur during start-up, after loss of suetion, or during operation at very high flow rates. The upthrust results primarily from the change in the momentum of the fluid passing through the pump's impellers and from the force exerted by fluid that may act against the bottom of the impeller shaft. Consequently, in addition to being rated for the maximum downthrust, the thrust bearing, which is typically a multiple-row ball bearing, should also be rated for the maximum intermittent upthrust. Al though it is not uncommon for the thrust bearing that supports the VIP's shaft to be installed in the driver, when the driver is mounted vertically, or in the right: angle gear if a horizontal driver is used, the pump's thrust bearing can also be mounted in a bracket that is integral with the discharge head. Due to the size and loading of the typical VIP's thrust bearing, oil lubrication is often required. When a vertical driver or right-angle gear with a solid shaft is used, an above-deck coupling is required to con- nect the end of the driver or gear shaft to the end of the pump's upper line-shaft section. This coupling must be of the rigid design if the punp’s thrust bearing is located in the driver or gear. The rigid coupling, which is often used to adjust the height of the pump’s rotating assembly, should be suitable to not only transmit the required torque, but also to support the axial thrust that is applied to the VIP's rotating assembly. When a VTP has an inde- pendent thrust bearing, a flexible coupling is generally installed between the pump and the driver or right-angle gear. When a hollow shaft driver or rightangle gear is used, the pump’s shaft extends up through the center of the hollow shaft and is secured at the top of the driver or gear with an adjusting nut. Because of the design of a VIP's diffusers and impel- lers, a VIP becomes an efficient hydraulic turbine when driven by the liquid that drains from its column after the pump is stopped. This reverse rotation can result in mechanical damage if the unit is restarted before the shaft stops turning in the reverse direetion. To prevent reverse rotation, the vertical drivers and right-angle gears used with VIP's are often fitted with nonreverse ratchets. ‘A VIP is a centrifugal pump; therefore, its perform- ance characteristics are similar to those deseribed in See- tion 1.2. When the VTP is a multistage unit, the amount of eavitation in the first stage necessary to produce a 3% reduction in the total head developed by the complete bow! assembly can be significant. Although this can also be true of other multistage centrifugal pumps, the modular construction of the VIP enables stages to be added to or removed from the bowl assembly, and permits NPSH testing to be performed using only the bow) assembly'sPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS first stage. The head reduction measured during this type of a test is more representative of the cavitation that actually occurs in the first-stage impeller and, therefore, of the pump's true suetion capability. When a VTP is installed directly into the tank or sump from which it will receive liquid, no suetion piping is re- quired or used. The calculation of the pump’s suction pres- sure and NPSHA, therefore, is based on the depth of the liquid in the tank or sump, together with the pressure that acts on the surface of the liquid. Even when there is, adequate NPSH available to the pump, problems can still occur if the submergence of the suction bell is not suffi- cient to prevent a vortex from developing on the surface of the liquid and air or vapor is drawn through the core of the vortex and into the pump's inlet. The minimum submergence required to prevent the formation of vor ces is proportional to the square of the velocity at the to the pump. If a VTP is to receive liquid from multiple sources, it will usually be installed within a separate suction tank referred to as a suction can, The suction ean is then con- nected through piping to the various locations from which the pump will take suction. Whenever suction piping is used, Josses within it due to frietion and turbulence should be considered when determining the suction pressure and NPSHA. The VTP must often be capable of evacuating the suction piping of gas and vapor; therefore, pumps installed in suetion eans are frequently fitted with compo- nents that enable them to be self-priming. Like the recir- culation arrangement described previously for a self- priming centrifugal pump, the VTP priming systems usu- ally rely on the recirculation of liquid from the pump’s discharge back to suction. However, in lieu of continuous recirculation, the recirculation a VIP is generally controlled by one or more automatic priming valves i stalled on the pump. A description of a typical priming valve arrangement, together with criteria for sizing suc- tion cans used with self-priming vertical turbine pumps, is included in reference 24, 1.5 Other Types of Wet-Pit Pumps. In addition to ver- tical turbine pumps, there are also other types of vertical wet-pit pumps. Included among these units are: + Propeller type deepwell pumps. These high-capacity, low-head pumps are used in many dry docks for dewater: ing service. + Single-stage double-suction impeller _deepwell pumps. Because of their double-suetion design, the NPSH requirements for these centrifugal pumps are typically less than those for vertical turbine pumps that deliver equivalent capacities. However, a double-suction impeller pump generally has a larger casing diameter than a com- parably rated VIP. + Single-stage end-suetion sump pumps with volute casings. These centrifugal pumps are generally furnished with short settings or lengths. Due to the side discharge configuration of the pump's volute casing, the vertical pipe through which liquid travels from the impeller to the aboverdeck discharge flange is mounted adjacent to the line shaft rather than coneentric with it. let 501 SECTION OF CYLINDER Fig. 25. Single-screw pump + Submersible centrifugal pumps. These single-stage end-suction pumps, together with their drivers, which are generally either electric or hydraulic motors, are sub- merged within the liquid being pumped. 1.6 Rotary Pumps. Rotary pumps are positive-dis- placement machines in whieh one or more pumping ele- ments rotate within a stationary chamber. The chamber is typically formed by a one-piece casing or housing that is fitted at one or both ends with removable plates. A rotary pump traps fluid within cavities in its rotating ele- ments that are sealed by the inner wall of the casing. As each rotor turns, the trapped fluid is forced through the easing. Because the return of fluid back to suction, re- ferred to as “slip,” is impeded by close internal running clearances, during the revolution of each rotor a nearly fixed amount of fluid is foreed out of the easing through the pump's discharge port, In addition, as the vacant cavi- ties within each rotor spin past the casing’s suction port, a partial vacuum is created that draws additional fluid into the pump. Due to the internal seal between the suction and the discharge, internal valves are not required in rotary pumps. Shaft penetrations in rotary pump casings are usually sealed with packing or mechanical seals. Various, types of rotary pumps are furnished for shipboard appl cations in both horizontally and vertically mounted confi urations. a. Screw pumps. In screw pumps, fluid is trapped within a series of successive helical cavities that are formed between the threads of one or more screws and are sealed by a close-clearance easing. As shown in Fig. 25, singlescrew or “progressing cavity” pumps include one rotor with a single external helieal thread. As the rotor turns, it also orbits about the centerline of the driveshaft and meshes with the stator’s double-helix inter- nal thread. The meshing of the rotor with the close-clear- ance stator results in the formation of sealed cavities that progress axially along the length of the easing and carry fluid from the pump’s inlet to its discharge port. Many of these pumps are fitted with a hardened rotor and an elastomeric liner within the stator. With this material com- bination the pump's stator is generally flexible enough to pass particles that may be entrained in the pumped fluid without causing serious damage to the rotor. Progressing- cavity pumps are often furnished in a “single-end” design in which fluid flows in only one direction along the rotor. ‘The resulting axial unbalance is frequently absorbed by502 Fig. 26 Twin-screw pomp one of the two antifrietion type bearings that are typically used to support the pump’s drive shaft, These bearings are usually mounted external to the pumped fluid, Due to the orbital motion of the rotor and the friction resulting from its contact with the stator, the speed at which prog- ressing-eavity pumps can operate is limited. They are best suited for applications involving high-viseosity fluids at relatively low capacities and pressures. ‘As shown in Fig. 26, a twin-screw pump has two shafts that rotate within a close-clearance casing. When a “dou- ble-end” arrangement is used, each shaft is fitted with a pair of opposed helical screws, Fluid entering the pump’s suction nozzle is often divided, and admitted to the rotors, from both ends of the easing. The fluid then advances axially from each end of the pump, is recombined in the center of the unit, and is expelled through the easing’s discharge connection. As a result of the opposed-flow pat- tern, axial thrust due to hydraulic unbalance is minimized. In addition, the pump’s shaft seals are exposed only to fluid at suction pressure. To reduce the path length of the fluid entering the screws, in applications with poor suction conditions the flow path described above is sometimes reversed. However, with this alternative arrangement the shaft seals are exposed to fluid that is at the pump's discharge pressure. Radial loads applied to the rotating assembly of a twin- serew pump are generally absorbed by antifriction bear- ings that are mounted at both ends of each shaft. The bearings installed at one end of the pump are held in place axially, which enables them to also absorb residual axial thrust. The bearings are often relied on to maintain the proper axial and radial clearance between the meshing screws. To maintain the proper rotational clearance be- ‘tween the serew threads, torque from the driving shaft, which is coupled to the pump’s driver, is frequently trans- mitted to the idler shaft through timing gears. This elimi- nates the need for metal-to-metal contact between the serews and, therefore, reduces wear. ‘Twin-screw pumps are sometimes designed so that their bearings and timing gears will be submerged in, and lub: cated by, the pumped fluid. Only one shaft seal is required with this internal bearing configuration to prevent leak- age at the location where the driving shaft penetrates the casing. If the fluid to be pumped will not be clean or will not have good lubricity, a pump with bearings and timing ‘gears that are enclosed within lubricating-oil reservoirs located external to the pumping chamber must generally MARINE ENGINEERING SECTION OF CYLINDER ‘SUCTION Fig. 27. Mllipleilerserew pump be used. With an external bearing design, additional shaft seals are required to isolate the bearings and timing gears from the pumped fluid. Some screw pumps have two or more idler rotors. As shown in Fig. 27, multiple-idler serew pumps are typically designed to operate without timing gears. The helix angle of the threads on the rotors in these pumps is sufficient to enable torque to be transmitted directly from the driv- ing or power screw on the centershaft to the sealing serews on the idler shafts. Axial thrust can be minimized through the use of a double-end serew configuration, or with an internal hydraulic balancing device. Radial loads are applied to the center drive serew by each of the idler serews in a symmetrical pattern; therefore, the center rotor is radially balanced. Furthermore, each idler screw is supported radially along its entire length by the inner wall of the casing. Consequently, there is no need for separate radial bearings to support the idler rotors. Only one seal is required at the location where the center shaft, which is generally fitted with either an internal or an external bearing, penetrates the casing. To reduce wear, the drive serew and the idlers are often furnished in hard- ened materials. [n addition, although a hydrodynamic film between the idler screws and the easing reduces metal-to- metal contact between these parts, in some pumps renew- able casing liners are used. b. Gear pumps. In a gear pump the fluid being pumped is trapped between the teeth of two meshing gears and is forced through the casing, Slip is minimized by the meshing of the gears, by maintaining close radial clearances between the gears and the inner wall of the housing, and by maintaining close axial clearances be- tween the faces of the gears and the pump’s side or end plates. Gear pumps ean be designed with an external con- figuration in which each gear’s center of rotation is exter- nal to the major diameter of the mating gear, or with an internal configuration in which the center of rotation of one gear is within the major diameter of the second gear. ‘An external gear pump, which is illustrated in Fig. 28, contains two external meshing gears that are mounted on parallel counterrotating shafts within a close-clearance casing. The gears can be of the spur, helical, or herring bone design. Spur gears are inherently axially balanced and are suitable for many high-pressure, low-speed appli- cations. However, fluid trapped between meshing gear teeth can result in the generation of high localized pres- sures and increased radial shaft loads. To reduce this pressure, relief ports are sometimes cut into the dischargePUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS Fig. 28. Extermel gear pump side of the pamp’s end plates, which provides an escape path for the trapped fluid. Problems associated with trapped fluid can also be alleviated by using helical gears. Because of their helix angle, meshing teeth in this design engage gradually and foree fluid that is between them to flow ahead of the contact or meshing point. The retention of fluid between the meshing gear teeth is, therefore, prevented. Due to the axial thrust produced by mating helical gears, their use is generally limited to medium- pressure applications. A herringbone gear, which resem- bles two helical gears placed end to end, provides the advantages of the helical gear but eliminates its undesir- able axial unbalance. Consequently, herringbone gears are often used in external gear pumps furnished for higher-pressure applications. ‘The hydraulic pressure gradient around the periphery of each gear, together with the reaction to the torque being applied to the pumped fluid, results in radial loads that are applied to the external gear pump’s rotors. These loads are absorbed by sleeve or antifriction bearings that are mounted at the ends of each shaft. The shafts in many pumps are also fitted with thrust bearings. Torque from the driving or power shaft to the idler shaft in some exter- nal gear pumps is transmitted directly through the teeth of the pumping gears. However, to reduce metal-to-metal contact between the pumping gears, this torque can also be transmitted through separate timing gears. The pump’s bearings and timing gears, when used, can be either submerged in, and lubricated by, the pumped fluid ‘or mounted outside of the easing in isolated Iubricating- oil reservoirs. Internal gear pumps contain an internal ring gear that rotates against the inner wall of the pumps easing. As shown in Fig. 29, a second smaller external gear or pinion is designed to rotate inside the ring gear. Fluid entering the pumping chamber is trapped between the teeth of each rotating gear. The fluid-earrying cavities are frequently sealed by a stationary crescent-shaped piece that fits be- tween the two gears. As an alternative to the crescent, some internal gear pumps rely on a close radial clearance between the tips of adjacent teeth on the two rotating gears to form a seal. To provide the necessary seal be- tween the pump's suction and its discharge, the internal and external gears, which have different axes of rotation, are arranged so that their teeth mesh over a portion of the external gear’s circumference. Torque from the power 503 Fig. 30° Lobe pump rotor, whieh ean be either the external pinion or the inter- nal ring gear, is transmitted direetly to the mating idler through the meshing teeth. The hydrodynamie fluid film between the gears is often relied on to absorb radial loads. Additional support for the drive shaft extension ean also be provided by a bearing installed either internal or exter- nal to the pumping chamber. Because of a longer are of entry to the gear and a more gradual change in the direction of the flow, suction losses in an internal gear pump are typically less than those in comparably sized external gear pumps. In addition, because both gears in an internal gear pump rotate in the same direction, their relative velocity is generally low, which reduces wear. However, the use of internal gear pumps is usually limited to low-capacity, low-pressure ap- plications. ¢. Lobe pumps. As shown in Fig. 30, lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps, except that in lieu of teeth, each of the two counterrotating rotors contains an equal number of rounded lobes. Rotors with two or three lobes are commonly used. Fluid entering the pump is trapped within the cavities formed between the lobe surfaces and the inner wall of the casing, ‘The return of fluid to suction is impeded by the seal formed at the location where the rotors mesh. The rotors in smaller lobe pumps are often overhung on the ends of cantilevered shafts. In larger pumps, however, the rotors and shafts may be mounted between bearings. Due to the shape of the lobes, one rotor cannot drive the other, and torque from the power shaft to the idler must be transmitted through separate timing gears. The timing gears, together with the bearings re- quired to support each rotor, ean be mounted within the casing or in separate lubricating-oil reservoirs. Lobe pumps are generally used in high-capacity, low-pressure applications. Due to the relatively large cavities formed504 DISCHARGE SUCTION (a) suipine-vane TvPE Fig. 31 Vone pump between the rotating lobes, these pumps are capable of handling high-viscosity liquids, as well as liquids that con- tain some entrained solids. d, Vane pumps. The pumping elements in vane pumps consist of various types of reciprocating or sliding vanes, such as blades, buckets, rollers or slippers. Many vane pumps are of the internal or “‘vane-in-rotor” design, which is illustrated in Fig. 31, and contain from four to eight rigid vanes. These vanes slide back and forth within radial slots located around the circumference of a eylindri- cal rotor that turns inside either an eccentric cylindrical oraconcentric elliptical easing. The outer tips of the vanes are held against the inner wall of the casing by centrifugal foree. Springs, the admission of pressurized fluid behind the vanes, and the installation of push rods between op- posing vanes are additional methods used to improve con- tact between the vane tips and the casing. As each vane sweeps past the inlet port, it follows the contour of the casing’s inner wall and moves radially outward from the rotor. ‘The low-pressure created behind the vane draws fluid from the pump’s inlet into the space between the rotor’s outer surface and the casing’s inner wall. This fluid is trapped between adjacent vanes and, as the rotor continues to turn, is foreed through the casing. At the discharge port, the casing’s inner wall pushes the vanes back into the rotor and forces the fluid out of the pump. Fluid acts against only one half of the vane pump's rotor during each pumping eycle; therefore, radial loads can be high. To reduce these loads, in some pumps two pairs of suction and discharge ports are equally spaced around the casing. With this arrangement liquid is simul- taneously admitted to both sides of the rotor, which re- sults in hydraulic radial balance. Bearings used to absorb residual radial and axial loads ean be installed at each end of the rotor or on the inboard side of the rotor only, and can be located within the pumping chamber or external to it, Vanes are typically made from plastics or composite materials; therefore, metal-to-mmetal contact in these pumps is eliminated. A slight amount of tip wear can be compensated for by the radial movement of the vanes. However, due to noise caused by the rubbing of the vane tips against the casing, these pumps usually cannot be ‘operated at high speeds. Consequently, vane pumps are, MARINE ENGINEERING 1890 ep 35 80 ‘aracrTy (ape) be sav wo 35 590 eo a0 ast 35 500 nant woReRPoHER (9) er Fig, 32. Typical cotary pump performance curve generally used in moderate-capacity and low-pressure ap- Dlications with low-viscosity fluids. . Rotary-pump performance characteristics. The increase in the pressure of the fluid passing through a rotary pump is created by the resistance or back pressure that the rotors must overcome to force fluid through the pump and into the discharge pipe. The total head devel- oped within the pump, therefore, matches the requirement of the system. Although total head can be expressed in feet of liquid, when developed within a rotary pump it is ‘more common for it to be expressed in terms of the total differential pressure, p,., in psi. p,, is equal to the total pressure at the inlet to the pump subtracted from the total pressure at the pump's outlet. Like a centrifugal pump, a rotary pump will operate only at the point at which its head-capacity curve, typically illustrated in Fig. 82, is in- tersected by the curve of system head versus capacity. However, there are some significant differences between the performance characteristies of rotary and centrifugal pumps. + At any given speed the volume displaced within a rotary pump will remain constant; however, the capacity delivered by the pump will be affected by stip, which in- creases as the pump’s differential pressure is inereased and as the viscosity of the pumped fluid is reduced. + The pressure developed by a rotary pump matches the system back pressure at its discharge port. Therefore, if the pump is operated against a closed discharge valve, the pressure of the fluid trapped within its casing will ‘continue to increase until the pump’s driver is overloaded,PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS the pump or valve fail, or the discharge piping bursts. To prevent this type of damage from oceurring, and to pro- tect the pump and piping from overpressurization, a relief valve should be installed in a rotary pump's discharge piping. Some rotary pumps are furnished with integral relief valves mounted directly on their casings. + The power required to drive a rotary pump will also continue to increase as the pressure developed within the pump increases. The use of a relief valve will limit this pressure and, therefore, the maximum horsepower re- quired by the pump. The brake horsepower required to drivea rotary pump, P,, can be calculated as follows using the total differential pressure, py: _ Pa@ ~The, (35) where Q = capacity, gpm ‘hp = pump efficiency, %/100 In lieu of expressing NPSH available in terms of feet of liquid, the suction condition available to a rotary pump is often expressed in terms of psia and is referred to as the net positive inlet pressure available, p,,. The minimum net positive inlet pressure required by a rotary pump is determined by operating the pump with a constant differ- ential pressure, and reducing the inlet pressure gradually until the capacity delivered is reduced sharply, a crackling noise is clearly audible, or the capacity delivered by the pump is reduced by 5%, The maximum value of py; at which any of these conditions occurs is equal to the mini- mum net positive inlet pressure required by the pump. ‘The reduction in eapacity and increase in noise are caused by cavitation that oceurs when the liquid entering the casing does not have sufficient energy to completely fill the cavities formed within the pump’s rotors. Cavitation inrotary pumps can result in inereased vibration, pressure pulsations at the discharge port, and pitting of the rotors and casing. The minimum net positive inlet pressure re- quired by rotary pumps generally increases with fluid viscosity, rotor cavity size, and operating speed. Because of its increased resistance to shear, when a fluid with a higher viscosity is pumped, the flow rate through a rotary pump's internal clearanees is reduced. An increase in viscosity also generally reduces the pump’s maximum allowable operating speed and increases its net positive inlet pressure requirements. In addition, because more energy is required to overcome the fluid’s increased resistance to flow, the power required to drive a rotary pump increases with viscosity. Rotary pumps, being positive-displacement machines, are often used in applications with poor suction conditions. However, for these pumps to be self-priming, a liquid film is generally required to seal internal clearances. In addition, dry operation can often damage the pump's in- ternal components. Therefore, whenever a rotary pump is started with a suction lift or a negative inlet pressure, it should first be filled with liquid. Once primed, the amount of liguid pumped will be reduced as the percent- age of entrained gas within the fluid entering the pump 505 increases. The severity of the effect that entrained air or vapor has on a rotary pump’s performance inereases with reduced values of inlet pressure. 17 Vacuum pumps. Although similar in configura- tion to a rotary-vane pump, a vacuum pump is used pi marily to remove air or gas from piping and components rather than to transfer liquids. Also known as a rotary liquid-piston or liquid-ring pump, as shown in Fig. 33, each unit is fitted with a multi-vaned rotor that rotates within either a concentricelliptical or an eecentric-cylindrical cas- ing. The casing is partially filled with water, or some other suitable liquid. As the rotor turns this liquid forms a continuous rotating ring that follows the contour of the casing’s inner wall. The rigid vanes located around the circumference of the rotor are generally oriented radially, but may have tips that are curved slightly forward. Shrouds fitted onto the ends of the rotor enable individ- ual pumping chambers to be formed between each pair of vanes. As each chamber sweeps past the wider portion of the casing, the liquid contained between the vanes is thrown outward, and air or vapor from the adjacent inlet portis drawn into the evacuated inner portion of the eham- ber. As the rotation of the chamber continues into the close-clearance area of the casing, liquid is forced back between the rotor’s vanes and the air or vapor that had entered this space is forced out through the pump's charge port. During operation a small amount of liq should be fed continuously to the vacuum pump's easing to replace liquid that may be discharged during each pumping cycle. The inlet and discharge ports leading to the pumping chambers can be included in a stationary cone that fits around the center of the rotor, or in the casing’s side plates. ‘Vacuum pumps are generally supplied with radially split casings. To balance radial loads, some pumps are fitted with two inlet and two outlet ports that are alter- nately staggered at 90-deg intervals. The vacuum pump's rotor can be mounted on a shaft that is supported at each end by an antifrietion or sleeve bearing and is flexibly coupled to the driver. However, in some smaller units the rotor is overhung on the end of the driver's shaft in a close-coupled configuration. With either arrangement, openings where the shaft protrudes through the pump casing are typically sealed with packing or mechanical seals. The performanee curve for a vacuum pump is usually plotted in terms of the volumetric eapacity of air or vapor removed from the suction line versus the absolute suction pressure. The capacity delivered by a typical vacuum pump remains relatively constant over much of the pump’s operating range. However, as the absolute suction pressure is reduced below a certain value, there will gen- erally be a reduction in the pump’s capacity. The capacity will also be reduced as the temperature of the pump's sealing liquid increases, To inerease the vacuum that can be developed, liquid-ring pumps are sometimes supplied in two-stage configurations. These units are fitted with two rotors mounted on a common shaft within a single casing and are, in effect, two single-stage pumps op- erating in series,506 Legeno roror ROTATING LIQUID CHAMBER NARROW PART OF CASING ELUPTICAL CASING ROTOR VANES bisconnce MARINE ENGINEERING. ROTATION Fig. 33. Liquidvng vacuum pump 1.8 Reciprocating Pumps. Reciprocating pumps are sometimes used for applications involving high pressures and relatively low capacities. In these positive-displace- ment pumps, pressure is developed by the reciprocating motion of a displacement element that applies a force rectly against the fluid contained within an enelosed cylinder. Reciprocating pumps are furnished in both hor zontal and vertical configurations, where this direction refers to the orientation of the displacement element's axis. Each pump consists of two basie elements: the liquid end and the drive end. a. Liquid end. The portion of a reeiprocating pump that pumps fluid is referred to as the “liquid end.” During each suction stroke the volume within the liquid eylinder inereases due to the retraction of its displacement ele- ‘ment, which results in a reduetion in the eylinder’s pres- sure. When this pressure is sufficiently below the pres- sure at the pump’s inlet port, the suetion valve opens and fluid is drawn into the cylinder. Once the displacement element's direction of travel is reversed, it pushes against the fluid that has filled the cylinder. The pressure of the fluid is increased until it exceeds the pressure at the pump’s outlet port by an amount that is suffieient to open the discharge valve. The fluid within the cylinder is then forced through this valve and into the discharge piping. The moving displacement element used in a reeiprocat- ing pump can either be a piston, which typically resembles a flat disk, or a plunger, which often looks like a smooth rod. The pressure seals between a piston and its cylinder are mounted directly on, and move with, the piston, while the seals installed around a plunger are mounted at the base of the cylinder and are stationary. Various types the liquid end of a reciprocating pump, including stem-guided disk valves and caged plate valves with flat seats for general service, wing-guided valves with tapered seats for higher-pres- sure applications, and ball valves and semispherical valves which, due to their large flow areas, are often used in applications involving viscous or abrasive fluids. Many valves have removable seats that are either screwed, pressed, or clamped in place, and in some applications the valves are fitted with elastomeric sealing elements. The suction and discharge valves are generally installed within one or more chambers that are either integral with or bolted to the side of the liquid eylinder. Many piston pumps are arranged so that fluid will be alternately drawn into and discharged from both ends of each liquid cylinder. With this configuration while one face of the piston is in its suction stroke and is drawing fluid into its end of the liquid eylinder, the piston’s other face is simultaneously discharging fluid from the opposite end of the cylinder. At the end of the stroke the sequence is reversed; therefore, within each cylinder in these “‘dou- ble-acting” pumps there are two suction strokes and two discharge strokes during every complete reciprocating ey- cle of the piston. To maintain the required seal between the piston and the bore of its eylinder, soft fibrous or hard composition packing rings, metal bull and snap rings, or molded elastomeric cups are fitted around the piston’ outside diameter. So that mating surfaces inside the cyli der can be periodically renewed, many liquid cylinders are fitted with replaceable liners. A packed stuffing box is, generally provided to reduce fluid leakage at the point where the piston rod that connects the liquid piston to the pump’s drive end protrudes through the head of the liquid eylinder.PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS In a plunger pump, the stationary seal around each Plunger is typically formed by packing rings installed within a stuffing box located at the base of the liquid cylinder. To enable the packing rings to be self-adjusting, insome units they are spring loaded. Additional secondary packing rings are also sometimes used. So that a lubricant can be injected into the packing or to permit high-pressure fluid to be bled from the stuffing box, a lantern ring is often sandwiched between two of the inner packing rings. A conventional plunger is a singleacting displacement element. However, to create a double-acting effect, the plungers in some pumps are mounted in pairs that operate within opposed cylinders. The opposed plungers are driven in unison; therefore, while one is in its suction stroke, the opposite plunger is discharging fluid. b. Driveend. The drive ends used with reciprocating Pumps can be divided into two basic groups: direct-acting and power. Although a direct-aeting pump, which is shown in Fig. 34, can be driven by steam, compressed air, or other compressed gases, pumps of this type are commonly referred to as “steam pumps.” A direct-acting pump’s drive end, which is also frequently called the “steam end,” generally contains one (simplex) or two (duplex) eylinders that are each fitted with a doubie-aeting piston. At the beginning of a stroke, steam (or another gas) is admitted into one end of a drive cylinder, which forces the piston in that cylinder to move. As a result of this motion, the steam on the other side of the piston is expelled from the pump. After the stroke has been completed, steam is admitted into the opposite end of the same cylinder and the piston’s travel path is reversed, As this cycle is contin- uously repeated, a reciprocating motion is transmitted directly to the displacement element in the adjacent liquid cylinder, which enables fluid to be pumped. The liquid end of a direct-acting pump typically has either double-acting pistons or opposed plungers. The admission of steam into a direct-acting pump is regulated by valves that are installed within the steam chest located on the side of the drive cylinder. In a duplex imp the valve for each drive cylinder is actuated mechan- ically by the movement of the opposite eylinder's piston rod. As the valve is moved it alternately covers and uncov- ers the inlet ports through which steam enters each end of the drive cylinder. This valve also alternately connects ‘each of the drive eylinder's two exhaust ports, which are located inboard of the inlet ports, to the steam chest’s outlet port under the center of the valve. In some pumps a flatfaced slide type drive-end valve is used; however, when the valve is large, or when the pump is driven by high-pressure or high-temperature steam, a balanced-pis- ton type drive-end vaive may be used. The drive-end valves and their linkages are generally adjusted so that one drive piston leads the second by approximately % to % of a stroke. With this arrangement steam is always being ad- mitted into one of the drive cylinders, and the failure of the pump to operate due to the simultaneous covering of the inlet ports in both steam chests is prevented. Play, referred to as lost motion, is typieally provided in the drive-end valve linkages to allow each valve to remain stationary during a portion of the stroke of the piston that. 507 Leeno STeaw cyunpen STEAM CYLINDER LINER STEAM R00, Lou evunoes {loo CvLINDER Linea Liauio Piston Liavi0 ristow Roo VaLve service LOUIe PISTON PACKING Fig. 34 Vertical reciprocating diect-acting simplex pump actuates the valve. Lost motion permits the admission of steam into each drive cylinder to continue throughout the entire stroke of the piston in the cylinder and gives the valves in the pump's liquid end time to seat quietly be- tween strokes. When it is adjustable, an inerease in lost motion increases the duration of the pause at the end of each stroke and reduces the overlap between the suction and discharge strokes in the liquid cylinders. The drive eylinder’s exhaust port is covered by the piston before the end of the stroke. The steam that remains trapped in the cylinder acts as a cushion between the piston and the508 Fig, 35. Vertical reciprocating power pump cylinder head and smoothly decelerates the pump's mov- ing parts as each stroke is completed. Valves are some- times provided to regulate the leakage rate of the cushion- ing steam from the drive cylinders. These valves are usually adjusted to allow each drive piston to complete the longest stroke that does not result in contact with the cylinder heads. ‘The drive cylinder in a simplex pump is fitted with a steam- (or gas) actuated piston-type valve. The admission of steam to the ends of this valve is controlled by a sepa- rate flat-faced slide or balanced-piston type pilot valve that is linked mechanically to the drive-end piston rod. Just before each stroke of the drive piston is completed, the pilot valve is repositioned and steam is directed to one end of the steam-actuated valve. The force of the steam moves the steam-actuated valve’s piston completely to the ‘opposite side of the steam chest, changing the end of the drive cylinder into which steam is admitted. Because the steam-actuated valve's piston cannot remain in the middle of the steam chest, referred to as the dead-center position, steam is always being admitted into one end of the drive cylinder. Consequently, the failure of the pump to operate due to the simultaneous covering of both of the drive cylinder’s steam inlet ports is prevented. The linkage for a simplex pump's pilot valve has lost motion, which, when it is adjustable, is usually increased until the drive piston has the longest stroke that does not result in contact-with the cylinder heads or cause the pump to stall. Ina power pump, which is typically illustrated by Fig. 85, a erankshaft and connecting rods convert the rotary motion of the driver's shaft to reciprocating motion that is transmitted to the liquid end’s plungers or pistons. A crosshead that absorbs side loads is frequently installed between each connecting rod and the corresponding MARINE ENGINEERING plunger or piston rod. Each end of the crankshaft is usu- ally fitted with either a tapered roller bearing or a sleeve- type journal bearing. In larger units additional bearings may also be installed along the length of the erankshaft. Replaceable sleeve bearings are generally fitted into both ends of each connecting rod. Geared speed redueers, fluid couplings, or multi V-belt drives are often used between the driver and the pump. In addition, some larger power pumps are furnished with their own integral reduction gears. The power frame used with this arrangement is fitted with a second shaft that is coupled to the driver. A pinion installed on the second shaft transmits torque to @ reduction gear that is mounted on the crankshaft. The ‘gears, together with the pump's bearings and crossheads, are generally lubricated by oil that is stored within the power end’s sealed crankcase. When necessary, an inte- gral rotary pump is provided to supply pressurized Iubri- cating oil to the power end’s various components. In larger pumps the power end may also be fitted with an integral oil cooler. Common power pump configurations include liquid ends with two (duplex) double-acting pis- tons, and liquid ends with three (triplex), five (quintuplex), seven (septuplex), or nine (nonuplex) single-acting plungers. ¢. Reciprocating-pump performance characteris- ties. The volume displaced per cycle in the liquid end of a reciprocating pump is constant, and is a function of the outside diameter and stroke length of the liquid piston or plunger. A direct-acting pump is typically identified by three numbers: the first is the drive piston’s outside diam- ter, the second is the outside diameter of the liquid piston or plunger, and the third is the length of the stroke. A power pump’s geometry can be identified by two numbers: the first is the diameter of the liquid piston or plunger and the second is the stroke. These dimensions are generally expressed in inches. Because of slip, which ineludes leak- age and backflow through the liquid end’s suction and discharge valves, as well as leakage across the internal seals in a piston pump, the actual average capacity deliv- ered by a reciprocating pump is less than the theoretical capacity that is based on the volume displaced by the pistons or plungers. Leakage at the liquid-end’s external stuffing boxes and the compressibility of the fluid being pumped also result in reductions of the delivered capacity. However, with properly working valves and seals, the actual average capacity delivered by many reciprocating pumps is within 95 to 97% of the theoretical value. The capacity delivered by a reciprocating pump can be in- creased by raising the pump's operating speed, by using ‘@ pump with a greater number of liquid eylinders or a larger liquid-piston or plunger diameter, and by increas- ing the stroke length of the liquid piston or plunger. Some power pumps have an internal linkage that enables the stroke length of their plungers to be changed. The eapac- ity delivered by a power pump is also sometimes controlled by using synchronized suction valve unloaders, which hold the pump’s suction valves open when the capacity deliv- ered is to be reduced. The pressure developed by a recipro- cating pump is automatically adjusted based on the backPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS Tobl haract 1_ Reciprocating pump performan: No, of Pumping Configuration "Chambers Max. Flow’ Min Flow’ © Power Pumps Duplex DA. 4 124 180.415 ‘Triplex SA 3 lor 830.086 it lex SA 5 102 95 0.040. tuplex SA 7 tor st 0.038 Nonuplex SA 9 101 88 0.022 Dinecr-AcTiNG Sreas Pumps Simplex DA 2 120 ° 200 D 4 1024 924 0.060% $A = singloacting: DA = doublencting ‘AB a perwent of the average flowrate 1 Ge aeeieraton head constant (eeu (4 “These value Spproximations. Actual values will vary veeFi properly adjusted valves, IF val ly at With properly adjusted valves. 1f valves are not properly a justed, wil approach 0.200, propen pressure or resistance in the system. To prevent overpres- surization, a relief valve shouid be installed in the pump’s discharge piping upstream of any shutoff valves. Fluid is not discharged from 2 reciprocating pump’s liquid cylinders at a steady rate; therefore, there are pul- sations in the flow rate and pressure of the fluid delivered. ‘Typical variations in flow rate for various reciprocating pump configurations are included in Table 1. In a direet- acting pump the velocity of the piston or plunger, together with the velocity of the fluid that the piston or plunger displaces, inereases quickly, remains constant throughout most of the stroke, and then drops off quickly to zero. In a power pump, however, the velocity of the piston or plunger varies continuously throughout the stroke approximately with the sine of the crankthrow angle. In addition, although due to lost motion there is a pause at the end of each stroke in a direct-acting pump, the plungers or pistons in a power pump have no such pause. Flow and pressure variations in a reciprocating pump’s suction and discharge lines are sometimes reduced by installing pulsation dampeners in the piping adjacent to the liquid-end’s inlet and outlet ports, or directly on the pump’s liquid valve chambers. ‘The brake horsepower required to drive a power pump’s shaft can be calculated using equation (35), except that for reciprocating pumps @ is the eapacity measured at the pump’s suction conditions. If the values used for both Q and pj. in equation (35) are the average capacity delivered by the pump and the average total differential pressure developed, respectively, the result calculated will be the pump’s average power requirement. However, due to the fluctuations in flow and pressure, the instantaneous power required by a power pump varies throughout the discharge stroke and reaches a peak value during each complete revolution of the crankshaft that exceeds the average power requirement. ‘The power requirement for a direct-acting pump can be expressed in terms of the steam or gas pressure and consumption rate, When steam is used as the driving me- dium it is usually saturated so that moisture will be pres- ent to help lubricate the drive-end’s pistons and valves. If adirectacting pump is driven with superheated steam or 509 a compressed gas, a small amount of oil is often mixed With the steam or gas to lubricate the drive-end’s internal components. This oil is sometimes injected directly into the steam chest by a mechanical lubricator that is mounted on the pump and actuated by the movement of the piston rods, The theoretical differential or net steam or gas pres- sure required for the pump to develop a given differential pressure in its liquid end is a funetion of the ratio of the outside diameter of the liquid piston or plunger divided by the outside diameter of the pump’s drive piston, The actual net pressure required in the pump’s drive end, how- ever, is greater than the theoretical value due to mechani- cal losses in the pump, such as friction. If both the redue- tion of piston-face area caused by the piston rod and losses in the pressure of the driving medium as it enters and eaves the drive cylinder are neglected, the net steam pressure required to drive a liquid end fitted with either double-acting pistons or opposed plungers is equal to Pu [def Pe om li] net pressure to drive end, psi drive piston outside diameter, in. = liquid piston or plunger outside diameter, in. pump mechanical efficiency, %/100 (36) ‘Steam consumption is generally expressed in terms of mass flow rate, which can be estimated from 807 (4a) 4 dh, 8,0 O, CeCe ps en s where ‘My, = steam consumption, lbm/hr 'S, = average piston speed, fpm ‘xn = number of steam cylinders C; = eylinder clearance ratio C, ~ steam condensation and leakage factor exhaust correction factor steam density at inlet pressure, pef Cy, which is usually lower in pumps with longer stroke lengths, typically varies from 1.1 to 12. Values of C, increase with steam pressure and steam piston diameter, and decrease at higher piston speeds; C, generally falls in the range from 1 to 5. C, ean be estimated with the following expression [2]: + py CG = P Pon where p, is the exhaust pressure, psig. (38) Neglecting the volume displaced by the liquid piston rods, when either double-acting liquid pistons or opposed liquid plungers are used, the average piston speed, S,, can be related to the pump's average capacity: 4231) S Badinn (39)510 where Q = average capacity, gpm ‘a. = volumetric efficiency, %/100 If air or compressed gas is used to drive the pump, the gas consumption is generally expressed in terms of the volumetric flow rate, which can be estimated by "ae potest) |] wo where dq = Gas consumption, standard (corrected to 14.7 psia and 60 F), efm 7, = gas inlet temperature, F The NPSH available to a reciprocating pump can be ex- pressed in terms of either pressure or head. However, in addition to the terms typically included in the ealeulation of NPSHA, the effect of pressure pulsations and velocity changes that occur within the suction piping must also be considered. To account for these fluctuations, the accelera- tion head, which represents the energy required to acceler- ate the fluid in the pump's suction line, can be subtracted fromthe NPSHA values caleulated using equation 32). Ac- celeration head can be estimated using [1] LVN Kg [Pon + Be + 147 Sn 0, [Pe Pe Hoo = (ay where H,, = acceleration head, ft suction pipe length, ft average fluid velocity in suction pipe, fps K = fluid compressibility factor (e.g., 1.4 for hot wa- ter, 2.5 for hot oil) N = pump operating speed, epm C = aceeleration head constant (see Table 1) Equation (41) gives the maximum acceleration head, which oceurs at the beginning of the suction stroke, and is less valid with long lengths of suction pipe. H,.can be reduced by installing a properly sized pulsation dampener close to the pumps inlet, by increasing the diameter of the suction line, and by redueing the pump’s operating speed. ‘To determine the NPSH required by a reciprocating pump, the pump is operated with a constant discharge pressure and speed, and the NPSHA is gradually reduced until a clearly audible eavitation noise or knocking sound is heard, or until the capacity delivered is reduced by 3%. The value of the NPSHA at which either of these conditions first occurs is considered to be the pump's NPSH requirement at the test speed. NPSHR is some- times reduced by using lighter springs in the liquid-end’s suetion valves. However, this can also increase the back- flow through the valves and reduce the pump's volumetric efficiency. The cavitation that results from operation with insufficient NPSHA can lead to pitting of the piston or plunger, and to damage of the drive-end components due to increased vibration, ‘A reciprocating pump is a positive-displacement ma- chine; however, if a pump with a suction lift is started with air or vapor in its liquid eylinders and with liquid MARINE ENGINEERING. resting on top of its discharge vaives, the pressure of the gas being compressed within the liquid eylinders may not be sufficient to open the valves. In addition, because the gas remaining in each eylinder reexpands during the suc- tion stroke, the liquid cylinder pressure may not be re- duced sufficiently to permit the suction valves to open, Consequently, the pump may not be able to prime itself. The ability of a reciprocating pump to prime itself is re- duced as the volume remaining within the liquid eylinder when the piston or plunger is fully extended, referred to as the clearance volume, is increased. For this reason, piston pumps typically have self-priming characteristics that are superior to those of plunger pumps, which are sometimes designed to operate only with flooded suctions, 1.9 Retating-Piston Pumps. The pumping action in rotating-piston pumps, which are sometimes classified as rotary pumps, is created by the reciprocating motion of ‘multiple single-acting pistons within close-clearance eylin- dors. However, unlike the power pumps described pre- viously, in a rotating-piston pump the pistons together with their cylinders also rotate about the shaft’s axis. Rotating-piston pumps, whieh are typically motor driven, are furnished in two basic configurations: pumps in which the pistons are mounted in an axial direction, and pumps that are fitted with radially oriented pistons. ‘A radial-piston pump is usually a variable-stroke unit in which multiple single-aeting pistons, often seven, are oriented radially around the circumference of the shaft. As shown in Fig. 36, the outboard end of each piston is pinned to a rolier or slipper that is in contact with the inside wall of a nonrotating floating ring. The eccentricity of the floating ring with respect to both the shaft and the liquid cylinder block is controlled by the position of a guide yoke that can be moved radially within the pump's housing. When the yoke is moved off center, the motion is transmitted through the floating ring to the pistons, and as each piston makes one complete revolution it slides back and forth within the rotating liquid eylinder block. As a result of this reciprocating motion, fluid is alternately drawn into and discharged from each cylinder through suction and discharge ports that are located in the station- ary housing. If the eccentricity of the floating ring is inereased, the capacity delivered at a constant operating speed will also increase, In addition, if the direction of the eccentricity is reversed, the direction of flow through the pump will be reversed. The position of the yoke and the floating ring can be adjusted manually, or with an auto- matie controller. Tn an axial-piston pump a number of single-acting pis- tons, usually seven or nine, are equally spaced around the pump’s shaft. However, as shown in Fig. 37, the axes of the pistons and that of the shaft are parallel, The non- pumping end of each piston is fitted with a short rod that is eonneeted, through a ball-and-socket type joint, to the “socket ring.” As the socket ring rotates with the pump's drive shaft, it turns the pistons and the multicylinder block or barrel that fits over them. The socket ring is often mounted within a nonrotating tilting box that can be used to adjust the ring’s angle with respect to the shaft. When the socket ring is tilted, the pistons on onePUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS Su List oF MATERIAL iii d Fig. 96 Rodial-rotating-ptton pump voxe soyustuent eas 1 hea / ' U/ compansaron weet — Fe. 37 Avaeotatng- piston pump i rassact “a yore frum vont acfuaning Sane rassaoe “oe side of the ring are moved closer to the. cylinder block than each piston’s stroke and the capacity delivered at a con- those on the opposite side. Because ofthis orientation, as stant speed. In some units the tit asele cen he soe the pistons rotate, they slide back and forth within their to reverse the direction of flow throwch the pump. Fae eiiders. The reciprocating motion alternately 1.10 Diaphrogm Pumps. Diaphragin pune ove posi- draws fluid into and discharges it from each cylinder _ tive-displacement units which pumping action is created through suction and discharge ports in a stationary valve by the reciprocating motion of a flexible membrane that Plate, Increasing the socketring’s tit angle inereases is secured around ils periphery between the walle cet512 PUMP oiscHaRce PUMP SUCTION Fig, 98 Diophrogm pump stationary chamber. Although this reciprocating motion ‘can be induced by mechanical means through a crank or cam, or hydraulically with a pressurized liquid, many diaphragm pumps are driven pneumatically with com- pressed air or gas. As shown in Fig. 38, a typical pneumati- cally operated diaphragm pump contains two diaphragms within enclosed chambers that are mounted side-by-side ina duplex arrangement. As air or gas is admitted behind one of the diaphragms, the volume of the pumping cham- ber that is outboard of the diaphragm is reduced and fluid contained within it is discharged from the pump. A bar or shaft connecting the two diaphragms forces the second diaphragm to move in a parallel fashion, which expands the volume of, and draws fluid into, the outboard pumping ‘chamber on the opposite side of the pump. In addition, air in the chamber on the inboard side of the second dia- phragm is exhausted from the unit. During the second half of the pumping eycle, air is admitted into this eham- ber, and both diaphragms are foreed to move in the oppo- site direction, Due to the simultaneous movement of the two diaphragms, as fluid is discharged from the second pumping chamber, it is also drawn into the first pumping chamber, and the air initially admitted behind the first diaphragm is exhausted from the pump. The alternating suction and discharge strokes within each chamber result in a nearly steady flow of fluid from the pump. So that each chamber's inlet and outlet ports will be sealed during. the discharge and suction strokes, respectively, these MARINE ENGINEERING ports are fitted with nonreturn valves. Flap, ball, or pop- pet type check valves are frequently used. In addition, the alternating admission and exhaust of air from the inboard side of each chamber are controlled with an automatic four-way distribution valve. Due to the continuous seal formed by each diaphragm between the pumped fluid and the driving air or gas, these pumps can be used in appliea- tions that require zero leakage. With a constant air or gas pressure, as the capacity delivered by a pneumatically operated duplex diaphragm pump increases, the total head developed is reduced and the volumetric consumption of air or gas increases. In addition, the total head developed at any capacity and the slope of the pump’s head-capacity curve inerease with the pressure of the air or gas driving the pump. A pneumati- cally operated diaphragm pump's maximum discharge pressure is equal to the pressure of the air or gas used to drive it; therefore, because of limitations in the pressure and volume of the gas that is often available for this purpose, these pumps are typically used in applications requiring only low discharge pressures and capacities. 1.11 Marine Pump Applications. The various pump services used onboard any vessel ean be divided into two basie groups: those that are related to the main propulsion equipment and those that are not. The materials used in the construction of a marine pump depend on the applica- tion for which the unit is furnished; however, there are some general requirements that should typically be fol- lowed: + The use of ductile materials is reommended for resistance to shock and vibration. + Wetted pump components (ie., the components that will be exposed to the fluid being pumped) should be resis- tant to corrosion from the liquids that they contact. In addition, if seawater or another liquid that ean conduct an electrical current is to be pumped, dissimilar materials that are used should be compatible galvanieally. When a galvanic couple does exist, it is generally desirable that the smaller of the two parts involved be made from the more noble material so that it will act as the cathode. + Erosion resistance should be considered in the selec- tion of materials for components that will be exposed to high-velocity liquid. This is especially important if the pumped liquids will contain abrasives, such as the sand and grit that are often found in seawater, or if the compo- nent will be exposed to cavitating fluids. + To reduce damage due to any inadvertent contact that may occur in service, material combinations used for mating rotating and stationary components should be resistant to galling. + Materials selected for major components, such as casings, should be weld repairable to permit surfaces that wear with time due to corrosion or erosion to be renewed. Materials used for wetted pump components often in- elude the following: Seawater pumps. Materials commonly used in the con- struction of seawater pumps include various grades ofPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS bronze, copper-nickel alloys, high-alloy austenitie chromi- umnickel stainless steels, nickeleopper and nickel-cop- per-aluminum alloys, titanium, and nickel-chromium-mo- lybdenum alloys. In addition, duplex (austenitic/ferritie) stainless steels and fiber reinforced composite materials are used in some applications, Freshwater pumps. Although the same materials used in seawater pumps can be used in the construction of units that will handle fresh water, to reduce cost, cast iron, duetile iron, and carbon and alloy steels are also used in freshwater pumps. In addition various grades of stainless steels, such as 12% chrome martensitic, 17-4 preeipitation- hardened, and 300 series austenitic stainless steels are sometimes used. Oil pumps. With the exception of liquid bulk cargoes, the majority of the oils that are handled by shipboard pumps are used for fuel, for lubrication, or to power hy- draulically operated machinery. Materials used in the con- struction of these pumps include: cast and ductile irons; carbon, alloy, and stainless steels; and various grades of bronze. A description of the pumps used in typical shipboard applications follows below; however, this information is general in nature and exceptions can generally be found as warranted by the requirements for specific vessels, or by the preferences of owners and designers. ‘a, Steam turbine propulsion-related pump applica- tions. Main condensate. A main condensate pump receives water directly from the hotwell in the condenser and, on most vessels, transfers it to a direet-contact type deaerat- ing feedwater heater (DFT). The total head that must be developed by the typical condensate pump is, therefore, based on the difference in elevation between the water level in the hotwell and the level in the DFT, the difference in the pressures within these two chambers (the hotwell is generally under a high vacuum, while typical DFT pres- sures can range from approximately 10 to 70 psig), and the losses due to friction and turbulence in the pump’s suction and discharge piping (including losses in any heat exchangers that may be installed between the condenser and the DPT). Pumps used in this application are fre- quently rated to develop total heads in the range of 150 to 400 ft. ‘Two centrifugal condensate pumps are often provided for each condenser. Depending on the eapacity delivered by each pump, which is typieally less than 1200 gpm, and plant load, one pump may operate alone with the second used as a standby unit, or both pumps may be operated together in parallel. Because the condensate in the hotwell is at its saturation point, the NPSH available to the pump is essentially equal to the height of the water level in the hotwell above the standard datum, less losses in the suetion piping. ‘To maximize NPSHA, the condensate pump is usually installed as far below the condenser as practicable and has a suction line that is direct and free of unnecessary bends; however, condensate pumps must frequently operate with only 1.5 to 3 ft of NPSHA. Conse- ‘quently, operating speeds for main condensate pumps are 513 Ca LEE LEGEND 1 casing: 2° MPELLER IST STAGE 2 IMPELLER 2N0 STAGE 4 IMPELLER WEARING RING CASING WEARING RING INTERNAL BEARING. > suarr 8 skarrsueeve 9 JOURNAL steve 10 BEARING HOUSING 31 MOTOR BRACKET 32 puMe FooT Fig, 99° Vertical, wo-stoge centrifugal condensate pump. usually limited to 1800 rpm. In addition, first-stage impel- lers with suction specifie speed values as high as 18,000 have been used. ‘Two- and three-stage vertically mounted pumps that have an axially split volute-type easing are frequently used in this application (see Fig. 39). These pumps are driven by either steam turbines with reduction gears or electric motors. A grease-lubrieated ball bearing is usu- ally installed at the upper end of the pump’s shaft to absorb both axial and radial loads. In many pumps radial loads are also absorbed by internal water-lubricated sleeve bearings. To aid in the removal of air and vapor514 from the casing, a vent line is typically installed from the pump’s suction nozzle baek to the condenser. Although some units have a doublesuction first-stage impeller, many condensate pumps are fitted only with single-suc- tion impellers. In addition, when a single-suction first- stage impeller is used, it is generally mounted with its eye upward so that it will be self-venting. To maximize submergence, the first-stage impeller is often overhung on the lower end of the pump’s shaft. With this arrange- ment the single shaft seal, which ean consist of a packed stuffing box or a mechanical seal, is located at the top of the casing. The condensate being pumped, therefore, is, discharged through one or more of the pump’s stages before it reaches the base of the seal, which reduces the potential for air to be drawn into the easing through the shaft penetration. Pressurized water is also frequently recirculated to the shaft seal from a discharge area of the casing or from an external part of the condensate system. In addition to the configurations described above, ve cal turbine pumps installed in suction cans and vertically mounted multistage barrel-type diffuser pumps have also been used in this application, If the condensate pump is driven by a steam turbine, the pump’s speed can be adjusted with plant load so that the capacity removed from the hotwell matches the rate ‘at which condensate enters the hotwell. However, motor- driven condensate pumps typically operate at a fixed speed. Three basic types of arrangements are used to control the capacity delivered by constant-speed conden- sate pumps [25]: 1. Submergence control. With submergence control, the condensate pump will deliver the capacity eorrespond- ing to the point at which its head-eapacity curve crosses the system head curve only when there is sufficient NPSH available to the pump. However, if the flow of steam into the condenser is reduced and the hotwell level drops to the point where NPSH available is less than the pump’s NPSH requirement, the capacity delivered and total head developed will both be reduced by cavitation. As the redue- tion in the capacity delivered by the pump continues, a point of equilibrium will be reached where the NPSH available to the pump equals the pump’s new NPSH re- quirement, and the eapacity and hotwell level will sta lize, Provided that the NPSHA is less than the NPSHR at the point where the system head curve erosses the pump’s head-capacity curve, the pump's capacity is, therefore, automatically regulated by cavitation to match the rate at which condensate enters the hotwell. 2, Throttle control, With throttle control, the throt- tling action of a valve in the pump’s discharge line adjusts the system head curve so that it crosses the pump’s head- capacity curve at the capacity required to keep the hotwell level at a desired preset value. Under steady-state con tions this capacity also equals the rate at which conden- sate enters the hotwell. 3. Recirculation control. With recirculation control, an automatic contro} valve installed in a recireulation line connected from the pump’s discharge piping back to the condenser opens as the hotwell level drops and closes if the hotwell level increases. When this arrangement is MARINE ENGINEERING used, the hotwell level is maintained at a value that both suppresses cavitation and permits the condensate pump to operate near its rated capacity. ‘On some vessels a combination of the above methods is used for condensate-pump eapacity control. Auciliary condensate, On some vessels the steam used to drive turbogenerators is exhausted into an auxiliary condenser. As with the main condenser, the water that collects in the hotwell of the auxiliary condenser is gener- ally pumped to the DFT. Two-stage vertically mounted centrifugal pumps that are similar in design to the main condensate pumps are often used in this application, ‘These pumps, which frequently deliver capacities in the range of 35 to 250 gpm at total heads from 150 to 350 ft, are sometimes designed to operate at speeds as high as 8600 rpm. Condenser exhausting. Liquid-ring type vacuum pumps are used on some vessels to remove air and other noncondensable gases from the main or auxiliary condens- ers. Two pumps that are each capable of individually main- taining the required vacuum are frequently provided for each condenser. As a result of the high condenser vacuum typically required for proper steam plant operation, the vacuum pumps used in this application are often two- stage units. Condenser exhausting pumps are usually driven at speeds up to 1800 rpm by electric motors. A vacuum pump’s capacity is usually expressed in terms of standard cfm of dry air measured at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psia and a temperature of 70 F. The air and other gases removed from a condenser, however, are saturated with water vapor. The vapor content in the mix- ture entering a condenser exhausting pump is often esti- mated based on the amount of water vapor that will satu- rate air at a temperature equal to 7.5 deg F less than the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure within the condenser. With a condenser absolute pressure of one in, Hg, 7.5 deg F of subcooling results in a gas- vapor temperature of 71.5 F and a vapor content of ap- proximately 2.2 Ibm of water vapor for every Ibm of air. A typical liquid-ring type condenser exhausting pump re- moves air and vapor from the condenser at essentially a constant volumetric rate. Because of the increase in the density of air with pressure, the mass flow rate through the pump, therefore, inereases with the condenser’s abso- lute pressure. ‘The amount that a liquid-ring vacuum pump's suetion pressure can be reduced is limited by the vapor pressure of the liquid compressant, which increases with tempera- ‘ture. Because of this relationship, sealing water separated from the gas that has been discharged by a condenser exhausting pump is generally cooled in a heat exchanger before being returned to the unit. In some installations only a portion of the cooled water is returned to the pump’s casing, with the remainder being injected directly into the inlet line. This cools the gas and water-vapor mixture being removed from the condenser, and reduces the vapor content of this mixture before it enters the pump.PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS Freshwater-drain-collecting tank transfer. Uncon- ‘taminated fresh water that drains from various low-pres- sure sources to the freshwater- or atmospherie-drain-col- leeting tank (FWDCT) is often transferred to the DFT by a pump. The temperature of the water within this tank is typically at approximately 212 F; therefore, the NPSH available to the pump is equal only to the elevation of the water level in the tank above the standard datum, less losses within the suction line. Due to the limited NPSHA, electric-motor-driven centrifugal pumps that are similar in configuration and design to the pumps used for auxiliary condensate service are frequently used to transfer water from the drain-collecting tank. In addition, on some ves- sels volute-type sump pumps that are submerged directly within the drain-collecting tank are used in this applica- tion. Typical conditions of service for FWDCT transfer pumps include capacity ratings in the range of 50 to 150 gpm at total heads up to 275 ft. To maintain the desired water level within the drain-collecting tank, the FWDCT transfer pump's driver is generally cycled on and off as needed by a float switch that is mounted inside the tank Main feed. The function of a main feed pump, which often receives water either directly or through a booster pump from the DFT, is to return feedwater back to the steam drum in the boiler or the steam generator. The discharge pressure developed by the feed pump must, therefore, be sufficient to overcome losses in its discharge line, raise the feedwater to the required elevation, and overcome the pressure within the boiler or steam genera- tor, which is typically in the range of 450 to 1500 psig. ‘The total feedwater requirement is sometimes handled by only one pump, or the load may be shared by two or more partial-capacity feed pumps that operate in parallel. With either arrangement, additional pumps are also frequently provided for standby duty. Typical feed pump capacity ratings range from 300 to 2000 gpm. Feed pumps are often driven at speeds of 4500 to 9000 rpm by auxiliary steam turbines. A steam turbine drive offers the advantage of variable-speed capability. Al though it is not as common, alternating-current induction type electric motors are also sometimes used to drive feed pumps; however, unless a step-up gear is used, the maxi- mum operating speed for this type of a driver is typically limited to approximately 3600 rpm. Motor-driven feed pumps, therefore, must generally have more stages or larger impellers than comparably rated turbine-deiven units. The larger rotating assembly used with the slower- speed pump also results in the need for a casing that is both longer and larger in diameter. Typical marine main feed pump configurations include the following: + Single- and two-stage radially split easing pumps that have single-suction impellers and are close coupled to steam turbines. + Two, four, and six-stage axially split casing volute pumps, that, as shown in Fig. 11, have singie-suction im- pellers and are flexibly coupled, generally to steam tur- bines. + Two- and three-stage axially split easing volute pumps that have a double-suction first-stage impeller and 515 singlesuetion impellers in the remaining stages. Al- though these pumps can be flexibly coupled to their driv- ers, which are typically steam turbines, in some units the rotating parts for both the pump and turbine are mounted ‘on a common shaft. + Multistage diffuser-type radially split, as shown in Fig. 7, or axially split easing pumps that are flexibly cou- pled to steam turbines or electric motors. Although turbine-driven feed pumps are generally mounted horizontally, motor-driven pumps are furnished in both horizontal and vertical configurations. In addition, when the feed pump is motor-driven, external support for its shaft is often provided by grease-lubricated antifrie- tion bearings. Smaller turbine-driven feed pumps may also have ball or roller bearings; larger-sized turbine- driven units, however, frequently have atilting-pad thrust bearing and sleeve-type line bearings. Because of the high operating speeds of turbine-driven feed pumps, their e ternal bearings are generally lubricated with oil. This oil is frequently supplied by the same system used for turbine bearing lubrication. During normal operation the oil is removed from a reservoir tank, whieh is often built into the feed pump’s baseplate, and is transferred to the bear- ings by a rotary pump that is geared to the turbine’s shaft. A separate motor-driven rotary pump may also be provided to lubricate the pump and turbine bearings prior to startup and during low-speed operation. Many feed pumps rely on packed stuffing boxes for shaft sealing. To reduce the pressure of the feedwater being contained by the packing, the base of each stuffing box is frequently fitted with a multiple labyrinth-type breakdown bushing. A leak-off connection piped back to suction may be included to further reduce the pressure of the feedwater in the stuffing box. To reduce the tempera- ture at the packing, the stuffing boxes also often include external jackets through which cooling water is circu- lated. Mechanical seals have limited usage in marine main feed pumps. In lieu of packing or mechanical seals, some feed pumps are fitted with condensate injeetion seals. Each of these “packless stuffing boxes” contains either a stationary serrated labyrinth-type fixed breakdown bush- ing or a series of spring-loaded floating rings that are stacked axially. With both arrangements, a close radial clearance is maintained between the stationary sealing elements and the rotating shaft or sleeve. Cool water diverted from the discharge of the condensate pump is introduced centrally into the seal. A small portion of this water may flow into the pump. The remainder, however, flows outward into a collection chamber that is piped back to the condenser. With a constant speed driver, the feed pump’s capacity is controlled by the throttling action of the feedwater regulating valve. However, if multiple partial-capacity feed pumps are used, the amount of valve throttling can be reduced by starting and stopping pumps as needed When a feed pump is driven by a steam turbine, its op- erating speed is frequently adjusted with either a con- stantpressure or a constant-differential-pressure gover- nor. A constant-pressure governor automatically adjusts the pump's speed to maintain a constant pressure at the516 H-0 cHamacrenisr ic [or pumps coRSTANT SPEED SYSTEM HEAD CURVE witn FeeowaTeR REGULATOR ELEVATION BRAKE HORSEPOWES oesign CAPACITY CAPACITY (2) Constant pressure control EAD KoG.CHARACTERISTIC SYSTEM HEAD CURVE EPUMP-CONSTANT SPEED WITH FEEDWATER RecucaTon VARIABLE PRESSURE VARIABLE SPEED e ‘ELEVATION | oraxe Horsepower = DESIGN CAPACITY TaPACITY (2) Different pressure contr Fig. 40 Feed pump performance inlet to the feedwater regulating valve. If there is a redue- tion in steam plant load and the valve begins to close, which shifts the system head curve to the left, the feed pump will initially respond by delivering a lower capacity of feedwater at a higher pressure. However, as shown in Fig. 40(a), the constant-pressure governor will reduce the pump’s speed to maintain a discharge pressure equal to the set point, and less throttling of the feedwater regulat- ing valve will be required. When the turbine has a con- stant-differentialpressure governor, the feed pump’s speed is automatically adjusted to maintain a constant differential pressure across the feedwater regulating valve. With this type of a governor, changes in the capac- ity delivered by the feed pump result primarily from varia- tions in operating speed. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 40(6), very little throttling of the feedwater regulating valve is necessary. On nuclear-powered vessels the pressure within the steam generator often increases at low loads. The resulting system head requirement can increase with reductions in capacity and reach its peak value at shutoff. ‘The feed pumps used must, therefore, be sized to not only develop the required total head at the rated capacity, but to also develop sufficient head at low flow rates. This can bbe accomplished in cases where the system head curve is, steeper than the head-capacity curve for the feed pump by using a variable-speed driver and increasing the pump’s speed as the capacity delivered is reduced, or by sizing the pump to develop the required low-flow head and then throttling the feedwater control valve as necessary when operating at higher flow rates. MARINE ENGINEERING ‘The feedwater stored within the DFT is at its saturation temperature; therefore, neglecting the velocity head within the DFT and assuming that a feed booster pump is not used, the NPSH available to the typical feed pump is equal only to the elevation of the water level in the DPT above the standard datum, less losses within the pump's suetion line. Based on the available NPSH and on the capacity being delivered, the pump’s maximum operating speed is often limited by the suction specifie speed of its first-stage impeller. To enable the pump’s maximum operating speed to be increased, S values exceeding 12,000 have been used in some feed pump designs. In addition to considering NPSHA during steady-state operation, the NPSH available to the feed pump during transient condi- tions should also be considered. For example, if the DPT is partially heated with steam extracted from the propulsion turbines, a reduction in plant load can result in reductions in the temperature and pressure within the DFT. A similar effect can result from a sudden increase in the flow rate of cool condensate entering the DFT. In both situations the reduction in the DFT’s pressure is transmitted directly to the feed pump's inlet. The temperature of the feedwa- ter already in the pump’s suction line, however, is not reduced. Therefore, until the suction line is evacuated, there is a reduction in the NPSH available to the pump. ‘The magnitude of this reduetion in NPSHA, which can be estimated using equations included in reference 2, in- creases as the DFT's internal volume and pressure and ‘the volume within the feed pump’s suction piping increase. To prevent problems from occurring during operation with transient conditions, a safety margin must fre- quently be provided between the steady-state values of NPSHA and the feed pump's NPSH requirements. To prevent operation at excessively low capacities, which can lead to a rapid inerease in the temperature of the water within the pump, a bypass line is generally provided from the feed pump's discharge to the DFT. In some installations the bypass is fitted with either a single or a multiple pressure-reducing orifice that continuously recirculates feedwater back to the DFT. With this ar- rangement, however, the recireulation flow rate must be added to the net capacity required when the feed pump is sized. To eliminate the need to oversize the feed pump, on some vessels an automatic control valve that opens only at low flow rates is installed in the bypass line. To protect the feed pump from operating with too low a suction pres- sure, which can result in excessive cavitation, a low-suc- tion-pressure trip is often provided to stop the pumps driver if the suction pressure drops below a preset value. In-port feed. In addition to main feed pumps, smaller- capacity pumps are also installed on some vessels for use in port when the demand on the steam plant is low. The use of an “in-port” feed pump eliminates the need to oper- ate the larger main feed pumps at very low partial eapacit- ies. Motor-driven reeiprocating-type power pumps rated to deliver capacities less than 100 gpm are often used for in-port feed service. Motor- and steam-driven reciprocat- ing pumps have also been installed on some vessels to serve as backup units in the event of a main feed pump failure.PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS Feed booster. On some vessels a booster pump is used to inerease the pressure of the feedwater before it enters the main feed pump. Because the booster pump and the main feed pump operate in series, they must be sized to handle the same capacity. However, the total head devel- ‘oped by the booster pump is typically less than 200 ft. The booster pump ean, therefore, be driven at a much lower speed and, for a given suction specific speed, will require Jess NPSH than the main feed pump. In addition, due to the increase in the NPSH available to the main feed pump, the use of a booster pump enables a feed pump with a higher operating speed or a lower suction speeifie speed to be used. ‘Typical configurations used for feed booster service include single- and two-stage vertically mounted centrifu- gal pumps. Operating speeds are generally limited to 1800 rpm. Many of these pumps are flexibly coupled to electric ‘motors or steam turbines with reduction gears; however, some motor-driven single-stage units are furnished in a close-coupled configuration. Either a mechanical seal or a water-cooled packed stuffing box is typically provided for shaft sealing. Main circulating, A main circulating pump takes sue- tion from the vessel's sea chest and discharges seawater through the tubes in the main condenser. ‘The capacity delivered by this pump is often in the range of 5000 to 30,000 gpm at total heads from 10 to 40 ft. High-capacity circulating pumps are frequently driven at speeds not exceeding 900 rpm by either steam turbines with reduc- tion gears or electric motors. Although some main eircu- lating pumps are mounted horizontally, itis more common for vertical units to be used. Typical main circulating pump configurations include the followin; + Single-stage axial-flow propeller pumps, such as the one shown in Fig. 41. This type of a pump is often fur- nished with an axially split casing that is fitted with a removable multi-vaned diffuser on the discharge side of the propeller. The pump’s casing may also have a replace- able liner s0 that the close radial clearance between the casing’s inner wall and the tips of the propeller’s vanes can be periodically renewed. With the overhung shaft ar- rangement that is typically used, only one shaft seal is required at the drive end of the easing. Radial shaft loads are generally absorbed by an internal sleeve bearing lo- cated above the propeller. Many pumps, however, do not inelude thrust bearings, and must, therefore, be rigidly coupled to their drivers. In addition to the main suction flange, which is connected to the sea chest, some casings inelude an auxiliary side suction connection that enables the circulating pump to be used to remove water from the vessel's bilges. + Single-stage mixed-flow pumps that have either a semiopen or, as shown in Fig. 42, a closed end-suetion impeller. Both axially and radially split casings that in- clude a volute or a multivaned diffuser are used with these pumps. Although the pump shaft may be supported in a fashion similar to that used for the propeller-type units, in some mixed-flow pumps the shaft is, instead, supported by external grease lubricated antifrietion line 517 : a Axial cireulating pump Fig. 4 and thrust bearings, which enables it to be flexibly cou- pled to the shaft of the driver. In addition, some smaller pumps are furnished in a close-coupled configuration. + Radial-flow pumps with a single-stage double-sue- tion impeller (see Fig. 13). These pumps are usually fur- nished with an axially split volute-type casing. The pump’s shaft is typically supported at each end by an externally mounted grease lubricated antifrietion bearing. It is also generally flexibly coupled to the shaft of the driver. Be- cause of the outboard bearing, with this configuration two shaft seals are required, If the vessel has a scoop injection system, the main circulating pump will generally be required to operate only at low vessel speeds. With this arrangement the cir- culating pump, therefore, operates intermittently. Be cause much of the operation occurs while the vessel is in shallower water, the liquid passing through the pump often contains silt, sand, and other abrasives. For this reason, in many circulating pumps packed stuffing boxes are used for shaft sealing. In addition, internal sleeve bearings that are lubricated by water being discharged from the pump are often furnished in abrasion-resistant grades of rubber or composite materials in lieu of stan- dard bearing bronze. As an alternative to using the pumped liquid for lubrication, some internal bearings are lubricated with either grease or clean water supplied518 through an external connection in the circulating pump's casing. Aucitiary circulating, Auxiliary circulating pumps supply cooling water to the smaller condensers that are frequently provided to receive steam exhausted from the vessel's turbogenerators. These pumps, which are often rated to deliver capacities in the range of 1500 to 15,000 gpm and develop total heads up to 35 ft, can be similar in design to the radia-flow main circulating pumps. In addition, in some lower-eapacity applications, end-suetion radial-flow pumps with radially split volute-type casings are used. Fuel-oil service. On vessels with oilfired boilers, two or more pumps receive fuel oil from either the high-suc- tion or the low-suetion ports in the fuel-il service (set- tling) tanks and discharge it to the burner manifold in the boiler. Prior to reaching the burner manifold, the fuel oil discharged from the service pumps often passes through a heater, a strainer, and a pressure-reducing valve. Each pump used is generally capable of handling 100% of the boiler’s full-load requirements, with the additional units serving as backup. Horizontally and vertically mounted rotary pumps, often of the gear or multiple-screw type, are generally’ used in this application. Many of these pumps are driven by steam turbines. However, to enable fuel oil to be pumped prior to plant start-up, most vessels also have at least one motor-driven pump. Typical condi- tions of service in this application include capacity ratings in the range of 15 to 40 gpm at discharge pressures up to 350 psig. The viscosity of the oil pumped is frequently in MARINE ENGINEERING Fig. 42 Mixedlflow circulating pump the range of 450 to 8000 SSU. Inlet conditions to a fuel- oil service pump, which vary with the level of the fuel oil in the service tanks, can often range from a flooded sue- tion to a total suetion lift as high as 20 in. Hg. Changes to the capacity delivered by a rotary fueloil service pump can be made by varying the pump’s op- erating speed, which is possible when the pump is driven by a steam turbine or by a multispeed electric motor. However, even during constant-speed operation, the amount of fuel oil actually supplied to the boiler’s burners can generally be regulated by recirculating any exeess oil delivered to the burner manifold back to the inlet side of the pump. A separate rotary type “cold boiler starting” fueloil pump is also installed on many vessels to supply light fuel oil to the boiler during plant start-up. These pumps are often rated to deliver capacities of less than 10 gpm at discharge pressures up to 150 psi, and are generally driven by electric motors. Fueloil transfer. A fuel-oil transfer pump is used to transfer fuel oil from the vessel's storage (bunker) tanks to the service tanks. Pumps used in this application in- clude horizontally and vertically mounted rotary units similar in configuration to those used for fuel-oil service, as well as rotary pumps that are submerged directly within the fuel-il storage tank and are driven through vertical line shafting by motors located above the tank. In addition, motor-driven (power) and steam-driven (direct- acting) reciprocating piston pumps are also sometimesPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS used in this application, Fueboil transfer pumps are typi- cally rated to deliver capacities up to 750 gpm at a dis- charge pressure of 100 psig. They must often be suitable for operation with a total suction lift as high as 20 in. He, and can be used to pump oil with a viscosity as high as 8000 SSU. The capacity delivered by a steam-turbine- driven rotary or direct-aeting reciprocating fuel-oil service pump can be adjusted by varying the pump's operating speed. To enable the capacity delivered by motor-driven pumps to also be changed, the motors used often have multiple operating speeds. Lubricating oil. Lubricating.oil service (LOS) pumps take suction from the lubricating-oil sump tank and dis- charge oil, typically through a strainer and a cooler, either toan overhead gravity tank or directly to the main propul- sion machinery. Multiplescrew, gear, and vane pumps that are mounted either horizontally or vertically are of- ten used in this application. Vertical LOS pumps are some- times submerged directly within the lubricating-oil sump tank. Most vessels are fitted with two or three LOS pumps with at least one usually driven by an electrie motor; how- ever, the remaining pumps may be driven by steam tur- bines, off the main propulsion reduetion gears, or off the propeller shaft, LOS pumps are frequently rated to de- liver capacities as high as 550 gpm at discharge pressures from 60 to 80 psig. Many pumps must be suitable for operation with suetion lifts in the range of 10 to 15 in. Hg while pumping oil with a viscosity of 130 to 500 SSU and an air entrainment of 2 to 5%. In addition to the LOS pumps, similar units are also often furnished to circulate lubricating oil through a puri- fier, transfer it from the main storage tanks to settling tanks, and deliver it to smaller tanks in various locations throughout the vessel where the oil is stored for use in auxiliary components. Boiler hydrotest and chemical feed. Motor-driven plunger pumps are often used to pressurize the water and steam side of the boiler during hydrostatic testing, and to inject chemicals into the boiler. These units are generally mounted horizontally and are rated to deliver capacities, in the range of 2 to 25 gpm at discharge pressures up to 2000 psig. Because these power pumps generally operate at speeds below 600 rpm, they are typically coupled to their drive motors through gear reducers or with sheaves and multi-V belts. Contaminated-evaporator feed. Condensate returned from heat exchangers in which fluids that could contami- nate the main steam system are heated is often collected in the contaminated-drain-inspection tank. Many vessels have electrie-motor-driven centrifugal or regenerative turbine pumps that are used to transfer the condensate from the inspection tank to a contaminated evaporator. Volute-type sump pumps that are submerged directly within the inspection tank are also sometimes used in this application. Typical conditions of service for contaminat- ed-evaporator feed pumps include capacity ratings in the range of 15 to 50 gpm at total heads up to 350 ft. An automatie throttle valve is generally installed in the con- taminated-evaporator feed pump’s discharge line, and en- ables the pump to operate continuously and still maintain 519 a constant water level within the evaporator. To prevent, the pump from operating at too low a capacity, a bypass is connected to its discharge line through which a portion of the water being pumped is recirculated back to the inspection tank. Nuclear reactor primary loop. The main coolant pumps in the primary loop of a pressurized-water nuclear reactor typically take suction from the steam generators and return water to the reactor vessel. Vertically mounted motor-driven single-stage centrifugal pumps are gener- ally used in this application. In some of these units the pump's shaft is rigidly coupled to that of the drive motor and relies on the motor’s thrust bearing for axial support. Radial support for the pump’s shaft, however, is ire. quently provided by an internal water-lubrieated journal bearing. To reduce the potential for leakage from the casing, special water-cooled shaft seals are often installed in these coupled pumps. In addition, to eliminate the need for a shaft seal, hermetically sealed canned motor pumps are sometimes used in reactor coolant service. Other pumps frequently furnished for applications as- sociated with pressurized-water reactors include motor- driven reciprocating plungertype charging pumps that are used to fill and pressurize the primary loop, centrifu- gal pumps that supply cooling water to various reactor components, such as the bearings and seals in the main coolant pumps and motors, and canned motor pumps that cireulate a portion of the water in the primary loop through a purifier [2]. b. Diesel engine propulsion-related pump applica- tions. Fuel-oil booster. Fuel-oil booster (or supply) pumps take suetion either directly from the fuel-il daily service tanks or from a separate fuel-oil mixing tank and dis- charge fuel, through a heater and a filter, to the propul- sion engine’s injection pumps. Many vessels have two mul- tiple-screw- or gear-type fuel-oil booster pumps that are each capable of supplying approximately 2.5 times the engine’s full-power fuel requirements. Although both of these pumps may be driven by electric motors, one pump is frequently driven off the engine when a medium- or high-speed engine is used. Typical conditions of service for fueloil booster pumps include eapacity ratings in the range of 15 to 65 gpm at discharge pressures from 60 to 160 psig. The viscosity of the oil being pumped can vary from approximately 40 SSU for diesel oil to over 4000 SSU, for heavy fuel oils. ‘The engine's injection pumps are generally cam-oper- ated variable-stroke or variable-effective-stroke plunger- type units and are sometimes an integral part of the en- gine’s injectors. Excess oil delivered to the injection pumps is recireulated back to the service or mixing tank, Fuel-oil transfer. Multiple-serew and gear pumps are often used to transfer fuel oil from a vessel's storage (bunker) tanks to the fueboil settling tanks. Many diesel- powered vessels are fitted with two transfer systems: one for heavy fuel oil and a second for diesel oil. Separate transfer pumps are generally provided for each system. Fueloil transfer pumps, which are frequently driven by520 two-speed electrie motors, are often rated to deliver capac- ities in the range of 50 to 425 gpm at discharge pressures from 35 to 150 psig. In some installations the pumps are submerged within the storage tanks and are driven through vertical line shafting by motors located above the tank, Additional positive-displacement pumps are generally used to transfer fuel-oil from the settling tanks to the daily service tanks. These pumps may be driven by inde- pendent eleetrie motors, or they may be attached to the purifiers that the fuel-oil passes through before reaching the service tanks. Some vessels also have pumps that are used to transfer fuel oil from the daily service tanks to a separate mixing tank. Lubricating oil. Two or more lubricating-oil circulating pumps are generally used to remove lubricating oil from a sump or drain tank located below the main engine and return the oil, through a cooler and filters, to the engine's, bearings, to the governor, and, in some cases, to the en- gine’s turbocharger. Although vertically or horizontally mounted multiple-serew and gear pumps are often used in this application, multistage vertical turbine pumps that are submerged within the lubricating-oil drain tank and centrifugal pumps have also been used. Typical conditions of service for lubricating-oil cireulating pumps include capacity ratings in the range of 400 to 2400 gpm at dis- charge pressures from 50 to 110 psig while handling with a viscosity of 130 to 600 SSU and an air entrainment of 2%, Lubricating.oil circulating pumps for low-speed engines are driven by electric motors. With a medium or high-speed engine, however, one of the pumps is fre- quently driven off the engine. With a crosshead-type engine, a portion of the oil dis- charged from the lubrieating-oil circulating pumps is of- ten supplied to the inlet side of two or more lower-capacity rotary-type booster pumps. The high-pressure oil dis- charged from these smaller pumps is used to lubricate the engine's crosshead bearings. Separate pumps are also sometimes used to transfer oil for cylinder lubrication to a measuring tank that feeds mechanical plunger-type lubricators mounted on the engine. Depending on the de- sign of the engine, additional rotary-type pumps may be used to supply lubricating oil to speeifie engine eompo- nents, such as the camshaft bearings. Furthermore, on vessels with medium- or high-speed propulsion engines, rotary pumps are generally used to deliver lubricating oil to the reduction gears. Typieal capacity and discharge pressure ratings for these applications range from 100 to 800 gpm at 175 to 280 psig for crosshead-oil pumps, 5 to 10 gpm at 80 psig for cylinder-oil transfer pumps, 10 to 60 gpm at 60 to 150 psig for camshaftoil pumps, and up to 200 gpm at 25 to 65 psig for reduction-gear-oil pumps. Positive displacement pumps are generally used to cir- culate lubricating oil through purifiers. Although these pumps may be attached to the purifiers, some vessels have independent electrie-motor-driven pumps. Blectric- motor-driven pumps are also used to transfer lubricating oil from the main storage tanks to the settling tanks and to transfer unusable oil ashore. Typical conditions of ser- vice for lubricating-oil transfer pumps include capacity MARINE ENGINEERING ratings in the range of 10 to 65 gpm at discharge pres- sures from 20 to 70 psig. On some vessels, an additional rotary-type "scavenging pump” is used to transfer lubri ‘ating oil that drains into the engine's crankcase to a separate sump or drain tank. Engine cooling water. Fresh water is typically used to cool the main engine’s cylinders and cylinder heads. Duplicate horizontally or vertieally mounted single-stage centrifugal pumps are frequently provided to circulate the water through the engine, its turbochargers, when they are freshwater cooled, a cooler, and, in some eases, an evaporator (where heat from the water is used for freshwater generation). Although these pumps are often called the jacket-water cooling pumps, on vessels fitted with a central cooling system they may be referred to as the high+temperature-freshwater cooling pumps. An elevated expansion tank in the system maintains a posit suetion head to the pumps. When a low-speed engine is used, both jacket-water cooling pumps are driven by elee- triemotors. With a medium- or high-speed engine, how- ever, one pump may be driven off the engine. Some crosshead-type engines have an independent freshwater system for piston cooling. Although the pumps that circulate the piston-cooling water may be simi- lar in configuration to the jacket-water cooling pumps, sump pumps and vertical turbine pumps that are sub- merged within the piston-cooling-water drain tank are sometimes used. Additional centrifugal pumps may also be provided to circulate fresh water through a third eireuit that cools the engine's fuel valves or injectors. A separate elevated expansion tank maintains a positive suction head to the fuel-valve-cooling-water pumps. Piston-cooling-wa- ter pumps and fuel-valve-cooling-water pumps are gener- ally driven by electric motors. Typical capacity and total head ratings in engine-cooling-water applications ean range from 375 to 2500 gpm at 65 to 130 ft for jacket- water-cooling pumps, 150 to 800 gpm at 140 to 190 ft for piston-cooling-water pumps, and 15 to 70 gpm at 100 to 165 ft for fuel-valve-cooling-water pumps. ‘Two or three separate centrifugal pumps are frequently provided to supply seawater to heat exchangers used to cool the fresh water that is circulated through the main engine. Seawater may also be circulated through the en- gine’s lubricating-oil and air coolers when these heat ex- changers are not freshwater cooled. Typical conditions of service for main-engine seawater pumps include capacity ratings up to 6000 gpm at total heads in the range of 30 to 100 ft. Although these pumps are often driven by electric motors, a medium- or high-speed engine may be fitted with an attached seawater pump. Waste-heat and auxiliary boilers. On many diesel- powered vessels, the exhaust gas from the engine is used to generate steam in a waste-heat boiler. Centrifugal-type condensate and feed pumps are generally required to transfer water from the condenser used in this system back to the boiler. In addition, depending on the configura- tion of the waste-heat steam system used, boiler cireulat- ing pumps may also be required. Motor-driven one- and two-stage centrifugal and regenerative turbine pumps that are mounted horizontally or vertieally are often usedPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS in these applications. Similar pumps, together with rotary- type fuel-oil pumps, are also required if the vessel has an auxiliary oil-fired boiler that is used to generate steam. ¢. Gas turbine propulsion-related pump applica. tions. Fuel oil. Fuel oil is delivered to a gas turbine’s eombus- tion chambers by the fuel-oil service pumps. Rotary gear pumps that are driven off the gas turbine are generally used in this application. Separate rotary-type booster pumps that take suetion from the fuel-oil service tanks and deliver the gas turbine’s fuel oil, through filters and a heater, to the fuel-oil service pumps are also often pro- vided. The fuel-oil booster pumps are generally driven by two-speed electric motors. Additional electrie-motor- driven rotary pumps are required to transfer fuel oil from the vessel's storage tanks to the service tanks. The oil discharged from the fueloil transfer pumps usually pas- ses through a purifier before entering the service tanks. Lubricating oil. ‘The gas turbine’s lubricating.oil pumps take suetion from the vessel’s main lubrieating-oil reservoir and deliver synthetic oil to the gas turbine’s bearings. The main lubrieating-oil pumps are typically ro- tary gear-type units that are driven off the gas turbine. Electric-motor-driven auxiliary pumps, however, may also be provided for use during plant start-up or cooldown and as backup to the main pumps. On many vessels an additional rotary-type pump, sometimes referred to as the scavenging pump, circulates oit that drains from the turbine’s bearings through a cooler and filters, and re- turns the oil to the main lubricating oil reservoir. Separate rotary serew pumps generaily cireulate min- eral oil through an independent system used for reduction gear lubrication. This oil is also used as the cooling me- dium in the gas turbine’s lubrieating-oil cooler. One of the reduction gear lubrieating-oil pumps is typically driven off the reduetion gears; the remaining pumps, however, are driven by electric motors. Additional rotary pumps are also used to circulate the vessel's various lubricating oils through purifiers and to transfer lubricating oils from storage tanks to locations throughout the vessel. Waste-heat and auriliary boilers. Waste-heat boilers are installed on some gas-turbine-propelled vessels so that the hot gases exhausted from the turbine can be used to produce steam. Auxiliary oil-fired boilers may also be installed on these vessels. The pumps used with these boilers are similar to those used with waste-heat and auxil- jary boilers installed on diesel-powered vessels, d. General non-propulsion-related pump applica- tio Fire. Fire pumps, which take suction from the sea chest and deliver seawater to the vessel's fire mains and hoses, are often rated to deliver eapacities in the range of 150 to 4000 gpm at discharge pressures from approximately 100 to 185 psig. The actual capacity and pressure ratings for a specific installation are based on the number of hoses and the pressure required at the farthest hose. Multiple pumps are typically installed at various locations through- out the vessel so that adequate backup capacity will be available during an emergency. Pump configurations commonly used for fire service include the following: 521 + Horizontally and vertically mounted single-stage centrifugal pumps that have an axially split easing and a double-suction impeller (see Fig. 13). The impeller is centered on a shaft that is supported at each end by exter- nal grease lubricated ball bearings or internal sleeve bear- ings. These pumps are generally driven by electric motors, steam turbines, or diesel engines at speeds that range from approximately 1800 to 8600 rpm. + Axially split casing centrifugal pumps similar to those described above, except that the pump’s rotor in- cludes two single-suction impellers. The use of these two- stage pumps is generally limited to lower-eapacity applica- tions for which a single-stage unit would have too low a specific speed. + Single-stage centrifugal pumps that have a radially split casing and an end-suction type impeller. These pumps, and the electric motors that typically drive them at speeds up to approximately 3600 rpm, are often fur- nished in a close-coupled configuration (see Fig. 14). Close- coupled fire pumps, which can be mounted horizontally or vertically, are generally used to deliver capacities not exceeding 1100 gpm. + Vertical turbine pumps are used for installations in which the fire pump impellers must be submerged within a tank or cofferdam, The VTP's above-deck driver can be a vertical electric motor, or a horizontal motor, a steam turbine, or diesel engine that is coupled to the pump’s shaft through a rightangle gear. Because these pumps are seldom operated at speeds above 1800 rpm, they are generally furnished with multistage bowl assemblies. When possible, fire pumps are generally installed low enough in the vessel so that their first-stage impellers are flooded, With this arrangement the NPSH available to the fire pump is approximately equal to the submergence of its impeller below the vessel’s waterline plus atmospheric pressure, less losses due to friction and turbulence within the sea chest and the pump’s suction line. Because the impeller's submergence can vary with the vessel's list and trim conditions, pumps used for fire service should have NPSH requirements thatare not only less than the normal NPSHA, but are also less than the reduced NPSH that can be available during emergency conditions. In addition, if due to installation constraints the fire pump can operate with a suction lift, it must either have the capability to be self-priming or be connected to a vacuum priming system. ‘Some vessels also carry gasoline-engine-driven portable fire pumps. These single-stage end-suetion pumps typi cally deliver a capacity of approximately 250 gpm at a discharge pressure of 100 psig and are generally driven at speeds up to 5000 rpm. To enable the portable pumps to be used in areas of the vessel that are above deck, they are often fitted with integral vacuum priming pumps. As an alternative to fighting fires with water, some vessels have systems that enable them to fight fires with foams composed of a mixture of foam concentrate, water, and air. These systems typically inelude rotary foam con- centrate pumps and centrifugal water pumps. Rotary pumps may also be included to pressurize hydraulic fluid when it is used to actuate foam distribution monitors.522 Bilge. Bilge pumps are used to remove liquid that accu- mulates on the tank tops and in spaces located throughout, the vessel. Depending on the cleanliness of this liquid, it is discharged overboard, or directed to an oily-waste collecting tank. In an emergency situation, the bilge pumps may also be used to evacuate water from an area of the vessel that is flooding due to leakage from a rup- tured pipe or component, or as a result of damage to the hull. Several bilge pumps are typically installed at various locations on the vessel. Capacity ratings for these pumps are often in the range of 25 to 1000 gpm. Horizontally and vertically mounted electric-motor- driven centrifugal pumps are frequently used in this appli- cation. Due to the relatively low head requirements for bilge service, which generally do not exceed 150 ft, these pumps are typically single-stage units. In addition, they usually have an axially split casing with a double-suetion impeller mounted between bearings or a radially split cas- ing with a single-suetion overhung impeller. Smaller radi: ally split casing pumps may be furnished in a close-cou- pled configuration. Some centrifugal bilge pumps and their motors are capable of operating even when sub- merged. Coupled submersible pumps often have only sleeve+type radial bearings that are either water lubri- cated or packed with grease. With this arrangement axial loads acting on the pump’s shaft are transmitted to the motor’s thrust bearing through a rigid coupling. Because centrifugal bilge pumps typically operate with a suction lift, a non-self-priming pump must generally be connected to the vessel’s central priming system or fitted with a vacuum priming pump. To eliminate the need for a priming pump, self-priming centrifugal pumps are some- times used in this application. (Although these units are often suitable to operate with the suction lifts required in bilge service, due to their limited air-handling capability, self-priming centrifugal pumps can have extended prim- ing times when operating in systems with long lengths of horizontal suction piping. Their performance should, therefore, be carefully analyzed prior to use in a bilge system.) Additional alternatives that eliminate the need for a priming pump in bilge service include the use of ‘sump pumps and VIP's (which permits the pump’s impel- ler to be submerged direetly within the bilge), motor-, steam-, and air-driven reeiprocating piston pumps, rotary- vane pimps, and submerged air-driven diaphragm pumps. Some electrie-motor-driven bilge pumps are automatically cycled on and off by float switches that are mounted in the bilge suction wells. Oily-waste and sludge transfer. In addition to the bilge pumps, many vessels have a separate pump that removes the oil and water mixture from the bilge system's oily- waste collecting tank and discharges it to an oil-water separator. Additional pumps may also be provided to transfer the contents in separated-oil and sludge tanks, which can include dirty oil from fuel- and lubrieating-oil purifiers and from the bilge systems oily-water separator, ashore or to another vessel. Although rotary-type prog- ressing-cavity pumps are often used in these applications, sliding-vane, gear, and multiple-serew pumps have also been used, Typical conditions of service include capacity MARINE ENGINEERING. ratings in the range of 10 to 50 gpm at discharge pres- sures from 40 to 100 psig. The viscosity of the fluids pumped can vary from 82 to 8000 SSU. Ballast. Ballast pumps are used to transfer seawater into and out of the vessel's ballast tanks. They, therefore, can take suction from the sea chest or from ballast tanks that are being emptied. In addition, the seawater that is discharged by these pumps can be directed to ballast tanks or overboard. Horizontally and vertically mounted single-stage centrifugal pumps that have an axially split casing and a doublesuetion impeller mounted between bearings are often used in this application. In addition, VIP's and reversible axialflow propeller pumps are sometimes used for ballast service. The capacity rating for each ballast pump, which is based on the size of the vessel's ballast tanks, the vessel's turnaround time re- quirements, and the number of ballast pumps on the ves- sel, ean range from approximately 500 gpm on smaller vessels to over 20,000 gpm for the pumps installed on large liquid-bulk carriers. ‘The total head that must be developed by the typical ballast pump is generally less than 150 ft; higher heads can be required, however, from ballast pumps that supply motive water to dewatering eductors. Drivers used with ballast pumps include electric and hydraulic motors, and steam turbines. Although a ballast pump generally operates with a flooded stuction when it takes suction from the sea chest or initially begins to empty a ballast tank that is full, as the water level in a tank being emptied is reduced, the submergence of the pump's impeller and the NPSH avail- able to the unit are continuously reduced. For this reason ballast pumps generally have relatively low NPSH re- quirements. To enable a low NPSH requirement to be achieved with a suction speeifie speed that is not exces- sive, ballast pumps frequently operate at speeds not ex- ceeding 1800 rpm. In addition, to enable these pumps to evacuate their suction lines of air and vapor if suction is lost during operation with a suction lift, centrifugal bal- last pumps are generally connected to central priming systems or, in some cases, to automatic stripping systems. To enable the VTP’s used in ballast service to take suction from multiple locations, they are generally installed in suction cans. In addition, because there may be times ‘when air or vapor must be removed from the suction cans and the suction piping, vertical turbine ballast pumps are often fitted with self-priming valves. Multiple and general service. On many vessels, the same pumps may be used for two or three different appli- cations. For example, by changing the valve lineup at the pump's suction and discharge manifolds, the same unit is often used alternately for either bilge or ballast service. A single pump may also be used in both the fire and the bilge systems. These units, which are sometimes referred to as general service pumps, must be designed so that they can deliver the capacities and develop the total heads required for each of the applications in which they will be utilized. To enable a single pump to meet more than one rating point, multiple-speed drivers are often furnished with these units,PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS. Distilling plant. Several pumps are used with the di tilling plants that convert seawater into fresh water. In- cluded among them are the following: +, A distiller feed pump—is used to supply seawater to the distilling plant. This pump must develop sufficient head to overcome the friction drop in the heat exchangers that the seawater often passes through prior to entering the distiller. Distiller feed pumps are typically rated to deliver capacities in the range of 20 to 1000 gpm and develop total heads up to 200 ft. + A brine overboard pump—receives the hot brine from the distilling plant and discharges it overboard. Brine overboard pumps are often rated to deliver eapacit- ies in the range of 20 to 1000 gpm at total heads up to 150 ft + A distillate pump—circulates the fresh water being produced by the distilling plant through a cooler, and then transfers it to the distilled water, potable water, or re- serve feedwater tank, or to the bilge if the water's salinity content is excessive. Distillate pumps are typically rated to deliver capacities in the range from 10 to 500 gpm at total heads of 225 ft or less. + A feed heater condensate pump—is used in some distilling plants to transfer condensate from the seawater heater'to the vessel's condensate system, Pumps used in this application are typically rated to deliver capacities up to 350 gpm at total heads as high as 200 ft. + A distilling condenser circulating pump—is some- times used in lieu of the distiller feed pump to cireulate seawater through the distillate cooler and distiller con- denser. Although a portion of the seawater may then be discharged overboard, the remainder generally continues on to become the distiller's feedwater. Capacity ratings for the pumps used in this application can be as high as 1150 gpm at total heads up to 100 ft. + A distiller chemical feed pump—is used to inject chemicals into the distiller for acid cleaning. Distiller chemical feed pumps are generally rated to deliver capaci- ties that are less than 10 gpm. + A vacuum pump—is used to evacuate air from some types of distilling plants. With the exception of distil which are generally of the liquid-ring design, the pumps used with many smaller distillers are horizontally or verti- cally mounted single-stage centrifugal units that have a radially split casing and a single-suction overhung impel- ler. In addition, in low-capacity high-head applications, such as distiller feed service, regenerative turbine pumps are sometimes used. The pumps furnished with these dis- tillers may be mounted directly on the distilling plant as- sembly, and are often close coupled to electric motors. Similar pumps are frequently used with high-capacity dis- tilling plants. However, flexibly coupled centrifugal pumps that have an axially split casing and a double- suction impeller mounted between bearings are also used with some larger distillers Cooling water. Pumps are used in several applications to deliver cooling water to various heat exehangers on the vessel. Included among these applications are the fol lowing: 523 + Seawater cooling pumps—take suction from the ves- sel’s sea chests and circulate seawater through heat ex- changers that utilize the water for cooling. The seawater is then discharged overboard. On many vessels, the co ing pumps are called seawater service pumps and distrib- ute seawater to a variety of different heat exchangers, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning condensers, fuel-oil and lubricating-oil coolers, and air coolers. If the vessel has a central cooling system, however, the pumps, which may be referred to as the main or central seawater pumps, cireulate seawater through only two or three large freshwater coolers. (The fresh water is then distributed throughout the vessel for cooling.) Typical conditions of service for seawater cooling pumps include capacity rat- ings in the range of 500 to 9000 gpm at total heads from 65 to 100 ft. + Freshwater cooling pumps—circulate fresh water through the various heat exchangers that utilize the water as a cooling medium. Also included in the closed system is a seawater-cooled heat exchanger, which is used to cool the fresh water. On a diesel-powered vessel with a central cooling system, the fresh water may be circulated through two independent cooling systems: a low-temperature sys- tem that supplies cooling water to heat exchangers used with auxiliaries, and a high-temperature system that is used to cool the main engines. Separate pumps are in- stalled in each system. Conditions of service for freshwa- ter cooling pumps can include capacity ratings in the range from 200 to 8850 gpm at total heads of 65 to 140 ft. + Air-conditioning-chilled-water (ACCW) pumps—eir- culate fresh water through the closed chilled water sys- tem. This water, which is cooled by the chillers in this vessel's air-conditioning system, is distributed throughout the vessel and is used to cool the air in temperature-con- trolled spaces. It may also be used to cool electronic com- ponents. Typical conditions of service for the ACCW pumps include capacity ratings that are in the range of 100 to 1500 gpm at total heads from 65 to 210 ft. Horizontally and vertically mounted electrie-motor- driven single-stage centrifugal pumps are typically used in the above applications. They generally have either an axially split easing and a double-suction impeller mounted between bearings, or a radially split casing and a single- suetion overhung impeller. Potable water. Potable-water pumps are used to trans- fer unheated fresh drinking water from the potable-water storage tanks to air-charged pressure tanks, or directly to sinks, showers, drinking fountains, galley equipment, and other outlets throughout the vessel. Each potable. water pump may be cycled on and off by a pressure switch in the discharge line, or one pump may be operated contin- uously while additional backup units are started and stopped as needed. Horizontally mounted centrifugal and regenerative turbine pumps that have either one or, in some cases, two stages are often used for potable-water service. These pumps are generally driven by electric mo- tors. In addition, smaller-sized units are frequently fur- nished in a close-coupled configuration. Typical conditions524 of service for potable-water pumps include capacity rat- ings in the range of 25 to 350 gpm at total heads from 150 to 250 ft. Hot-water circulating. A hot-water circulating pump is used to circulate potable water through a hot-water heater. After being heated, this water is directed to sinks, showers, and other outlets that require hot water. The pump operates continuously and recirculates unused wa- ter in the system through the heater so that the water will remain hot. Horizontally and vertically mounted electric- motor-driven single-stage centrifugal pumps that have a radially split easing and a single-suction impeller are gen- erally used in this application. Many of the pumps are furnished in a close-coupled configuration and deliver ea- pacities of 5 to 15 gpm at total heads from 10 to 30 ft Similar pumps may also be used in the vessel's air-condi- tioning system to circulate hot water that heats air in temperature controlled spaces. Typical conditions of ser- vice in this latter application included rated capacities up to 75 gpm at total heads up to 115 ft. Sanitary. The water closets on some vessels receive flushing water from a seawater sanitary system. Al- though this water is sometimes supplied through a pres- sure-reducing valve from the fire main, it can also be transferred from the sea chest by separate sanitary pumps. Sanitary pumps are generally horizontally or ver- tically mounted single-stage centrifugal units that are driven by electric motors. Typical conditions of service for these pumps include rated capacities of approximately 50 gpm at total heads of 80 ft. ‘Sewage. Sewage pumps are used to transfer sewage from the vessel's holding tanks to an above-leck shore connection, to an onboard treatment plant, or overboard. Horizontally and vertically mounted single-stage centrifu- gal pumps that have a radially split easing and an over- hung single-suction impeller are often used in this applica- tion. Submerged sump-type centrifugal pumps that are driven through vertical line shafting by above-tank driv- ers are also sometimes used to transfer sewage. Typical conditions of service in this application include capacity ratings in the range of 50 to 100 gpm at total heads from 70 to 115 ft. Many of the pumps used are fitted with a packed stuffing box for shaft sealing. To reduce leakage, grease is often injected into the packing through a lantern- ring connection located in the side of the stuffing box. When a mechanical-type shaft seal is used, a restriction bushing must generally be installed at the base of the seal cavity to isolate the seal from the sewage being pumped. A freshwater flush is also typically supplied from an ex- ternal source to cool and lubricate the seal’s faces. Sewage pumps, which are often driven by electrie motors, are usually furnished with a special “non-clog” impeller con- taining only two or three vanes and a large waterway volute casing that can pass the solids and stringy material normally found in sewage. In general, however, as the size of the solid particles that the pump is designed to handle increases, the pump efficieney is reduced. Large hand holes are generally provided in the walls of the cas- ing to permit internal passages to be cleaned periodically. MARINE ENGINEERING In addition to the sewage transfer pumps just de- seribed, in containment systems that rely on a vacuum to aid in the removal of waste products from water closets, motor-driven liquid-ring-type vacuum pumps are often used to reduce the pressure in the sewage holding or treatment tanks. Vacuums up to 20 in. Hg are typically created in these tanks. In recireulation-type sanitary flushing systems, pumps are also required to recireulate filtered and treated water or mineral oil from the sewage holding tank back to the vessel's lavatories for flushing. End-suetion centrifugal pumps are typically used in this latter application. Stern tube and strut bearing lubricating oil. A stern- tube lubricating-oil pump is used to circulate lubricating oil through the stern tube of a vessel fitted with an oil lubricated stern tube bearing. Similar pumps are also pro- vided for oi-lubricated strut bearings. Rotary gear, serew, and vane pumps are often used in these applica: tions. Typical conditions of service include capacity rat- ings in the range of 2 to 5 gpm at discharge pressures from 40 to 60 psig. Hydraulic fluid. Various types of positive-displace- ment pumps are used to pressurize and circulate the fluids (usually oils) that drive hydraulically powered machinery. ‘These pumps, which are generally driven by either electric motors or diesel engines, can be furnished as part of a central system that feeds all of the vessel's hydraulically driven equipment, or as part of smaller self-contained systems that are an integral part of the driven compo- nents. Typical components that can be hydraulically driven include anchor windlasses, winches, hatch covers, steering gear, and cargo unloading equipment. Discharge pressures developed by hydraulic pumps often are in the range of 500 to 4000 psig. ‘One or more fixed-displacement rotary-type gear, vane, or screw or reciprocating-type power pumps are often used in a constant-flow hydraulic system. These pumps take suetion from a sump or tank and deliver pressurized {fluid to the various components that are powered by the hydraulic system. In a constant-pressure hydraulic sys- tem, one or more variabledisplacement radial or axial rotating-piston pumps are frequently used to circulate hydraulic fluid through the system at essentially a con- stant pressure. If the capacity delivered by the pump ex- ceeds the system's load requirements, the system pres- sure will increase and a pressure compensator will reduce the pump's stroke and, therefore, the capacity of fluid that the pump delivers. Conversely, if the system load increases and the system pressure drops, the pressure compensator will increase the pump’s stroke. Multiple fixed-displacement pumps that are cycled on and off as needed are also sometimes used in constant-pressure hy- draulie systems. In addition to the main hydraulic pumps, smaller posi tive-displacement pumps may be used to add makeup flui to the hydraulic system and to control the stroke of vari able-displacement pumps. In some systems, the makeup (replenishing) pump, control (servo) pump, and main pump have @ common driver.PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS 525 Table 2 Pumps used for cargo unloading Typical Rated Capacity, bbi/hr ‘Type Carrier Most Commonly Installed On ‘Type MAIN Cano Contefugal 4215 to 56,000 crude (horizontal or vertial) Vertical 350 to 10,000 _-multipetroleum produet/ehemieal/LPG abe (ep) Sine ey 2500 8100 multpetroleum product/chemicel “Quydraulie driven Submersible 100 107500 liquefied natural gas/liquefied petroleum (eleetsic motor driven) as Rotary 850 40 8000 ertde/high-viscosty product Canco Sranpeme Horizontal 40% 70 rultipetroleam produet/ehemieal reciprocating (gas-driven) Vertical 70010 2300 crude reciprocating (steamdriven) Rotary 250 to 600 crude Diaphieage ielow 350 ‘multcpetroleum product e. Cargo unloading. Unlike pumps used in other ap- plications, the pumps used to unload liquid bulk cargoes must often handle a wide range of petroleum products or chemicals with different specific gravities, vapor pres- sures, viscosities, and temperatures. In addition, because part of the system on the discharge side of a cargo pump is formed by the piping and storage tanks at the point of delivery, the number of systems in which these pumps can operate is limited only by the number of terminals or other vessels into which cargo will be transferred. Many of the various types of pumps used for cargo unloading, together with typical capacity ratings, are listed in Table 2. As reflected in this table, the capacity delivered by a cargo pump is generally expressed in barrels per hour, where one barrel is equal to 42 gallons. ‘The materials used in the construction of cargo pumps must be compatible with all of the fluids that will be pumped. This can include not only the cargoes that the vessel will carry, but also seawater if the pumps will be used to remove slops during cargo tank washing. In addi- tion, if fluids that are flammable or explosive will be dis- charged by the pump, components with contacting sur- faces should be constructed from non-sparking materials. The types of pumps used in cargo service include the followin Centrifugal cargo pumps. Generally three or four cen- trifugal cargo pumps are installed in “pump rooms” that are located in the lower part of the tank vessel. With this arrangement, which is usually found only on erude-oil carriers or on vessels that carry a limited number of dif- ferent grades of petroleum products, each pump is often capable of being used to discharge cargo from any of the vessel's tanks through interconnected suction piping. The pumps are typically singlestage units. They are fre- quently furnished with a horizontally, as shown in Fig. 43, or vertically mounted axially split easing and a double- suction impeller that is centered between external bear- ings. However, vertically mounted radially split casing pumps, in which the impeller is overhung on the end of a cantilevered shaft, have also been used in this application, With this latter arrangement, both of the pump’s external Fig, 43 Hovizontolcentifugal carge pump bearings are located above the single shaft seal. Explo- sion-proof intrinsically safe resistance temperature detec- tors are often mounted in each bearing housing and are connected to an alarm that sounds if the bearing tempera- ture exceeds a preset value.526 Centrifugal cargo pumps can be driven by steam tar- bines, diesel engines, or electrie motors. To eliminate the need for the driver to be explosion-proof, it is usually installed in a separate machinery space adjacent to the pump room and is coupled to the cargo pump through an intermediate shaft, referred to as.a jackshaft. The opening in the bulkhead or overhead of the pump room that the jackshaft passes through is sealed with a gastight stuff ing box to prevent explosive vapor from entering the driver compartment. A cargo pump’s rated total head is generally based on a desired pressure at the vessel's discharge manifold, referred to as the “‘rail pressure”; the pressure drop in the suction and discharge piping, valves, and fittings; and the height of the manifold above the cargo tank bottom. ‘The specified rated capacity is based on the number of tanks to be emptied at any one terminal, the number of pumps available to empty those tanks, and the amount of time allowed for the pump-out. The maximum capacity that ean be delivered is often limited by the NPSH avai able to the eargo pump, which is essentially equal to the elevation of the liquid level within the cargo tank being ‘emptied above the pump’s impeller added to the absolute pressure within the tank, less the cargo’s true vapor pres- sure and losses within the suction line. Due to the rela- tively high true vapor pressures of many cargoes, the pumps are often forced to operate with low values of NPSHA. In addition, due to the continuous reduction of the liquid level within the tank being emptied, the NPSHA will gradually be reduced throughout the pump-out cycle. Consequently, low-NPSHR impellers are often installed in centrifugal cargo pumps. So that suction speeifie speeds are not excessive, cargo pump operating speeds are gener- ally limited to 1800 rpm. As the liquid level in a tank being emptied approaches the tank bottom, air or inert gas from the tank's atmo- sphere will frequently be drawn into the pump's suction line before the inlet to the suetion tail pipe, also known as the strum, is completely uncovered. Therefore, self priming/stripping systems are often used to increase the amount of cargo that can be discharged by centrifugal cargo pumps [24]. Vertical turbine cargo pumps. On vessels that carry a variety of different liquid eargoes, such as multi-petro- leum product carriers and chemical carriers, vertical tur- bine or deepwell pumps, which are illustrated by Fig. 24, are often used for cargo unloading. When the maximum degree of cargo segregation is required, a separate VTP is installed in each cargo tank. Because the pump’s bow! assembly is submerged in the cargo that will be dis- charged, the need for suction valves and suction piping is eliminated. In addition, by providing separate discharge piping and manifolds for each pump, the risk of mixing ‘cargoes is greatly reduced. With this arrangement, there are typically 20 to 40 cargo pumps per ship. Fach pump is often from 40 to 60 ft in length and is generally driven by a vertical electric or hydraulic motor that is mounted on top of the discharge head. With some cargoes, the driver must be explosion-proof. MARINE ENGINEERING When a lower degree of cargo segregation can be toler- ated, such as on liquid-bulk carriers that transport a lim- ited number of different cargoes or cargoes that are less sensitive to contamination, each VTP is often used to un- oad several of the vessel’s cargo tanks. Typically, there are fewer than 20 pumps per ship when this latter ar- rangement is used. Each pump is frequently mounted in a suction tank or can that is connected to the ship's cargo tanks with suetion piping. Automatic self-priming valves are often installed on the VIP to enable the pump to remove gas and vapor from its suction piping and suetion can. Because each VTP is used to discharge cargo from more than one tank, these pumps typically are larger in diameter and require larger drivers than the vertical tur- bine pumps installed with an individual pump/tank ar- rangement. In addition, although many of the vertical turbine pumps used to discharge cargo from multiple tanks have vertical drivers, some are driven through right-angle gears by horizontal motors, steam turbines, or diesel engines. With some cargoes the use of single shaft seals is suit- able. When the VTP will handle explosive petroleum prod- ucts or chemicals, however, the use of a double sealing arrangement is often required. Additional statie shaft seals are also frequently used to prevent gas and vapor that may be in the cargo tank from escaping through the stuffing box while the pump's packing or mechanical seals are being replaced Vertical turbine pumps used for cargo unloading can handle fluids with a wide range of temperatures. For ex- ample, it is not uncommon for lube oils, waxes, and other viscous cargoes to be heated, often to temperatures that exceed 160 F. With some cargoes, such as molten sulfur, steam or a heated liquid may even be circulated through jackets that surround the discharge head and the bowl and column assemblies to prevent the eargo from solidifying within the pump. Furthermore, VTP’s are sometimes used to discharge cryogenic cargoes, such as liquefied petro- leum gas, whieh can be cooled to a temperature of —60 F ‘The fluid contained within the discharge head, column, and bowl assembly of a conventional VTP will drain from the pump when the driver is stopped. Several systems have been developed that enable this liquid to be removed from a vertical turbine cargo pump after the pump-out cycle has been completed. One arrangement includes a nonreturn vaive that is mounted in the pump’s suetion bell. During normal operation the valve is kept open by the cargo being pumped; however, once suetion is lost, the valve closes and prevents the cargo in the VIP from draining back into the tank. After the eargo tank has been stripped, the VTP is stopped, its discharge valve is closed, and pressurized air or inert gas is injected into the pump. ‘The gas forces the cargo contained within the VTP through a bypass line that conneets the lower end of the pump to the ship's discharge piping. Hydraulically driven submersible cargo pumps. Hy- draulically driven submersible pumps are used to dis- charge cargo on many multi-product petroleum and chem- eal carriers that utilize an individual pump/tankPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS, Fig. 44 Hydroulicaly divan submesible corgo pump arrangement. These pumps are also used for cargo un- loading on some crude-oil carriers. As illustrated by Fig. 44, each unit consists of a single-stage end-suction centrif- ugal pump that is driven by a submersible hydraulie mo- tor. Because the motor is installed directly on top of the pump, the need for a line shaft with its bearings is elimi nated. The pump and motor assembly is suspended from the main deck by piping that includes the supply and re- turn lines for the hydraulic ofl required to drive the unit. Cargo being discharged from the pump travels to the main deck through a separate vertical pipe that is adjacent to the hydraulie piping. A control valve mounted on top of the above-deck cover plate is used to vary the flow of hydraulic oil to the motor and, therefore, the pump’s speed. Although the hydraulic oil required by all of the cargo pumps on a vessel is frequently supplied by a cen- tral hydraulic system, on some vessels each cargo pump receives hydraulic oil from an independent self-contained power unit. ‘To inerease the NPSHA, the submersible pump’s impel ler is mounted on the lower end of the pump shaft. A back wearing ring, together with balancing holes in the impeller’s upper shroud, is often used to reduce the axial thrust caused by hydraulic unbalance. Support for the 527 pump's shaft is provided by ball or roller bearings in- stalled in a mounting bracket that is attached to the upper portion of the pump’s casing. The bearings are submerged in, and lubricated by, the hydraulic oil that drains from the pump’s motor. To simplify maintenance, the design of the pump frequently permits it to be removed from the cargo tank while the hydraulie piping is still in place. In general, rotary-vane or axiak-piston hydraulie motors are used to drive these cargo pumps. Although it is sub- ‘merged within the vessel's tank, the motor is surrounded by an outer pipe or cofferdam that isolates it from the cargo. Twin double-tip or mechanical seals that are sepa- rated by a void space are generally used to prevent the hydraulic oil from mixing with the cargo at the shaft penetration in the casing. By providing inlet and outlet connections to the void space, an inert buffer fluid can be circulated between the seals and monitored above deck so that a seal leak can be detected by the operator. To prevent liquid in the submersible cargo pump's verti- cal discharge pipe from draining back into the cargo tank when the pump is stopped, each pump generally has a bypass line and connections that enable its vertical dis- charge pipe to be purged with air or inert gas after the pump-out eyele has been completed. In lieu of rigid piping, some lower-capacity hydrau- lieaily driven submersible pumps are fitted with flexible hoses for the supply and return of hydraulie oil and for cargo discharge. These units, which are designed to be portable, can be lowered into a tank by the ship's crew and used to unload cargo in the event of a main cargo pump failure. Electric-motor-driven submersible cargo pumps, On vessels that transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) or liq- uefied petroleum gas (LPG), electrie-motor-driven sub- mersible pumps are often used to discharge cargo. Each unit consists of a single-stage end-suction centrifugal pump that is mounted on the lower end of a submersible electric motor. The inlet to the pump is typically fitted with a suetion bell, which guides incoming fluid directly to the eye of an impeller that is mounted on the lower end of the cantilevered motor shaft. To reduce the pump's NPSH requirement, an inducer is sometimes installed be- low the inlet to the impeller. Cargo discharged from the impeller passes through a multi-vaned diffuser that is integral with the pump’s casing, and up through an annulus formed by the outside of the motor and an outer casing that surrounds it. Above this annulus, whieh ends at the top of the motor, is the unit's discharge nozzle. This nozzle is generally flanged so that it can be connected directly to the vessel's discharge piping, which extends from the bottom of the cargo tank to the main deck. The bearings that support the common pump and motor shaft are mounted at each end of the motor and are lubri- cated by a portion of the cargo being pumped. A portion of the pumped cargo also flows through and cools the motor. Because the motor is immersed in LNG or LPG, its housing must be designed to fully contain any explo- sions that can occur within it and must prevent any sources of ignition from being transmitted to the sur- rounding environment.528 Pumps used for cargo unloading and for stripping and cooldown can be installed either directly within the cargo tanks that they empty or in suction vessels that are con- neeted through piping to multiple cargo tanks. In addition, some pumps are instalied within a vertical column pipe or cofferdam that extends from the bottom of the cargo tank to the main deck, which eliminates the need for a separate vertical discharge pipe. A spring-loaded valve in the bot- tom of the column enables liquid from the cargo tank to enter the pumps suction bell and impeller. However, if the pump is removed from the column, the valve closes and prevents gas in the cargo tank from escaping into the atmosphere, This latter arrangement is frequently used for the emergeney unloading pumps. Rotary cargo pumps. The types of rotary pumps used most often in cargo service include gear, serew, lobe, and sliding-vane units. Many of the fluids discharged by cargo pumps do not have good lubricity. In addition, during stripping a cargo pump ean ingest gas and vapor. Conse- quently, rotary pumps used in this application often have external bearings that rely on an independent source of oil for lubrication. ‘To enatile the capacity delivered to be adjusted during the pump-out cycle, rotary cargo pumps are frequently furnished with drivers that have a multispeed capability When rotary pumps are used for stripping or to discharge cargo from more than one tank, they are often installed ‘in “pump rooms” that are located in the lower part of the ship. This arrangement enables the pumps to be connected through suetion piping to multiple cargo tanks. To elimi- nate the need for the drivers to be explosion-proof, they are often installed in a separate compartment and are coupled to the pumps through horizontal or vertical jack- shafts. Rotary pumps can also be furnished in a deepwell con- figuration. This arrangement eliminates much of the sue- tion piping that is required when the eargo pumps are installed in a eommon pump room and is often utilized on vessels that carry high-viseosity cargoes. In addition, on some multi-product carriers, a rotary pump that is driven by a submersible hydraulic motor is mounted on the bot- tom of each cargo tank. Reciprocating cargo pumps. The cargo tanks on some vessels are stripped by direct-aeting steam- or gas-driven reciprocating piston pumps. Duplex-type pumps are typi- cally furnished for this application. When installed on ves- sels that carry crude oil or a limited number of different cargoes, directacting stripping pumps are often located ina pump room and connected to the vessel's cargo tanks through suction piping. This arrangement enables one pump to be used to strip multiple tanks. These pumps are frequently mounted vertically and are usually driven by steam. In an alternate arrangement, which is found on some multi-product carriers, a stripping pump is installed ‘at the bottom of each cargo tank. The submersible direct- acting stripping pumps are generally mounted horizon- tally and are typically driven by compressed air or inert gas. Diaphragm cargo pumps. On some multiproduct car- riers, a submersible diaphragm pump driven with either MARINE ENGINEERING compressed air or inert gas is mounted on the bottom of each cargo tank and is submerged in the fluid that it discharges. In addition, because they are self-priming, diaphragm pumps that unload eargo can sometimes be placed on the deck above a tank. With this latter arrange- ment, the pump draws fluid through a suetion hose that is lowered into the cargo tank. Although diaphragm-type cargo pumps are used primarily only for stripping, they canalso serve as backup units and permit cargo unloading to continue in the event of a main cargo pump failure. ‘Slurry cargo pumps. On some ore and mineral carriers, the vessel's dry bulk cargo is mixed with water, and is loaded and discharged as a slurry. The single-stage end- suction centrifugal pumps that can be used to offload this cargo have large waterways to pass the solid particles in the slurries being handled and are often constructed from abrasion-resistant hard metals. Packed stuffing boxes or lip seals are frequently used for shaft sealing. Clean flush- ing water is generally injected into the seal area from an external souree. In addition, the rear shroud of a slurry pump’s impeller sometimes has external vanes that re- duce the pressure in the seal area. (These vanes can also improve the shaft’s axial balance.) ‘The effect that pumping a slurry has on the perform- ance of a centrifugal pump depends on the specific gravity of the liquid/solid mixture, and on the size and concentra- tion of the solid particles. When slurries containing large particles are pumped, the total head developed and pump efficiency will generally both be reduced along the entire range of operation when compared to the pump's perform- ance with clear water. This reduetion in efficiency also results in an inerease in the brake horsepower required to drive the pump. ‘Typical conditions of service for pumps used to dis- charge slurry cargoes include capacity ratings in the range of 1400 to 5600 gpm at total heads from 130 to 250 ft when handling a slurry with a solid content up to 70% by weight. Separate slurry booster pumps may be pro- vided for the transfer of cargo from individual holds lo- cated throughout the vessel to the main collecting tank from which the main discharge pumps take suction. The main discharge and the booster pumps can be driven by steam turbines, electric or hydraulic motors, or diesel en- gines. In addition to the slurry pumps, various high-pressure and low-pressure pumps are required on these bulk-car- ying vessels to supply water for cargo pump seal flush- ig, to discharge water loaded with the cargo after the ore or mineral portion of the slurry has settled (referred to as decanting), to add water to the cargo prior to its discharge (referred to as re-pulping), and to flush the vessel's cargo piping. Vertical turbine pumps are often used in these applications. Related applications. In addition to the cargo un- loading pumps, there are several other applications that are unique to vessels that carry liquid bulk cargoes. These include the following: «An inert-gas scrubber pump—supplies seawater to the serubber that cools, cleans, and desulfurizes gas usedPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS, to inert the vessel's cargo tanks. Vertically mounted sin- glestage centrifugal pumps that deliver capacities up to 2500 gpm at total heads of approximately 100 to 150 ft are often used in this application. These units are gener- ally driven by electric motors. + An inert-gas deck-seal water pump—supplies sea- water to the deck seal that is required to prevent vapor in the vessel's cargo tanks from flowing back through the inert gas system to the machinery spaces. Typical conditions of service for the single-stage end-suction cen- trifugal pumps often used in this application include ea- pacity ratings that range from 15 to 100 gpm at total heads up to 200 ft. Many of these units are close coupled to electric motors. + A tank 1300 Radialflow compressors are usually referred to as cen- trifugal compressors, while those built for axial-flow are generally identified ‘as axial compressors, Mixed-flow compressors are seldom used [28]. a. Centrifugal compressors. The impeller in a sin- gle-stage centrifugal compressor is frequently overhung on the end of a cantilevered shaft. However, in some sin- gle-stage machines the impeller is mounted ona shaft that, supported by bearings at each end. Although a between- bearings configuration is also used in many multistage centrifugal compressors, the overhung arrangement has been used to support multiple, but generally not more than three, in-line impellers. In addition, some multistage compressors are furnished with the impellers overhung ‘on one or both ends of multiple shafts. These shafts are located around the periphery of, and driven by, a central gear that is coupled to the compressor's driver. By vary- ing the number of teeth used on the shaft mounted pin- ions, each impeller can be driven at a different speed. A typical multistage centrifugal compressor is shown in Fig. 48. ‘Single-suction impellers are generally used with an overhung mounting arrangement and ean be of the open, semiopen, or closed design. Because of the reduction in 535 Fig. 48 Multistage centitugal comprottor Lecend Ccompaesson ICREASER GEAR WTERCOOLER CONTROL caBineT volume of the gas passing through a centrifugal compres- sor, the widths of the impellers used in multistage ma- chines are generally progressively reduced in each succes- sive stage. In addition, to maintain geometric proportionality, the impeller outside diameters are fre- quently reduced with the widths. ‘To eliminate the local stress concentrations that result from keyways, in many high-speed centrifugal compressors, torque from the shaft to each impeller is transmitted through an interfer- ence fit. ‘The high velocity of the gas being discharged from the impeller is typically reduced in a multi-vaned diffuser, vaneless diffuser, or seroll-shaped volute. Many centrifu- gal compressors have a combination of these devices, such as a diffuser followed by a volute. The reduction in dis- charge velocity results in the conversion of a portion of the gas kinetic energy to potential energy and, therefore, in an increase in pressure. Diffusers used in a multistage ‘compressor are often furnished as part of the stationary diaphragms that separate adjacent stages. Each dia- phragm also includes return channels that direct the gas being compressed to the eye of the impeller in the next stage. To reduce its temperature, the gas traveling be- tween stages in a multistage centrifugal compressor frequently circulated through an intercooler. In addition, an aftercooler is often provided to reduce the temperature of the gas discharged from the compressor. To minimize axial thrust, in some multistage centrifu- gal compressors an approximately equal number of si gle-suetion impellers is mounted facing opposite ends of the easing. In addition, in some units gas is simultaneously admitted to both ends of the compressor, directed inward, and discharged from the center of the casing. This type of a machine, which is referred to as a “double-flow”536 compressor, frequently has a center impeller that is of the double-suction design. When all of the single-suetion impellers in a multistage centrifugal compressor are mounted in the same direction, axial thrust is generally reduced through the use of an internal balancing piston or drum. Residual axial loads acting on a centrifugal compres- sor's rotor are absorbed by a thrust bearing, which fre- quently consists of a rotating shaftmounted collar that is positioned axially between two stationary flat lands or between multiple tilting pads. Radial support for the rotor is typically provided by cylindrical, multi-lobe, or tilting- pad journal bearings. These bearings are lubricated with oil that is generally pressurized and circulated by a shaft- driven rotary pump. Oil coolers and filters are often in- cluded in a centrifugal compressor's lubrication system. ‘Typical materials used in the construction of centrifugal compressors include east iron, ductile iron, steel, or stain- less steel for casings and stainless steel, aluminum, or titanium for impellers. To reduce interstage leakage and improve volumetric efficiency, close-clearance labyrinth- type seals are generally installed between adjacent stages in multistage compressors. In addition, when elosed-type impellers are used in either single-stage or multistage compressors, replaceable stationary seals are often in- stalled adjacent to each impeller’s outer hub. Seals are also required at locations where the compressor’s shaft penetrates the casing. Various types of labyrinth, carbon- ring, or mechanical seals may be used for shaft sealing. b. Axial compressors. Axial compressors are gener- ally supplied in a multistage configuration, with each stage consisting of a row of rotating vanes followed by a row of stationary diffuser vanes. A row of stationary inlet guide vanes may also precede the initial row of rotating vanes. In addition, one or more rows of stationary exit guide vanes may be used to reduce the velocity of gas leaving the compressor. Axial compressors are typically used to deliver relatively high capacities. Although the compression ratio per stage in an axial compressor is gen- erally less than that in a comparably rated centrifugal ‘compressor, an axial compressor will often be more effi- cient. The profile of the individual vanes used in an axial eom- pressor is generally based on an airfoil shape. The vanes in each stage of the rotor are mounted around the circum ference of individual disks, a hollow drum, or a solid rotor that is integral with the shaft. Proper vane orientation and spacing is eritical so that the pitch (the distance between corresponding points on adjacent vanes), inlet flow angle, and outlet flow angle for each vane meet design require ments. When individual disks are used in the rotor design, they are generally either mounted onto a common shaft or stacked axially and held together with through bolts. With the stacked disks or drum designs, a stub shaft is often pressed into each end of the rotor. The outer ends of the stationary vanes in an axial com- pressor may be attached direetly to the outer casing or mounted in a separate inner carrier. The inner ends of the stationary vanes are sometimes fitted with a thin cylindri- cal shroud that joins all of the vanes included in a single MARINE ENGINEERING stage. Close radial clearances are generally maintained between the inner ends of the vanes and the rotor to reduce interstage leakage. Because of the reduction in the volume of the gas pass- ing through an axial compressor, to maintain a constant axial gas velocity, which is often used as a design crite- rion, the lengths of the rotating and stationary vanes used in each successive stage must be progressively reduced. This can be accomplished by using a tapered rotor and gradually increasing both the root diameter of the rotat- ing vanes and the inside diameter of the stationary vanes, or by using a constant-diameter rotor with rotating vanes that have progressively smaller tip diameters. With this latter configuration, the inside diameter of the casing must he tapered. In a third arrangement, the diameters of both the rotor and the casing are changed. When any of these configurations are used, several of the final higher- pressure stages are sometimes fitted with vanes of equal length, which results in slight reductions of both the gas velocity and the losses at the compressor's outlet. ‘An axial eompressor’s rotor is typically supported radi- ally by eylindrical or tilting-pad journal bearings mounted at each end of the shaft and axially by a tilting-pad thrust bearing. The bearings are lubricated with oil thats gener- ally pressurized and circulated by a shaftdriven positive- displacement pump. A cooler and filter are frequently included in the compressor’s lubrication system. To re- duce axial loads, the discharge end of the rotor is often fitted with an internal balaneing piston or drum. The leak- age rate of the gas passing through the balancing device, which is vented to suction, is controlled with a labyrinth seal. Labyrinth seals are also used in many units to reduce leakage in locations where the ends of the shaft penetrate the casing. Materials of construction used with axial com- pressors are similar to those used for centrifugal com- pressors. ¢. Dynamic compressor performance characteris- tics. Typical performance curves for centrifugal and axial compressors are included in Fig. 47. An axial com- pressor’s head-capacity curve is generally steeper than that of a centrifugal compressor; therefore, while the ca- pacity entering an axial compressor remains relatively constant over a range of discharge pressures, the dis- charge pressure developed by a centrifugal compressor remains relatively constant over a range of inlet capaci ies. Variations in inlet capacity, head, and power with changes in operating speed can be estimated using the relationships given in equations (29), (80), and (81). How- ever, because the higher head developed at an inereased operating speed also increases the volume ratio of the gas being compressed, the head actually developed at an inlet capacity found using equation (29) exceeds the head caleu- lated using equation (30). Conversely, for a given redue- tion in speed and inlet capacity, the head developed is slightly less than that calculated using equation (80). The magnitude of these deviations increases with higher heads, heavier gases, and reduced impeller discharge rela- tive flow angles. ‘As shown in Fig. 47, the stable region on the left side of a centrifugal or an axial compressor’s head-capacityPUMPS, COMPRESSORS, BLOWERS, AND EJECTORS, curve does not reach shutoff but, instead, stops at a mini- mum flow rate. Operation below this capacity, referred to as the “surge limit,” can result in instability consisting of flow oscillations with brief periods of forward flow followed by intermittent back flow. Surging is typically caused by a sudden reduetion in capacity resulting from stalling because of excessive positive ineidence at the inlet to the impeller (or multi-vaned diffuser, if used). As the capacity being delivered is reduced, the head developed may momentarily be less than that in the system and a flow reversal can occur. Surging is, therefore, frequently associated with operation on a portion of the head-capacity curve that has a positive slope. Because of the compress- ibility of gases and their ability to store energy, the oscilla- tions in flow often continue and can result in pressure pulsations, vibration, noise, and increased temperatures. The severity of the detrimental effects that result from surging is affected not only by the design of the compres- sor, but also by the elasticity of the system. The capacity at which stalling and the resulting surging begin is gener- ally reduced with the operating speed. As a result of this relationship, if surging oceurs in a centrifugal eompres- sor, it ean often be suppressed by reducing the unit's operating speed. However, once stalling and surging be- an axial compressor, the surge limit can, in effect, Shift toa higher capacity, and stalling ean continue even after the operating speed is reduced [3]. ‘The capacity on the right side of the head-capacity curve is limited by choking, which occurs when the relative ve- locity of gas within the rotor or the gas velocity at the inlet to the stator reaches the acoustic velocity, or when the Mach number equals one. When Mach one is reached, the mass flow rate passing through the compressor can- not be inereased regardless of how much the compression ratio and head developed are reduced. In some centrifugal compressors, the range of performance is expanded by using an inducer-type impeller with vanes that follow the curvature of the hub and extend into the impeller’s eye. Asa result of the decreasing radii from the tip to the root along the leading edge of each vane in an inducer impeller, the average inlet peripheral velocity and Mach number are reduced. Radial or backward-curved vanes are typically used in centrifugal compressor impellers. The steepness of a cen- trifugal compressor's head-capacity curve increases as the discharge angle of the impeller’s vanes and the re- sulting relative discharge flow angle, measured with re- spect to the tangential or peripheral direction, are re- duced. In addition, due to the inerease in volume ratio when a heavier gas is compressed, which results in the development of a higher head for a given inlet volumetric flow rate and operating speed, the steepness of the head- capacity curve will generally be reduced as the gas inlet density of the gas increases. The increased volume ratio when heavier gases are compressed generally increases the positive incidence and, therefore, the inlet capacity at which surging begins. Due to the resulting increased mass flow rate for a given inlet capacity, the Mach number when handling heavier gases will aiso increase, which reduces the inlet flow rate at which choking oceurs. 537 Fig. 49 Twin-scrow compressor In addition to the effects of vane discharge angle and gas density, the performance of an axial compressor is also affected by the stagger angle (the angle between the vane’s chord line and the axial direction) of the vanes in its rotor. In general, an inerease in the stagger angle will result in a steeper performance curve. In addition, the speed required to deliver a given flow rate will often in- crease with the stagger angle. As an alternative to ad- justing the stagger angle of the rotor’s vanes, the per- formance of some axial compressors can be adjusted at a constant operating speed by varying the stagger angle of the stationary vanes, Compression ratios in axial compressors can be as high as 1.4 per stage; this compares to compression ratios of 2 to 5 per stage for centrifugal compressors [3]. Operating speeds for centrifugal and axial compressors ean range from 5000 to 40,000 rpm. These compressors are often directly coupled to steam or gas turbines; however, they may also be driven through speed increasers by electric motors or diesel engines. In some motor-driven units, the necessary speed/-increasing gears are furnished as an inte- gral part of the compressor. 2.4 Rotary Compressors. Rotary compressors are positive-displacement machines in which the gas being ‘compressed is forced through the casing by one or more rotating displacement elements. Unlike the reciprocating compressor, which is also a positive-displacement ma- chine, a rotary compressor does not typically require inter- nal suetion or discharge valves. In addition, the flow from a rotary compressor is generally more uniform and has fewer pulsations than the flow from a reciprocating com- pressor. Included among the most common types of rotary ‘compressors, which are typically mounted horizontally, are the following: a, Twin-serew compressors, As shown in Fig. 49, twin-serew compressor, also referred to as a helical-lobe compressor, consists of two meshing helical rotors mounted on counterrotating parallel shafts that are en- closed within a close-clearance casing. As the rotors turn and unmesh adjacent to the inlet port, a low-pressure region is created and gas is drawn into the casing. With the continued rotation of the shafts, the gas is trapped in pockets formed between the cavities in each rotor and the casing’s inner wall and is forced through the casing in an axial direction, The meshing of the lobes on the male rotor into the grooves in the female rotor reduces the volume of the trapped gas and, therefore, inereases its pressure.