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Share of domestic
factor incomes
1

USA

Denmark

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year
Share of domestic
factor incomes
1

United Kingdom

Sweden

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Year
Share of domestic
factor incomes
1

Netherlands

Belgium

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Year

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Average propensity
to consume

Jurzwk dqg Exvlqhvv F|fohv


USA

Average propensity
to consume

1.2

1.2

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

45
Sweden

0
1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999

1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999

Year

Year

Average propensity
to consume

Netherlands

Average propensity
to consume

1.2

1.2

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

United Kingdom

0
1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999

1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999

Year

Year

Average propensity
to consume

Finland

Average propensity
to consume

1.2

1.2

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

Denmark

0
1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999

1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999

Year

Year

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USA

Percent
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Nominal interest rate

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10

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Year
Denmark

Percent
25
Nominal interest rate

Inflation

20

15

10

0
1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988
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