EARTH: Formation and Structure

EARTH IS A PECULIAR PLANET

Four unique characteristics

-liquid water
-water at its triple point (all 3
phases)
-Plate tectonics
-Life
Life has a large effect on
biogeochemical cycling
Why does earth have life,

and
not the nearby planets?
PLANETS NEAR EARTH

Inner planets formed by

gathering together of

particles
by gravitational force
-would expect Earth/Mars/
Mercury/Venus to have a
similar atmosphere
(They do not)
FORMATION

-Earth formed 4.6 billion yrs

ago from cosmic dust
-distribution of chemicals,
minerals, ones around the
world is in part a function of
processes that occurred
during the formation of the
Earth
-early Earth was a hot/molten
sphere
-as materials cooled,
elements separated

into
layers according to their
mass
-heavier elements such as
silica floated towards the
surface
-some gaseous elements left
and became part of the
atmosphere

-asteroid bombardment
phase stopped
-the elemental composition of
Earth stabilized
-elements and minerals that
were present when the
planet formed are all we
have
-these are distributed evenly
around the globe
-some are common- silicon
dioxide
-others (diamond) are in few
isolated areas
-uneven geographic
distribution of elements and
minerals had driven many
economic and political
conflicts
EARTHS VERTICAL ZONATION

-due to Earths elements

settling according to mass
-planet is characterized by
distinct vertical zonation
-concentric layers composed
of various materials

CORE

-innermost zone of the

Earths interior, composed
mostly of iron and nickel
-includes a liquid outer layer
and a solid layer
-160 miles below Earths
surface
-layer of Earth above the
core, containing magma

MANTLE

Magma

-molten rock
slowly circulates in
convection cells much like
the atmosphere

ASTHENOSPHERE
located

-the layer of the Earth

LITHOSPHERE

Crust

Overcrust

in the outer part of the mantle

-composed of semi-molten,
ductile flexible rock
-lithos Greek for rock
-100 km thick
-outermost layer of Earth
-includes solid upper mantle
and the crust
chemically distinct outermost
layer of lithosphere
-lowest part of lithosphere is
uppermost portion of the
mantle
-lithosphere made up of
several large and numerous
smaller plates, overlie
convection cells within
atmosphere
thin layer of soil that allows
life to exist
Crust + Overlying Soil = Most of the Elements that Make Up Life

CONNECTION:

-Earth contains finite supply

of elements and minerals
-cannot extract resources
from planet indefinitely
-also, once mined deposits
easily obtained, need to use
more energy to extract
remaining deposits
-incentive to minimize our
use of mineral resources as
well as reuse/recycle

HOT SPOTS
the

-Earth remains very hot at

center
high temperature of Earths
outer core and mantle
thought to be result of
radioactive decay of various
isotopes such as uranium,

potassium, and thorium,

which release heat
-heat causes plumes of hot
magma to well upward from
mantle and produce hot
spots
-places where molten
material from mantle reaches
the lithosphere
THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

-theory that lithosphere of

Earth is divided into plates,
most of which are in constant
motion

HISTORY

-before 1900s, scientists

believed major features of
Earth, continents/oceans,
were fixed in place
-1912, Germans
meteorologist, Alfred
Wegner, proposed the
worlds continents had been
joined in a single landmass,
called Pangea

EVIDENCE

-identical rock formations on

both sides of Atlantic Ocean
(single supercontinent

broken
into separate landmasses)
-fossils (same species on
diff. continents separated by
oceans)
-following Wegner, scientists
found additional evidence
that Earths land masses had
existed in several different
configurations over time
-this led to theory of plate
tectonics
TECTONIC CYCLE

-sum of processes that build

up and break down the

lithosphere
PLATE TECTONICS

-lithosphere consists of a
number of plates
-oceanic plates lie beneath
the oceans
continental plates lie beneath
landmasses
-crust of oceanic plates is
dense and rich in iron
-crust of continental plates
contains more silicon dioxide,
which is less dense than iron
-continental plates are lighter
and rise above the oceanic
plates
-oceanic and continental
plates float on top of the
denser material beneath
them
-slower movements are
driven by convection cells in
Earths mantle
-the heat from the Earths
core creates these
convection cells, which are
similar to those in the
atmosphere

MANTLE CONVECTION

-drives continuous change

-creation and renewal of
Earths materials in some
locations
-destruction of removal of
Earths materials in others
-this convection in the mantle
causes oceanic plates to
spread apart as new rock
rises to the top at spreading
zones

Seafloor Spreading

-rising magma forms new

oceanic crust on the seafloor
at the boundaries between

those plates
-where oceanic plates meet
continental plates, old
oceanic crust is pulled
downward beneath the
continental lithosphere,
removed from the ocean
bottom, and pushed toward
the center of the Earth
Subduction

the process of one plate

passing under another

CONSEQUENCE OF PLATE TECTONICS

-as plates move, continents

on those plates slowly drift
over the surface of the Earth
-as continents drift, climates
has changed and geographic
barriers were formed or
removes
-species have evolved,
adapted, or become extinct

GEOLOGIC ACTIVITY

-provides evidence that

plates are in motion
-as plate moves over a hot
spot, heat from riding heat
plume melts crust, forming a
volcano

Volcano

a vent in the Earths surface

that emits ash, gases, and
molten lava
also a natural source of
carbon dioxide, particulates,
and metals
-over time as a plate moves
past a hot spot, it can leave a
trail of extinct volcano islands
-have the same chemical
composition
i.e: Hawaiian Islands

TYPES OF PLATE CONTACT

-three types of plate contact

divergent

plate
boundaries
convergent plate
boundaries
transform fault
boundaries
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

-an area beneath the ocean

where tectonic plates move
away from each other
-oceanic plates move life

they
were on a large conveyer
belt
-magma from the mantle
reaches Earths surface
-pushes upward and
outward, forms new rock
called SEAFLOOR
SPREADING
Seafloor Spreading

-creates new lithosphere

-brings important elements to
the surface (Cu, Pb, Ag)
-new rock lies under the

deep
ocean
-some of the new material
will eventually form new land
Convergent Boundaries

an area where the plates

move toward one another
and collide, creates great
deal of pressure

Transform Fault Boundary

when tectonic plates move

sideways past each other

FAULT AND SEISMIC ACTIVITY

Fault

a fracture in rock caused by

the movement of plates

-where this happens = high

level of seismic activity
-seismic activity = frequency
and intensity of earthquakes
experienced over time
FAULT ZONES

-large expanse of rock where

a fault has occurred
-also called areas of high
seismic activity
-form in the brittle upper
lithosphere where two plates
meet or slide past one
another
-where movement has
occurred, the rock near plate
margins become fractured
and deformed under the
immense pressure

MOUNTAINS

-if two continental plates

meet
-both plate margins may be
lifted
-can form a mid-continental
mountain range such as
Himalayas in Asia
-if both plates are composed
of material of equal density,
one does not get subducted
under the other
-instead they are forced into
one another
-and the force of the plate
movement pushes material
upward
-leads to formation of
mountains

RATE OF PLATE MOVEMENT

-move at roughly 36 mm of
1.4 in a year
-too slow to notice on a daily
basis

-two plates underlying

Atlantic
Ocean have spread apart
and come together twice
over
the past 500 million years
-caused Europe and Africa to
collide with North America
and South America and
separate from them again