Weather and Soil Formation

-At the earths surface, exposed rock

begins to break down due to the
processes of weathering and
erosion.
-This part of the Rock Cycle returns
chemical elements and rock
fragments to the crust by depositing
them, as sediments, through the
hydrologic cycle.
-Physical breakdown and chemical
alteration of rock recycles elements
and starts the formation of soil.
Weathering

-occurs when rock is exposed to air.

water, chemical compounds, or
biological agents such as plants,
roots, burrowing animals
Two Forms of Weathering
-Chemical
-Physical

Physical Weathering

-mechanical breakdown of rocks and

minerals
-can be caused by: water, wind,
variations in temperature (freezethaw cycles), biological agents
-more surface area gets exposed
-makes rock more vulnerable to
further degradation
-By producing more surface area for
weathering processes to work on,
physical weathering increases the
amount of chemical weathering.

Causes:

Chemical Weathering

-the breakdown of rocks and

minerals by chemical reactions, the
dissolving of chemical elements from
rocks, or both
-releases essential nutrients from
rocks
-makes them available for use by
plants and other organisms

-occurs more rapidly on newly

exposed minerals known as primary
minerals
-alters the primary minerals and
forms secondary minerals and the
ionic forms of their constituent
chemical elements
i.e:
-feldspar exposed to natural acids,
form clay particles and releases
potassium (for plants)
-Lichens can break down rock by
producing weak acids
-Rocks that contain compounds that
dissolve easily, tend to weather
easily
i.e: calcium carbonate
-Rocks that contain compounds that
do not dissolve easily most often
resist chemical weathering
-weathering of rocks is an important
part of the phosphorus cycle
-solutions can be acidic or basic
depending on the starting chemical
composition of the rock and pH of
the water
-hundreds of different chemical
reactions can occurs oem chemical
weathering can be caused by human
activities
ie: sulphur in atmosphere from fuel
combustion
combines with O2 to form SO2
This reacts with H2O to form H2SO4
causes acid precipitation
Acid Precipitation

precipitation high in sulphuric acid

and nitric acid
-responsible for rapid degradation of
certain structures such as statues,
gravestones, limestone, and marble
-when falls on soil, can promotes
chemical weathering of minerals in
the soil, and can release elements

which can be taken up by plants or

leached from soil into groundwater
-Chemical weathering due to natural
processes or acid rain can add
certain elements to an ecosystem
-knowing rate of weathering helps to
assess how rapidly soil fertility can
be renewed
-weathering of granitic rocks
consumes CO2 from the
atmosphere, and can reduce the
atmospheric [CO2]
Erosion

What happens to the eroded

material?
Deposition

SOIL

physical removal of rock fragments

(soil ,sediment, rock, and other
particles) from the landscape or
ecosystem
-usually the result of two
mechanisms
-Wind, water, ice move soil and
other material downslope under the
force of gravity
-living organisms burrow under the
soil, causing erosion
-After material travels a distance
from the source, it accumulates.
the accumulation or depositing of
eroded material such as sediment,
rock fragments or soil.
-Erosion = natural process
-streams, glaciers, wind-borne
sediments
-carve, grind, scour rock surfaces
-humans contribute substantially
poor land uses practices
deforestation
overgrazing
road building
-all can cause additional
environmental problems
-links rock cycle to the biosphere
-has number of functions that

benefit
organisms and ecosystems

medium for plant growth

primary filter for water as
water moves from the
atmosphere to river, streams,
and groundwater
provides habitat for living
organisms
includes bacteria, fungi,
algae, insects, animals
-with other organisms, also filters
chemicals deposited by air pollution
and household sewage systems
-some of these materials remain in
the soil
-some is released into the
atmosphere and/or into groundwater
Formation of Soil

Determination of Soil Properties by:

Soil Development

-takes hundreds to thousands of

years for soil to form
-is the result of physical and
chemical weathering of rocks
-and accumulation of detritus from
biosphere
-parent rock type
-amount of time forming
-associated biotic and abiotic
components
-processes that form soil work in two
directions simultaneously
-breakdown of rocks and primary
minerals by weathering provides the
raw material for soil from below
-deposition of organic matter from
organisms and their waste contribute
from above
-soil normally a mix of mineral and
organic components
-Young soil (poorly developed) =

less
organic matter and fewer nutrients
than mature soils
-very old soils may also be nutrient

poor as plants removed essential

nutrients and water leaches others
away
Five Factors Determine
Soil Properties

1. Parent Material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Organisms
5. Time

Parent Material

underlying rock material from which

a soils inorganic components are
derived
-different soils from different parent
material
-quartz sand (SiO2) gives
rise to nutrient poor soil
(Atlantic coast of the US)
-calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
gives rise to soil with high
Ca,
high pH, may support high
Ag
productivity (Vermont,
Northern NY)
-parent material often transported by
water, wind, etc.
-may not be related to bedrock
where it forms
-particle size of broken down parent
material influences texture and
porosity of soil
-particle size arranges in order from
large to small (sand-silt-clay)

Climate

-number of influences
-soil does not develop well when
temperatures below freezing
(decomposition of organic material
and water movement are extremely
slow)
-high latitudes of northern
hemisphere, soil is largely
composed of organic

material that is
undecomposed
-humid tropics, soil
development is accelerated
by rapid weathering of rock
and soil minerals, leaching of
nutrients and decomposition
of organic detritus
-Climate also affects types of
vegetation that develops and the
type of detritus forming when that
vegetation dies
Topography
(Geology)

-includes surface slope

-arrangement of landscape
-soils that form on a steep slope are
subject to:
-erosion
-landslides
-soils that form on the bottom of a
steep slope:
-accumulate materials from
higher elevations
-can become very deep

Organisms

-plants
-remove nutrients
-excrete organic acids that
aid chemical weathering
-burrowing animals
-mix soil
-uniformly distribute organic
and mineral matter
-earthworms, gophers, voles
-soil organisms recycle organic
matter
-use dead organisms and waste as
food
-breaking down organic detritus also
releases mineral nutrients/materials
for plants
-Human activity
-soil degradation by
use/overuse of soil for

agriculture
-forestry
-topsoil erosion from
plowing/veg removal
(loss=rapid ie: one season)
-topsoil replacement can take
centuries
-compaction of soil by
machines, livestock, and
humans, alters soil properties
and ability to retain moisture
-compaction and drying can
reduce amount of veg that
can grow, increasing erosion
-intensive ag use and
irrigation deplete soil
nutrients
-application of pesticides can
pollute the soil
TIME: How Long the Soil Has
of
Had to Develop

Soil Horizons

-as age, soils develop variety

characteristics
-grassland soils, feed
livestock and food crops, are
relatively old, deep fertile
-immature soil: parent rock is
weathered and fragments
move upward
-young soil: organic material
accumulates as plants and
other organisms die
-mature soil: greater amounts
of organic material are
present
-as forms, soil develops horizontal
layers called horizons
-can look at a cross section to reveal
its profile
-each layer has distinct physical
features
-color
-texture

-composition depends on
climate, vegetation, and
parent material
O Horizon

-organic horizon
-surface of many soils
-leaves, needles, twigs, animal
bodies
-composed of organic detritus in
various stages of decomposition
-most pronounced in forest soils and
some grasslands
-contains humus

A Horizon

-normally top layer of soil (topsoil)

-zone of organic material and
minerals that have been mixed
together
-either by natural or human practices
-where plants spread most of their
roots to absorb water and minerals
*NOTE* most soils have either A or
O Horizons but not usually both

E Horizon

-in some acidic soils under the O

Horizon
-sometimes under the A Horizon
-zone leaching of metals and
nutrients, or eluviation
-when present, Fe, Al, and
dissolved organic acids, form
overlying horizons, are
transported through and
removed from the E Horizon
and deposited in the B
Horizon, where they
accumulate

B Horizon: Subsoil

-below A Horizon
-composed primarily of mineral
material
-very little organic matter
-nutrients will be located here,
metals also

C Horizon: Subsoil

-least-weathered soil layer

-always beneath B Horizon
-parent material sitting on bedrock

Properties of Soil:

Soils with different properties serve

different functions
-growing crops
-building houses
Properties can be:
-physical
-biological
-chemical

Physical Properties

-size and weight of the particles

sand (0.05 mm - 2.0 mm)
silt (0.002 mm - 0.05 mm)
clay (<0.002 mm)
-texture - determined by the % of
sand/silt/clay
-permeability - how quickly it drains,
depends on texture

Sand

-pack together loosely, water moves

easily/quick to drain/quick to dry
-soils high % sand: easy for roots to
penetrate, good for crops like carrots
and potatoes

Clay: Smallest Particles

pack together tightly

less pore space
water and roots cannot penetrate so
easily

Silt

intermediate between clay and sand

Best Agricultural Soil

-mixture of sand, silt, and clay

-promotes balanced water drainage
and retention
-in natural ecosystems, plants adapt
to certain environments

Soil and Pollution

physical

-soil texture determines how

environment responds to pollution
-sandy soils great permeability
allows
-chemical pollutants to drain easily
into groundwater instead of filtering
them out
-clay is good where a contaminant
needs to be contained
-modern landfills, lined with lay,

helps
stop leaching of contaminants into
soil and groundwater
Chemical Properties

-important in determining how a soil

functions
-clay particles (- charged) contribute
the most to the chemical properties
of a soil because of their ability to
attract + charged mineral ions
(cations)
-CEC = cation exchange capacity
-the ability of a soil to adsorb (hold to
the surface) and release cations
-also called the nutrient holding
capacity
-depends on the amount of clay
particles
-soils with high CECs provide
essential cations to plants
and are good for agriculture
-if more than 20% clay, water
retention becomes too great
for most crops
deprives roots of oxygen

Soil Acids/Bases

soil bases = Ca, Mg, K, Na

(neutralize soil acids such as Al and
hydrogen)
soil acids are detrimental to plant
growth