Chapter Twelve

Leadership
Trait Theory

Leadership Traits:
Traits represent the personal
characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.
• Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers
vary by
- intelligence
- dominance
- self-confidence
- level of energy and activity
- task-relevant knowledge
• Contemporary findings show that
- people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or
she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity,
and
dominance
- people want their leaders to be credible
- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and
competent
Trait Theory (continued)

• Gender and leadership

- men and women were seen as displaying more
task and
social leadership, respectively
- women used a more democratic or participative
style than men, and men used a more autocratic and
directive style than women
- men and women were equally assertive
- women executives, when rated by their peers,
managers and direct reports, scored higher than their
male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness
criteria
Behavioral Styles Theory
• Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of
leader behavior.
1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with
followers
2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group
members should be doing
• University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership
styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies
- one style was employee centered and the other was job
centered
• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four
leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and
concern for people

• Research shows that there is not one

best style of leadership. The
effectiveness of a particular leadership
style depends on the situation at hand.
 Skills and Best Practices: Tips for
Improving Leader Effectiveness
Behavior Recommended
Behaviors Intensely listen to what others have to say.
Listen
Determine the true cause of performance
problems.
Think through problems from all
Examine
perspectives. Do not play favorites and find
solutions that benefit everyone involved.
Assist Help others to learn from mistakes and
errors.
Explain the rationale for decisions and
Develop implement fair policies and procedures.
Provide employees with the resources
Encourage
needed to do a job. Gently push people to
advance into more demanding roles.

Recognize Praise people for their good work. Focus on

the positive whenever possible.
 House’s Path-Goal Theory
Employee Characteristics
- Locus of control
- Task ability
- Need for achievement
- Experience
- Need for clarity

Leadership Styles Employee Attitudes

- Directive and Behavior
- Supportive - Job satisfaction
- Participative - Acceptance of leader
- Achievement oriented - Motivation

Environmental Factors
- Employee’s task
- Authority system
- Work group
 Transactional versus
Charismatic Leadership

Transactional Leadership: focuses on the

interpersonal interactions between managers and
employees
• Transactional Leaders
- use contingent rewards to motivate employees
- exert corrective action only when employees
fail to obtain performance goals
 Transactional versus Charismatic
Leadership (continued)

 Charismatic Leadership: emphasizes symbolic

leader behavior that transforms employees to pursue
organizational goals over self-interests
• Charismatic Leaders
- use visionary and inspirational messages
- rely on non-verbal communication
- appeal to ideological values
- attempt to intellectually stimulate employees
- display confidence in self and followers
- set high performance expectations
• For class discussion: Should a leader be both
transactional and charismatic? Is charismatic
leadership only critical for senior executives and not for
entry level supervisors or managers?
 Charismatic Model of Leadership
Individual and Effects on
Leader
Organizational followers and Outcomes
behavior
Characteristics work groups
• Traits •Leader •Increased •Personal
commitmen
• Organizational establishes a intrinsic
t to leader
vision motivation,
Culture and vision
achievement
orientation, and
goal pursuit
 Charismatic Model of Leadership
(cont)
Individual and Effects on
Leader
Organizational followers and Outcomes
behavior
Characteristics work groups
• Traits •Leader •Increased •Self-
establishes high identification with sacrificial
• Organizational performance the leader and the behavior
Culture expectations and collective interests
displays of organizational
confidence in members
him/herself and
•Increased cohesion
the collective
among workgroup •Organization
ability to realize
members al
the vision
•Increased self- commitment
•Leader models
esteem, self- •Task
the desired
efficacy, and meaningfulne
values, traits,
intrinsic interests in ss and
beliefs, and
goal satisfaction
behaviors needed
accomplishment
to realize the
vision •Increased role
modeling of •Increased
charismatic individual
leadership group, and
The Leader-Member Exchange
(LMX Model)
• This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct
types of leader-member exchange relationships evolve,
and these exchanges are related to important work
outcomes.
- in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
mutual trust, respect and liking
- out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking
• Research supports this model
 Substitutes for Leadership

• Substitutes for leadership represent

situational variables that can substitute for, neutralize,
or enhance the effects of leadership.
• Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly
influence employee attitudes and performance.
 Substitutes for Leadership
Relationship- Task-Oriented or
Oriented or Initiating
Considerate Structure Leader
Leader Behavior is
Behavior is Unnecessary
Characteristic Unnecessary

Of the Subordinate
1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge X
2. Need for Independence X X
3. “Professional” orientation X X
4. Indifference toward organizational rewards X X

Of the Task
5. Unambiguous and Routine X
6. Methodically invariant X
7. Provides its own feedback concerning
accomplishment X
8. Intrinsically satisfying. X
 Substitutes for Leadership (cont)
Relationship- Task-Oriented or
Oriented or Initiating
Considerate Structure Leader
Leader Behavior is
Behavior is Unnecessary
Characteristic Unnecessary

Of the Organization
9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and X
areas
of responsibility)

10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and X X

procedures)
11. Highly specified and active advisory and X X
staff
functions
12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X
13. Organizational rewards not with the
leader’s
control
14. Spatial distance between superior and X