Portfolio of:

Austin Patrick Katz

Bachelors of Science in Applied Sociology
Minor in Physical Anthropology

Table of Contents

I.

Sociological Related Material

II. Anthropological Related Material

III. Non-Major or Minor Related Material
IV.

Internship Material

Section I
Sociological Related Material

Measuring Life: A content analysis of the ethical treatment of artificial intelligence in movies

Austin Katz
SOCI 4309 Qualitative Research Methods
Dr. Rachel Romero
ID: A04020633

INTRODUCTION
Not too long ago in human history slavery was as an integral part of the world economy.
Slavery still exists today, however it is not accepted by most of the world as it once was.
Technology is advancing at an exponential rate, which has led to the creation of artificial
intelligence (AI). AI may become the go to slaves of the future because they are not human and
do not have sentience, emotions, and feelings like humans do. This study aims to analyze how
movies portray the ethical treatment of sentient artificial intelligence.
Technology is becoming far more complicated and advanced every year, so the idea of
actual sentient artificial intelligence is not so much as just an idea used in science fiction anymore.
The sociological issue that arises from these depictions of artificial intelligence is the idea of how
humans would react if these machines we created for ourselves to be our tools became so advanced
that they could have original thought and even feelings. When movies portray sentient artificial
intelligence the humans of these movies either reject them or the AI reject the humans.
Since technology is advancing at an exponential rate it is important to recognize the
sociological impact that would arise if one day AI became so advanced that it would be sentient.
AI may or may not become sentient one day, but the concept of how humans would react to a new
sentient form of life that we ourselves created is an important question to ask. Would humans
recognize the AI as other forms of life or just lifeless machines built to imitate life? Not too long
ago eugenics, which is the study of the genetic differences between human races which has now
been proven to be meaningless because there is no genetic differences between human races, was
a commonly accepted form of science to show how non-whites were inferior and unhuman. It is
important to look at how movies portray sentient artificial intelligence, because it shows our human
nature when dealing with the others, those that do not fit in with society.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
The technological advancements of modern day society have been growing exponentially
for years, because of this the film industry has been trying to keep up with movies that represent
our ideas of what the future may look like. One of these ideas that is prevalent in many movies
that portray the future is the concept of sentient artificial intelligence. One of the leading themes
that these movie which portray AI share is usually the ethical treatment of these sentient artificial
beings. There is a difference between artificial intelligence and artificial sentience. Artificial
intelligence can be any manmade machine that can perform processes and calculations, so even a
calculator is considered artificial intelligence; artificial sentience is any manmade machine that
can process human emotions and can make ethically driven choices. Unless told differently, this
research focuses on sentient artificial intelligence that is portrayed in American media. These
articles go into depth about the history and practicality of AI in its relation to modern society.
These articles also discuss the hypothetical ethical repercussions that would arise from the
emergence of sentient artificial life. This research contributes to the current conversation about the
morality and ethics of the treatment of sentient artificial intelligence. The following section will
first discuss the history of modern day AI and its potential.
The History of the Modern Day Artificial Intelligence
Technology has been rapidly advancing for many years now, and each year the speed of
this advancement is increasing. The authors Seaman and Rossler explain in their article that we
consider a sentient robotic entity to be a system that could exhibit the following functionalities: it
learns; it intelligently navigates; it interacts via natural language; it generates simulations of
behavior before acting in physical space; it is creative in some manner; it comes to have deep
situated knowledge of context through multimodal sensing; it displays mirror competence (2008).
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As one can imagine, the field of artificial intelligence is very broad and encompasses many
different areas of robotics. Currently, as the author Rodney Brooks states: researchers in artificial
intelligence (AI) and artificial life (Alife) are interested in understanding the properties of living
organisms so that they can build artificial systems that exhibit the properties for useful purposes
(2001). Brooks article goes into further detail about how AI research is more interested in
perception, cognition and general action, whereas Alife focuses on evolution, reproduction
morphogenesis and metabolism (2001). The field of robotics is still in its infancy, it is relatively
new like most technological advancements that have flourished within the past 80 years. The first
airplane was created in 1903 and we landed of the moon just 66 years later, this is a good example
of how quickly technology is progressing. To many people the idea of sentient artificial
intelligence will only exist in our imaginations, but Im sure people thought the same thing when
discussing about traveling to the moon. Brooks further explains that at our current technological
level the creation a sentient artificial intelligence is just not doable, and we humans barely
understand our own sentience so creating one from scratch is next to impossible. Until technology
progresses further, a sentient AI is not possible. Robotics and AI are still relatively new and there
is not much of a history behind them; however, the practical uses of them are widespread
throughout modern societies.
The Practicality of Artificial Intelligence
As Robertson explains in her article, Japan has been the leader in robotics for many years
now, in fact since 2007 the state has actively promoted the virtues of a robot-dependent society
and lifestyle (2014). Surveys have shown that the Japanese citizens are more comfortable living
and working alongside robots than foreigners or migrant workers. What makes Japanese robotics
special is they created the original concept of embodied intelligence, which means giving the AI a
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humanoid body because if a robot is to coexist with humans in environments designed for
humans, then it makes sense for a robot to have a human-like body and to learn how to negotiate
its surroundings the same way humans do from the day they are born: through motor-sensory
experiences (Robertson 2014). Japan is leading in robotics because their society is only one on
Earth in which their population is shrinking. This is due to many social factors, but the main point
is that their labor force is diminishing and because of extreme xenophobia they are unwilling to
allow migrant workers to move there. So the Japanese have resorted to robotics to compensate this
issue. The practicality of AI is immense, as the article by Zhihao explains that at this stage, we
can see the figure of intelligent robot application in deep-sea exploration, star exploration, mineral
exploration, heavy pollution solving, domestic service, entertainment clubs, health care and so on.
Especially intelligent robots can replace humans and deal with some inappropriate crisis, such as
nuclear power maintenance, military combat, and complete production, management, packaging,
science, education, and other work (2014). The future of robotics and AI is a bright one with
much potential, but the ethical repercussions of sentient AI is something to bring into question.
The Ethical Repercussions of Artificial Intelligence
A common theme found in American cinema that shows automatous sentient AI is whether
they should be treated as if they were human or a machine. If AI can have emotions, think for
themselves and learn, then how are they different from humans? In Kreiders article, he examines
the movie A.I.: Artificial Intelligence in which a family adopts a robotic artificially intelligent
young boy, named David, to cope with their real biological son being close to death from a terminal
illness. Their biological son makes a miraculous recovery and doesnt die, so now the family is
stuck with David. During a scene in the movie David eats some food and malfunctions and is taken
to a robotic hospital to be repaired. Kreider explains that when Davids having spinach suctioned
8

out of his electronic innards at the Cybertronics hospital, he brightly reassures Monica (the
mother), Its okay, Mommy it doesnt hurt! But its the fact that he cant hurt that horrifies
her, and she breaks out of his grasp and deserts him, leaving his hand held up in the air, empty and
unfaltering (2002). This is a good example about the moral dilemma that sentient AI can bring
about, the fact that even though they appear and act human they are not, so they are not treated as
so. This view is comparable to how slave owners rationalized their slaves as inferior and not even
human.
The morality of the AI is also a determinate because the greater the freedom of a machine,
the more it will need moral standards (Allen 2000). We dont know what moral codes and ethical
values AI would abide by, most likely what they are programmed to be, but the whole concept of
sentience is that they would have a choice in what they believe to be right and wrong. The biggest
fear is that the AI would see humans as inferior and attempt to control us. We have this fear because
its a prevalent concept throughout the modern day society and throughout history, that the strong
will overpower the weak. Of course this is just our rationality to be careful, for all we know AI
may bring about world peace and fix all of our problems.
In conclusion, technology is advancing to the point where we should take in the
consideration of the ethical treatment of sentient AI. With current technology, sentient AI is a long
ways away, but the AI and robotics we do have are instrumental to todays modern society. The
benefits and potential of AI is something that cannot be ignored. However, though it may be further
into the future when we must be asking the ethical questions about sentient AI, it is still something
to consider. Movies portrayal of sentient AI reflects our own society in its treatment of others,
those who do not fit with normal society and that are different in some way from the norm but are
still emotionally thinking sentient beings like everyone else.
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DATA AND METHODS

This research project utilizes an unobtrusive method to analyze How do movies portray
the ethical treatment of sentient artificially intelligent beings. The movies that I chose to conduct
my content analysis are A.I.: Artificial Intelligence (2001), I-Robot (2004), Prometheus (2012),
and The Animatrix (2003). These movies all have depictions of AI in humanoid form whom
develop emotions and original thought that conflict with their society. I easily got access to these
movies by using internet sources so acquiring them was not a problem.
These movies that I have chosen all take place at some time in the future and with different
results in each of them. The movie A.I.: Artificial intelligence is set sometime in the 21st century
where the human population has been drastically reduced due to problems that arose from global
warming. In order to upset this drastic reduction, society has created advanced humanoid androids
capable of thoughts and emotions but are still tied to their programing and are not considered real
people but simply machines that are slaves. The premise of the movie I-Robot is similar, except
the androids in this movie are less human and are simply tools used to make life easier without
emotions or thoughts built into them. Until one day one that was built with these thoughts and
feelings is suspected of murdering its owner and the following reaction of the idea of sentient
machines. Prometheus is a prequel to the Ridley Scotts Alien series, in the movie the humanoid
androids closer resemble those in A.I.: Artificial Intelligence than those in I-Robot. The androids
are programmed to closely resemble humans and create original thought, but the androids have
personalities in which they will choose the most logical choices instead of any driven by human
emotions causing them to be ostracized by the humans. The Animatrix is a movies that explores
the history behind the rise of the AI in the matrix series. The AI in the Matrix series are somewhat
different form the rest, instead of being built with the intent of emotions and original thought their
10

intelligence came naturally through the uncontrolled progression of technology. The AI in the
Matrix developed its own sentience and thus was unexpected and unwarranted by the human race.
The A.I. sought out peace with humans by wanting to no longer live as slaves and peacefully
coexist with each other. The humans rejected them and sought to destroy them by any means
necessary, even blocking out their source of power, the sun. All these movies share similar themes
of how humans treat the different and new, they show an idea of advanced technologies along with
the repercussions that may occur. This research doesnt so much have to do with the actual stories
in each of these movies but more to analyze how society reacts to new and advanced technology
that they themselves are uncomfortable with and the treatment of that technology even if it has its
own emotions and thoughts.
This study analyzes each of these movies to gather the information needed. Its focuses on
the relationships between the AI and the human characters that surround them and how the society
reacts and treats new advanced technology. It notes any of the characters personal grievances
towards the AI in each of the films and how those grievances affect their treatment of the AI. It
will also analyze the behaviors and emotions the AI exhibit when being discriminated against for
not being real humans. Understanding these observations allow me to analyze the behaviors and
possible outcomes of a society from the emergence of sentient artificial intelligence.

DATA ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to examine How movies portray the ethical treatment of
sentient artificial intelligent beings. The study is meant to see how society treats those that are
considered the others of society, the ones that are persecuted against for who and what they are.

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In order to perform this study I watched four movies that all take place at some time in the future
with at least one of the main characters being a sentient artificially intelligent humanoid. The
movies that I watched and analyzed for this study are the following: A.I.: Artificial Intelligence
(2001), I-Robot (2004), Prometheus (2012), and The Animatrix (2003). The analysis of these
movies will give a look into how humans treat those that are different from themselves and how
the treatment of the AI is comparable to racism in America.
After the completion of data collection and analysis, three major themes were introduced:
(1) Sentient AI do not have equal rights to humans; (2) Humans are uncomfortable with the AI;
(3) Humans become violent against the AI. Discussing each of the themes will allow the reader to
understand how these movies portrayals of AI is comparable to historical and modern day racism.

Equally unequal
The leading theme in all the movies analyzed is that even if the AI has some form of
emotions and feelings they are still viewed as just nonhuman tools to be used by humans for their
own personal benefits. The AI are slaves to their human owners. A good example of the AI being
treated as slaves is in the movie The Animatrix. The movies shows thousands of humanoid robots
building a massive structure that resembles a pyramid, the robot were pulling and pushing massive
stone blocks up large ramps. This scene in the movie resemble how the Jewish slaves to the
Egyptians built the pyramids. A scene in the movie A.I.: Artificial Intelligence shows a large group
of ownerless robots being hunted down by men riding motor bikes that resemble dogs while
running through a forest trying to escape their pursuers, like how slaves would flee from their
masters and then be hunted down using dogs.

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Even though the AI are sentient with emotions and feelings, they are still not recognized
as being alive like humans are. Another scene in A.I.: Artificial Intelligence shows David (the
main character) being taunted and treated like an object by a group of human boys, they told David
that he was a toy and not human, how his parents were not really his parents but simply owned
him. This situation shows that David is ostracized for not being like everyone else, and after
listening to the story of Pinocchio all David wants is to become a real boy so that his mother would
actually love him as a her own child. In Prometheus, David (the AI in the movie, coincidently the
same name as the AI in A.I.: Artificial Intelligence) is referred to as boy multiple times in the
movie by one of the crew members, just like how racist whites would refer to an adult black male
servant as boy.
If the AI are seen as slaves and not living, then obviously they are not given equal rights
as humans do. There is a scene in The Animatrix (2003) in which the AI, along with human
sympathizers, are protesting for equality together when they are violently attacked by those that
disagreed with them. This event in the movie is very similar to how civil rights activists were
persecuted during the civil rights movement in America during the 1960s.
In all the movies I analyzed the AI were always treated and seen as tools, even when they
gain some type of sentience. The movies show that societies refuse to accept equality with those
that are different from them. The societies in these movies could not accept the AI because they
are uncomfortable with things they do not understand.

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People feel uncomfortable around me. said the machine

The movies I analyzed for this study show that the humans within society cannot accept
the AI because they are uncomfortable around the machines. When the AI closely resemble
humans, it causes uneasiness within a society. The humans do not know how to socially react to
the AI, like how dogs are uncomfortable around Roombas because the dogs think they are living
and do not know where it stands socially. In the movie I-Robot, Will Smiths character has an
extreme disdain towards the robots because of an incident that happened in his past. Ironically,
when Sonny (the sentient AI of the movie) appears everyone continues to view Sonny as simply a
tool while Will Smiths character is the only one that humanizes him and sees him as more than
just a robot.
Another aspect of the uneasiness around the AI is that even though they resemble and act
human they are not considered real. Meaning humans just do not view AI as a form of life, so
they see them as lifeless. In A.I.: Artificial Intelligence, Martin (Davids very rude brother)
would consistently refer to himself as actually being real, while David was not. This caused David
much anguish in the movie, which lead him to search for a way to become a real living boy.
Probably the most important reason the humans are uncomfortable with the AI is because
the AI do not have souls. The idea of the soul is a very human concept, which is why only
humans are considered to have souls. Something without a soul is seen as evil, or unable to make
important emotional decisions. An example of this would be how Will Smiths character in IRobot grew his hatred towards the robots. He was in a car crash with another car and both cars fell
into a river. The car Smiths character collided with had a child stuck in the back seat while both
cars were sinking into the river. A passing by non-sentient robot came to help and logically decided
that only Smiths character was savable, while the little girl was not. Emotional reasoning is an
14

important aspect to sentience. Another example is in Prometheus, Davids father/owner even

says at one point that David cannot be human because he does not have a soul.
The main point of this theme is that society feels uncomfortable and does not know how to
react to those that are different from themselves. When people in a society do not know how to
react to something new that they do not understand, certain things will happen. One thing that is
common throughout the films I analyzed is that the humans will inevitably react violently to the
sentient AI.

Death to all machines!

Violence is a very common way people react to thing they do not understand and are afraid
of. Will Smiths in I-Robot is very open about is hatred and fears about the robots in the film, but
that was before he met Sonny and began to look at them in a new light. Fear can lead to resentment
and hatred, this has been proven time and time again throughout history. This resentment and
hatred usually ends with violent circumstances.
In the movies analyzed, the humans always make sure that they have more power than the
AI and will do anything to keep it that way. In the Animatrix the machines began to accumulate
power and were gaining equal status with humans, the humans rejected the notion of being of equal
statues to the machines they created. So the humans attacked the machines with the intent of
genocide, to completely eliminate the AI from the planet, a holocaust of epic proportions. The
humans attacked and massacred the machines because they were afraid that the machines would
become more powerful than themselves, which the machines eventually did after they retaliated
against the violence by humans.
15

Because the humans in society do not see the AI as living, they do not feel any remorse for
killing them. In the movie A.I.: Artificial Intelligence, David is captured by a Flesh Fair, which
is a fair where they destroy the machines on stage for entertainment. David is forced into a cage
and watches as his fellow machines are torn apart, shot out of cannons, and melted with acid while
a large audience of humans are cheering. The machines do not feel pain but still do not want to
die, one of the AI in the cage along with David comforts him because he was afraid before she is
torn from the cage and melted in front of the crowd.
The examples in this theme show the violence against thing that are different from
ourselves is human nature. History shows that when powerful groups of society see a weaker group
as inferior, they lack any compassion towards them when they are in danger. Society should not
fear and hate those that are different from the norm, society should embrace the differences and
learn from them.

CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to analyze how movies portray the ethical treatment of
sentient artificially intelligent beings. Through the analysis of the four movies that portray
sentient artificially intelligent beings three themes emerged. These themes were explained using
examples from the movies and real historical events.
The first theme explained the sentient AI do not have equal rights to humans. This
sentiment was shown in all the movies analyzed. The second them was that humans feel
uncomfortable around the AI, this is explained by AI not being alive and not having souls.

16

The third and final theme was that humans become violent against the AI because of fear and
hatred. These themes were common throughout all the films analyzed for this research study.
There are a few limitations I had when conducting this study. For one, sentient artificially
intelligent beings are still in the realm of science-fiction at the moment. So performing a study of
something that doesnt technically exist yet is a fairly difficult. Much of the study is based of
correlations between events in the movies and actual historical events, so there is plenty of room
for opinionated educated deductions of how they are similar to each other.
For future research I would say wait until the idea of sentient artificially intelligent being
is a more realistic concept. Until that day not much more could be said about the subject. But that
does not mean that further studies about how humans would react to these sentient AI should not
be done, it is still something that society should keep in mind. This subject is still new and vague,
but with technology growing at the exponential rate it is currently at these studies may become
very important in our near future.

17

REFERENCES
Allen, Colin, Gary Varner, and Jason Zinser. "Prolegomena to Any Future Artificial Moral
Agent." Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence 12.3 (2000): 25161. Web.
Brooks, Rodney. "The Relationship between Matter and Life." Nature 409.6818 (2001): 409-11.
Web.
Kreider, Tim. "A.I.: Artificial Intelligence." Film Quarterly 56.2 (2002): 32-39. Web.
Robertson, Jennifer. "HUMAN RIGHTS VS. ROBOT RIGHTS: Forecasts from Japan." Critical
Asain Studies (2014): 571-98. Web.
Seaman, Bill, and Otto Rossler. "Neosentience a New Branch of Scientific and Poetic Inquiry
Related to Artificial Intelligence." Technoetic Arts: A Journal of Speculative Research
6.1 (2008): 31-40. Web.
Zhihao, Li. "The Research and Application of Artificial Intellig Ence in the Field of Intelligent
Robot." Advanced Material Research 898 (2014): 763-66. Web.

18

Reflection
This final qualitative research project was a semester long assignment that took
many weeks of work to complete. The project required me to use my sociological
imagination to creatively choose my own topic to write an in depth qualitative research
analysis on. It required me to think in abstract ways to be able to show the
interconnectedness between my topic and the weeks of research I performed in order to
explain my ideas.

19

Demographic Effects on the Confidence in the Scientific Community

Quantitative Research 4308

By: Austin Katz

20

Introduction

The access to scientific information has become an integral part of modern society and "The
World Wide Web has become an important source of information in developed countries, and its
importance is also growing in the developing world" (Aaltojarvi 2008). Having a strong sense of the
scientific community in a society leads to new innovations, more advanced technology, and better
education for all those in that society. Science education also has an effect on the people as "The
American Association for the advancement of Science argued that a good science education should
contribute to the development of compassionate human beings.. protecting a society that is open,
decent, vital" (Lee and Roth 2003). It is important for a community to have a scientific presence to
ensure a society will be able to keep up with the rest of the modern world.
Performing a study to find who and which groups of people have confidence in the scientific
community can give researches a way to see how to spread and strengthen the scientific community to
people who do not have confidence in it. Figuring out what makes people have more confidence in their
scientific community can also tell researchers why other people lack the confidence. Understanding this
can help those of a group of people to fix their system and become a more modernized group of people.
Literature Review
The level of confidence an individual has in the scientific community means how much an
individual believes that the scientific community is being successful in their efforts for the spread of new
and old scientific knowledge. The importance placed on the scientific community has been shown in
sociological studies to have a paralleled relationship with the level of income an individual has
(Aaltojarvi 2008, Maier 2008). Other sociological studies have also show that individuals who have
higher levels of education regard science with a higher importance and have more confidence in the
21

scientific community compared to those with lower levels of education (Aaltojarvi 2008, Lee 2003,
Schnittker 2007). Studies also have shown the relationship between an individuals age and their
involvement in the scientific community; however, the actual age of the individual has been shown to
not matter so much as it is mediated through the individuals willingness to perform the work needed
for the research (Cole 1979, Marcson 1968, Laz 1998).

The Age of an Individual Has a Small Role in the Level of Confidence They Have In the Scientific
Community
There has been a longstanding belief that age is negatively associated with scientific productivity
and creativity, but an analysis of data from a cross-section of academic scientists in six different fields
indicate that age has a slight curvilinear relationship with both quality and quantity of scientific output
(Cole 1979). This curvilinear relationship means that as an individual in the sciences becomes older they
contribute more to the scientific community. The research concludes that scientific productivity is based
primarily through the reward of social recognition for contributions of information (Marcson 1968).
Essentially, when there is no reward that can be obtained or no acknowledgment for the contribution of
new data means that there is no motivation to pursue the scientific interest. Laz (1998) argues that the
age of an individual is just a number and has no real effect on who we are, but it is a social construct
that society expects us to act a particular way at a certain age. So the argument is that age does not
affect scientific productivity, but the willingness of the individual themselves.
Age may not affect the level of confidence an individual has in the scientific community, but it is
the best method to solve conflict between scientific theories. The way age solves these conflicts is
through generational turnover, which mean whatever the importance of other characteristics, age
has the overriding importance of deciding the fate of the controversy, for the consensus established
22

among succeeding generations is defined as scientific truth (Marcson 1968). Age is important to the
scientific community because the ones who will decide which scientific theories are correct and
incorrect will be the future generations of society.

An Individuals Level of Confidence in the Scientific Community Increases with Income

When referring to an individuals income it is more accurate to think of the credible resources
that individual has available to them. The more income an individual has the more sources of reliable
scientific information that person has. A source of information an individual with a high level of income
will have at hand is the internet, which has become an important source of information in developed
countries, and its importance is also growing in the developing world (Aaltojarvi 2008). Individuals who
do not have access to the internet must go somewhere that does have internet or paper literature, like a
local library. People with lower levels of income are not disinterested in the scientific community; they
just do not have the resources readily available to them to be as a part of the scientific community as
the individuals with the resources are.
In the sociological study by Jared Maier and Ye Jung Kim (2008), it is argued that social ties in the
community are more important to the level of satisfaction than the level of income. Social ties are social
constructs in the community that create unity amongst the population, such as social outreach
programs. This is implying that even though their levels of income and resources are low they still have a
chance at the availability of scientific information through these social ties.

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Individuals with Higher Levels of Education have more Confidence in the Scientific Community
Sociological studies have found that education is by far the most important factor to take into
consideration when discussing an individuals level of confidence in the scientific community (Aaltojarvi
2008, Lee 2003, Schnittker 2007, Schneider 2007). Lee (2003) argues that scientific literacy is the most
important concept to be taught in order to think about science in education, and that quality education
of the sciences is an important attribute of well-mannered educated citizens. While in the study by
Aaltojarvi and his co-researchers (2008) argue that as a country develops a knowledge-intensive
economy the demand for higher education orientated toward the sciences increases dramatically. This
mean that the citizens of countries with less-developed economies do not have as much importance
placed on the scientific community because of the lack of educational resources. These two previous
studies show that an individuals confidence level in the scientific community is determined by their
scientific understanding and the state of their countys economy.
In a sociological study performed by Schnittker (2007) the research shows that even an
individuals health is better with higher levels of education in the sciences. Schnittker does equate this
to be a function through the individuals socioeconomic status however. Because higher levels of income
will lead to high levels of education, which in turn those individuals are more educated in health
sciences and helps them make more educated decisions about their own personal well-being.
Gaps in the Literature
These sociological studies all have qualities for determining the relationship between an
individuals age, income, and level of education with their level of confidence in the scientific
community. These studies together show that an individuals level of confidence is affected by their level
of income and education, but not their age entirely (Aaltojarvi 2008, Maier 2008, Lee 2003, Schnittker
2007, Cole 1979, Marcson 1968, Laz 1998).
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However, some of the studies are very outdated with the oldest being 46 years old from 1968,
even resources from only 2003 are somewhat outdated. The information found in the studies are
useable but may not be entirely reliable anymore. Having more up-to-date studies concerning the level
of confidence in the scientific community is definitely needed.
The biggest problem was that lack of information on the confidence levels of the scientific
community. Though these studies did serve their purpose, gathering the information from them was
challenging. Only one of the studies actually mentions level of confidence in the scientific community, all
the studies had very little information actually useful for research. A study that focuses primarily on the
level of confidence in the scientific community should be performed so that there can actually be real
definitive data on the subject.
Performing a research study using the 2008 General Social Survey data will allow other
researchers to have actual sociologically researched information on the level of confidence in the
scientific community that different individuals have. Considering whether an individuals age, income,
and level of education relationship with their level of confidence in the scientific community I propose
these three null hypotheses:

Ho: There is no statistically significant relationship between an individuals age and level of
confidence in the scientific community.

Ho: There is no statistically significant relationship between an individuals income and level of
confidence in the scientific community.

25

Ho: There is no statistically significant relationship between an individuals level of education

and level of confidence in the scientific community.
Data and Methods
For the first analysis the variables CONSCI and AGE are used. CONSCI is the dependent
variable which represents the respondents level of confidence in the scientific community. The variable
CONSCI is split into three categories; A Great Deal (1), Only Some (2), and Hardly Any (3). No recoding
was necessary for CONSCI. The independent variable is AGE which represents the respondents age.
AGE needed to be recoded because its range was too large. AGE was recoded as NEWAGE which
has four categories for different age groups. NEWAGE categories are respondents from ages 18
through 30 are Young Adults (1), 31 through 50 are Adults (2), 51 through 70 are Middle Age (3), and 71
and over are Elderly (3). Using the variables NEWAGE and CONSCI for the first analysis the
appropriate method of analysis is the Chi-Square Test of statistical significance. This is an appropriate
text because after recoding the variable AGE into NEWAGE there is now two ordinal variables to be
analyzed.
The second analysis includes the variables INCOME and CONSCI. With the variable CONSCI
being the dependent variable, the independent variable is INCOME which represents the respondents
annual income. Because the variable INCOME is too broad it required a recode to the new variable
NEWINCOME which is split into six categories: Under $1,000 (1), $1,001 to $19,999 (2), $20,000 to
$59,999 (3), $60,000 to $89,999 (4), $90,000 to $129,999 (5), and $130,000 (6). Using the variables
NEWINCOME and CONSCI for the second analysis the appropriate method of analysis is the ChiSquare Test of statistical significance. This is appropriate because after recoding the variable INCOME
in NEWINCOME there is now two ordinal variables to be analyzed.

26

The third and final analysis includes the variable DEGREE and CONSCI. With the variable
CONSCI being the dependent variable, the independent variable is DEGREE which represent the
highest degree in education the respondent has attained. The variable DEGREE did not require a
recoding and is separated into five categories: Lower than High School (1), High School (2), Junior
College (3), Bachelor (4), and Graduate (5). The appropriate method of analysis for the variables
DEGREE and CONSCI is the Chi-Square Test of statistical significance. This method is appropriate
because both variables are ordinal.
Results
Table 1: Count and Percentages for Variables Used in Analysis

Variables

Count

Percent (%)

Respondent's Age

Mode

Young Adult

245

18.9

Adult

506

39.1

Middle Age

389

30.1

Elderly

153

11.8

1293

100

12

1.5

$1,001 to $19,999

234

30.1

$20,000 to $59,999

373

47.9

$60,000 to $89,999

99

12.7

$90,000 to $129,999

38

4.9

$130,000 or over

22

2.9

778

100

Total

Descriptive Statistics
Median

Middle Age

Respondent's Income
Under $1,000

Total

$60,000 to $89,999

27

Respondent's Highest Degree

Lower Than High School

180

13.8

High School

628

48.3

Junior College

118

9.1

Bachelor

253

19.5

Graduate

121

9.3

1300

100

Total

Lower Than High

School

Table 1 shows the distribution of the variables NEWAGE, NEWINCOME, and DEGREE used
in the analyses. The table includes the count frequency, percentage, and the descriptive statistic for
each of the variables.
The first variable on Table 1 is the Respondents Age, which has been recoded into four
categories. The lowest percentage on the table belongs to the Elderly subcategory (11.8%), which
includes respondents ages 71 and above. The second category with a percentage higher than Elderly is
the Young Adult category (18.9%), which contains respondents with ages 18 through 30. Next is the
Middle Age category (30.1%) which includes respondents with ages 51 through 70. The final and
highest percentage category is the Adult category (39.1%) which includes respondents from the ages
31 through 50. The median for the NEWAGE variable is the Middle Age category.
The second variable on Table 1 is the Respondents Income, which has been recoded into six
subcategories. The category with the lowest percentage is the Under $1,000 category (1.5%). Next
comes the $130,000 or over category (2.9%), the $90,000 to $129,999 category (4.9%), the $60,000
to $89,999 category (12.7%), then the $1,001 to $19,999 category (30.1%). Then the category with
the highest percentage is the $20,000 to $59,999 category (47.9%). The median for the variable
NEWINCOME is the $60,000 to $89,999 category.
28

The final variable on Table 1 is the Respondents Highest Degree earned, which is split into five

Respondent's Ages
Confidence in the Scientific
Community

Young Adult
108 (44.1%)

Hardly Any
Total

Middle
Age

Elderly

Total

228
(45.1%)

138
(35.5%)

50
(32.7%)

524
(40.5%)

122 (49.8%)

251
(49.6%)

227
(58.4%)

93
(60.8%)

693
(53.6%)

15 (6.1%)

27
(5.3%)

24
(6.2%)

10 (6.5%)

76 (5.9%)

245 (100%)

506
(100%)

389
(100%)

153
(100%)

1293
(100%)

A Great Deal
Only Some

Adult

subcategories. The category with the lowest percentage is the Junior College category (9.1%), followed
by Graduate (9.3%), Lower than High School (13.8%), and then Bachelor (19.5%). The subcategory
with the highest percentage and most of the respondents is High School (48.3%).

Table 2: Chi-Square Test: Age and Confidence in the Scientific Community

Pearsons Chi-Square = 13.832*
df= 6
Percentages in parentheses ( )
* p .05
** p .01
*** p .001
29

Table 2 shows the results from the Chi-Square analysis for the respondents age and their
confidence in the scientific community. The table shows that there is a statistically significant difference
between the variables of NEWAGE and CONSCI {2 = 13.832, p=0.032 (0.05, 0.01. 0.001)}. The
results show that the null hypothesis is rejected because of a 0.032 level of statistical significance. The
Chi-Square analysis shows that the level of the Hardly Any stays practically consistent throughout all
the age groups: young Adult (6.1%), Adult (5.3%), Middle Age (6.2%), and Elderly (6.5%).
However, the percentages change within the categories A Great Deal and Only Some. In the
category A Great Deal the percentages stay almost constant during Young Adult (44.1%) and Adult
(45.1%), but then decrease at older ages with Middle Age (35.5%) and Elderly (32.7%). The opposite
occurs in the category Only Some with the percentages increasing over time. Once again Young
Adult (49.8%) and Adult (49.6%) stay almost constant, but Middle Age (58.4%) and Elderly
(60.8%) are significantly higher than the two previous younger categories.

Table 3: Chi-Square Test: Income and Confidence in the Scientific Community

Respondents
Confidence Under $1,000
in the
Scientific
Community
A Great
Deal
Only Some
Hardly Any

4 (33.3%)
8 (66.7%)
0 (0.0%)

$1,001 to
$19,999

91 (38.9%)
127 (54.3%)
16 (6.8%)

$20,000 to
$59,999

140 (37.5%)
216 (57.9%)
17 (4.6%)

Income
$60,000 to
$89,999

45 (45.5%)
51 (51.5%)
3 (3.0%)

$90,000 to
$129,999

$130,000 or
over

Total

24 (63.2%)

322
18 (81.8%) (41.4%)

14 (36.8%)

420
4 (18.2%) (54.0%)

0 (0.0%)

36
(4.6%)

0 (0.0%)

30

Total

12 (100%)

234 (100%)

373 (100%)

99 (100%)

38 (100%)

22 (100%)

Pearsons Chi-Square = 30.497***

df= 10
Percentages in parentheses ( )
* p .05
** p .01
*** p .001

Table 3 shows the results from the Chi-Square analysis for the respondents annual income and
their confidence in the scientific community. The results from the table show that there is a significant
statistical difference between the variables NEWINCOME and CONSCI {2 = 30.497, p=0.001
(0.05, 0.01. 0.001)}. The results show that the null hypothesis is rejected due to a .001 level of
statistical significance. The results show that the category Hardly Any (4.6%) had the least amount of
respondents, in fact the categories Under $1,000, $90,000 to $129,999, and $130,000 or over all
had 0 (0.0%) respondents answer to Hardly Any. The category Only Some (54.0%) had the most
respondents and shows as income increases less respondents answered to it, starting with Under
$1,000 (66.7%) and ending with $130,000 or over (18.2%). The percentages for the final category A
Great Deal (41.4%) increase as income increases, starting with Under $1,000 (33.3%) and ending with
$130,000 or over (81.8%). The results from the analysis show that as a respondents income increase
their confidence in the scientific community also increases.

Table 4: Chi-Square Test: Highest Degree and Confidence in the Scientific Community

31

778
(100%)

Respondent's
Highest Degree
Earned
Confidence in the Scientific
Community
A Great Deal

Lower than High

School
60 (33.3%)

High School
220 (35.0%)

Junior
College
47 (39.8%)

Bachelor
130 (51.4%)

Graduate

Total

66 (54.5%)

523
(40.2%)

Only Some

100 (55.6%)

367 (58.4%)

66 (55.9%)

115 (45.5%)

53 (43.8%)

701
(53.9%)

Hardly Any

20 (11.1%)

41 (6.5%)

5 (4.2%)

8 (3.2%)

2 (1.7%)

76 (5.8%)

Total

180 (100%)

628 (100%)

118 (100%)

253 (100%)

121 (100%)

1300
(100%)

Pearsons Chi-Square = 44.869***

df= 8
Percentages in parentheses ( )
* p .05
** p .01
*** p .001

Table 4 shows the results from the Chi-Square analysis of the respondents highest degree
earned and their confidence in the scientific community. The results from the table show that there is a
significant statistical difference between the variables DEGREE and CONSCI {2 = 44.869, p=0.000
(0.05, 0.01. 0.001)}. The results show that the null hypothesis is rejected due to a 0.000 level of
statistical significance. The category with the least amount of respondents is the Hardly Any (5.8%)
category which the amount of respondents decreases as highest degree earned increase, beginning with
Lower than High School (11.1%) and finishing with Graduate (1.7%). The next category which had
the highest number of respondents is the Only Some (53.9%) category. The percentages from
32

respondents to Only Some stay almost constant from Lower than High School (55.6%) to Junior
College (55.9%), but then significantly decrease afterwards with Bachelor (45.5%) and Graduate
(43.8%). The final category A Great Deal (40.2%) had a steady increase in the percentages of
respondents as highest degree earned increased, starting with Lower than High School (33.3%) and
increasing to Graduate (54.5%). The results from this analysis show that as the highest degree the
respondents have earned the high their level of confidence in the scientific community.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results from the chi-square analyses performed on the variables show what
other sociological studies have already revealed about the statistical significance between an individuals
age, income, highest degree earned and their confidence in the scientific community.
The study showed in the first analysis a statistically significant difference between a
respondents age and their confidence in the scientific community. The differences were not too large,
however there was a clear difference between the variable. The results show that as the individuals age
increases their confidence in the scientific community become more neutral in the Only Some
category. The results show what the studies from Marcson (1968) and Laz (1998) expressed, that age
shows little variation in their confidence towards the scientific community but there still is enough of a
statistical difference between the two variables.
The second analysis in the study showed that there is a statistically significant difference
between the respondents incomes and their confidence in the scientific community. The results show
that as the respondents incomes increase so does their confidence in the scientific community. These
results confirm what Aaltojarvi (2008) and Maier/Kim (2008) had said that as an individuals income
33

increases so does their resources, opportunities, and education increase their confidence in the
scientific community increases as well.
The results of final analysis in the study showed that there is a statistically significant difference
between the respondents highest degree earned and their confidence in the scientific community. The
results show a clear decrease in Hardly Any and an increase in A Great Deal with higher degrees
earned by the respondents. The results from the analysis support what Aaltojarvi (2008), Lee (2003),
Schnittker (2007) say in their research that as an individual becomes more educated their knowledge
and confidence in the scientific community increases.
These analyses for statistical significance in the scientific community are important because they
allow researchers to understand what makes science more important to people through an individuals
age, income, and highest degree earned. The study shows that people with the most confidence in the
scientific community are the wealthiest and most educated of a society.
Though most of the data collect from the sources was useful, some were very outdated and
some had very little information to offer. Even though some of the results were not entirely clear on
their outcomes, through using the chi-square method of analysis it was concluded that all the
hypotheses were rejected and they all showed statistically significant differences.

34

References

Aaltojarvi, I., I. Arminen, O. Auranen, and H.-M. Pasanen. "Scientific Productivity, Web Visibility and
Citation Patterns in Sixteen Nordic Sociology Departments." Acta
Sociologica 51.1 (2008): 5-22.
JSTOR.org. Web. 17 Feb. 2014.

Lee, Stuart, and Wolf-Michael Roth. "Science and the "Good Citizen": CommunityBased Scientific
Literacy." Science, Technology, & Human Values 28.3 (2003):
403-24. Web. 17 Feb. 2014.

Cole, Stephen. "Age and Scientific Performance." American Journal of Sociology 84.4
JSTOR.org. Web. 17 Feb. 2014.

(1979): 958-77.

Laz, Cheryl. "Act Your Age." Sociological Forum 13.1 (1998): 85-113. JSTOR.org. Web. 17 Feb. 2014.

Marcson, Simon. "Book Review:The Scientific Community. Warren O. Hagstrom."

Journal of Sociology 74.1 (1968): 81-83. JSTOR.org. Web. 17 Feb.
2014.

American

Schneider, Barbara L. "School Reform 2007: Transforming Education into a Scientific Enterprise." Annual
Review of Sociology 33 (2007): 197-217. JSTOR. Web. 17 Mar. 2014.

Schnittker, Jason. "Education and the Changing Shape of the Income Gradient in Health." Journal of
Health and Social Behavior 45.3 (2004): 286-305. JSTOR. Web. 17 Mar. 2014.

Maier, Jared, and Ye Jung Kim. "NEIGHBORHOOD SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION." Michigan
Sociological Review 22 (2008): 171-95. JSTOR. Web. 17 Mar. 2014.

35

Reflection
This quantitative research project was a semester long project that required many weeks
of research and data analysis in order to complete. Using the data analysis program SPSS
allowed me to quantify my research through statistically driven equations to later be expressed in
the form of tables. This project not only required the use of a sociological mindset, but also
statistical knowledge.

36

Austin Katz
Environment and Society
Online Course
Smith
Inverted Quarantine
In Andrew Szasz book Shopping Our Way To Safety, he outlines his concept of inverted
quarantine through examples that are found in American history and modern society. Szasz gives many
examples of his concept of inverted quarantine and then he discusses the consequences they each have
on society and/or the environment. Having the ability to see inverted quarantine through a sociological
perspective allows individuals to recognize the social consequences of inverted quarantine method,
such as the Arms Race during the Cold War, as well as the environmental consequences, such as the
pollution produced from modern day waste disposal.
Szasz explains inverted quarantine as, in essence, the opposite of quarantine. Instead of
isolating one or a few individuals from the rest of society due to concern that those individuals are
somehow dangerous, inverted quarantine is the act of erecting a barrier between self and threat
(Szasz 5). In other words, inverted quarantine represents the idea of individuals in a society creating
physical and social structures that separate themselves from what they deem as harmful. Inverted
Quarantine is of interest from a sociological perspective because, as Szasz states, any behavior that is
widespread is likely to be of sociological interest (7). The effects of inverted quarantine are spread
throughout history and the consequences of them are still prevalent in society today. This is why the
concept of inverted quarantine is sociologically important, it allows us to understand how many aspects
of society came to be. In understanding the ramifications of inverted quarantine we are better able to
equip ourselves with the knowledge we need in order to prevent further negative unintended

37

consequences. Inverted quarantine can be seen in many historical events, such as the outcomes of the
arms race during the Cold War.
Fear of nuclear war began to develop post WWII, and this fear drove America to design more
powerful nuclear bombs. Russia began to build more nuclear weapons in fear of the United States,
which in turn caused America to produce even more. This is a good example of inverted quarantine
because both countries started a treadmill of destruction of producing and stockpiling massive amounts
of nuclear weapons in order to protect themselves from each other. Szasz explains that in in 1950, the
United States had 369 bombs; the USSR, only 5. By 1959, the U.S. arsenal had grown to 15,468
warheads; the Soviets to 1,060 (28). Luckily, these massive stockpiles went unused because no actual
conflict ever occurred, that is why it is called the Cold War. The stockpiling of nuclear weapons was the
result of inverted quarantine because each country was building a nuclear weapons barrier to prevent
the other from attacking. Which is ridiculous because if either attacked both countries and the
environment would have been detrimentally damaged, not to mention the massive casualties. Another
consequence of this inverted quarantine was that society became much more educated about nuclear
bombs. They learned the amount of damage they can cause and the after effects that would arise from
the radiation emitted from them. They understood that if war broke out every large city, probably
every medium-sized city, would be gone. Industries would be in ruin. Tens of millions would be dead.
Millions would be fatally injured. For survivors, there would be an instant end to the familiar routines of
everyday life, work, community, the web of personal relationship, plans for the future (Szasz 28). The
United States and Russia are still to this day trying to rid themselves of the nuclear weapons they had
created during the Cold War, but at least the production of nuclear arms has concluded.
During the beginnings of urbanization, cities did not know how to dispose of all the waste they
were producing. Szasz explains that early modern cities were unspeakably filthy. Towering plums of
black factory smoke merged into a pall overhead. Factory wastes were either shoveled into pits or
38

poured, untreated, into the nearest lake or river (113). Waste even began to pile up in residential
areas; the population just had no means of waste disposal. So during the urban environmental
movement society demanded ways to remove the waste from the cities. So new systems for waste
disposal arose that would remove the waste from the general population and send them to landfills.
Sewer waste was also sent away to treatment plants where the waste would be treated chemically until
it was safe enough to stream into lakes and rivers. The waste was no longer in the cities, which is a good
thing; however, they just moved the pollution somewhere else. Chemicals from the waste in landfills
sink into the ground and end up leaking into local water sources. The cities inverted quarantine method
of moving the waste somewhere else and burying it only moving the pollution from the cities to the
open environment. The consequences are that the pollution now leaks into the environment harming
the animal and plant life, instead of directly harming people living in the cities. Unless a new method of
waste disposal is invented that could handle the massive amount of waste that every city creates, this
cycle of pollution will continue to create permanent damage to the environment.
The method of inverted quarantine seems at first glance to be a good measure of action to solve
some social, political, or environmental problem; however, the consequences that result from these
actions cause reprehensible damage. The United States built a barrier of nuclear warheads to protect
themselves from Russia because Russia was also building a barrier of nuclear warheads to protect
themselves from the United States. The Cold War could have ended in a nuclear holocaust because of
the inverted quarantine method. Cities are cleaner now, but the waste was simply moved and buried to
pollute the surrounding environment. The inverted quarantine method has been used for many
situations throughout history, but each time there is some consequence that comes with it. Inverted
quarantine is not something that we can stop, but it is something that we can learn from if we take the
time to analyze and interpret the consequences from it.

39

Bibliography
Szasz, Andrew. Shopping Our Way to Safety: How We Changed from Protecting the Environment to
Protecting Ourselves. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota, 2007. Print.

40

Reflection
This paper on inverted quarantine was written for my environment and society course,
the paper talks of the relationship between inverted quarantine and its consequences in society.
To complete the paper required me to read the book Shopping Our Way To Safety, and to
evaluate the text using my sociological knowledge. This paper also gave me more insight into
ecological concerns that are affecting todays world.

41

Austin Katz
Technology and Society
TTH 12:30-1:50
Dr. Price
Reaction Paper

The exponential growth of technology in our society is a truly remarkable phenomena that has
no equal throughout all of human history. In the article As Robots Grow Smarter, American Workers
Struggle to Keep Up, by Clair Cain Miller, the message is that advancing technology is allowing humans
to do things never even considered possible; however, the speed at which technology is growing is so
fast that society is having a difficult time adapting to this speed of change. This lack of adaptation has
developed multiple consequences within our modern day society. In order to amend these
consequences we must learn how to adapt quicker through knew and better forms of education, further
advancement in technology, and a greater understanding of the human condition in the new
technologically advanced era we are just beginning to enter.
It is no secret that the general state of education in the United States is outdated to say the
least. Education in American is more focused on teaching students how to pass tests, as opposed to
actually learning. This focus on standardized testing has created a society that has no real interest in
learning new ideas and suppresses the ability to adapt to our ever changing environment. Technological
growth will not stop to let those who are unable adapt to catch up. An education reformation is
something society desperately needs right now so that the next generation in society will be better
equipped to deal with the technological changes we are experiencing. We need to recognize what jobs
there will be in the future and what jobs will be replaced by artificial intelligence. The article used the
example of Watson, the computer system built by IBM that beat humans at Jeopardy in 2011, has since
learned to do other human tasks. This year, it began advising military veterans on complex life decisions

42

like where to live and which insurance to buy. Watson culls through documents for scientists and
lawyers and creates new recipes for chefs (Miller). If we do not adapt then many people in society will
be left with no means of attaining work.
This maybe contrary to what has been said, but even further technological advancement will
help society adapt to the new technologies being created. Advancing technologies will replace a lot of
jobs but will also create new ones. If technology advances to the point of space exploration or deep sea
cultivation then those paths will create numerous new fields and occupations for all levels of society.
The article explains that there are certain human skills machines will probably never replicate, like
common sense, adaptability and creativity Even jobs that become automated often require human
involvement, like doctors on standby to assist the automated anesthesiologist, called Sedasys (Miller).
To prepare for the coming new era of technology we must understand how the human
condition needs to adapt. The article explains that some say the nature of work will need to change.
Googles co-founder, Larry Page, recently suggested a four-day work week, so as technology displaces
jobs, more people can find employment (Miller). An expansion in areas such as the arts and the public
sector should expand with this increasing technological advancements. Society need to recognize what
is needed and what cannot (for the foreseeable future) be replaced.
The concept of looking to the future and not knowing what is to come with new bounds of
technological advancement is still an incredibly young concept. Just a few hundred years ago society just
had the notion that everything would stay as it was forever, now we really are clueless as what is to
come. In order to be prepared we need new was of education the future generations, further advance
our knowledge in technology, and better understand the human condition in this new technological era.
Within the next century we could be traversing the stars or out minds will be digitized into our own
created virtual utopia. We need to start preparing for whatever is to come.

43

References
Miller, Claire Cain. "As Robots Grow Smarter, American Workers Struggle to Keep Up." The New York
Times. The New York Times, 15 Dec. 2014. Web. 26 Jan. 2015.

44

Reflection
This paper was written for the technology and society course. The paper shows
my sociological understanding and use of a sociological imagination for how technology
is interpreted in our society. Having this knowledge broadens my understandings of
more facets of society. This paper also improved upon my research ability.

45

Austin Katz
Technology and Society
TTH 12:30-1:50
Dr. Price
Reaction Paper

The exponential growth of technology in our society is a truly remarkable phenomena that has
no equal throughout all of human history. In the article As Robots Grow Smarter, American Workers
Struggle to Keep Up, by Clair Cain Miller, the message is that advancing technology is allowing humans
to do things never even considered possible; however, the speed at which technology is growing is so
fast that society is having a difficult time adapting to this speed of change. This lack of adaptation has
developed multiple consequences within our modern day society. In order to amend these
consequences we must learn how to adapt quicker through knew and better forms of education, further
advancement in technology, and a greater understanding of the human condition in the new
technologically advanced era we are just beginning to enter.
It is no secret that the general state of education in the United States is outdated to say the
least. Education in American is more focused on teaching students how to pass tests, as opposed to
actually learning. This focus on standardized testing has created a society that has no real interest in
learning new ideas and suppresses the ability to adapt to our ever changing environment. Technological
growth will not stop to let those who are unable adapt to catch up. An education reformation is
something society desperately needs right now so that the next generation in society will be better
equipped to deal with the technological changes we are experiencing. We need to recognize what jobs
there will be in the future and what jobs will be replaced by artificial intelligence. The article used the
example of Watson, the computer system built by IBM that beat humans at Jeopardy in 2011, has since
learned to do other human tasks. This year, it began advising military veterans on complex life decisions

46

like where to live and which insurance to buy. Watson culls through documents for scientists and
lawyers and creates new recipes for chefs (Miller). If we do not adapt then many people in society will
be left with no means of attaining work.
This maybe contrary to what has been said, but even further technological advancement will
help society adapt to the new technologies being created. Advancing technologies will replace a lot of
jobs but will also create new ones. If technology advances to the point of space exploration or deep sea
cultivation then those paths will create numerous new fields and occupations for all levels of society.
The article explains that there are certain human skills machines will probably never replicate, like
common sense, adaptability and creativity Even jobs that become automated often require human
involvement, like doctors on standby to assist the automated anesthesiologist, called Sedasys (Miller).
To prepare for the coming new era of technology we must understand how the human
condition needs to adapt. The article explains that some say the nature of work will need to change.
Googles co-founder, Larry Page, recently suggested a four-day work week, so as technology displaces
jobs, more people can find employment (Miller). An expansion in areas such as the arts and the public
sector should expand with this increasing technological advancements. Society need to recognize what
is needed and what cannot (for the foreseeable future) be replaced.
The concept of looking to the future and not knowing what is to come with new bounds of
technological advancement is still an incredibly young concept. Just a few hundred years ago society just
had the notion that everything would stay as it was forever, now we really are clueless as what is to
come. In order to be prepared we need new was of education the future generations, further advance
our knowledge in technology, and better understand the human condition in this new technological era.
Within the next century we could be traversing the stars or out minds will be digitized into our own
created virtual utopia. We need to start preparing for whatever is to come.

47

References
Miller, Claire Cain. "As Robots Grow Smarter, American Workers Struggle to Keep Up." The New York
Times. The New York Times, 15 Dec. 2014. Web. 26 Jan. 2015.

48

Reflection
This paper was for a course in multicultural relations. The course allowed me to
better understand racial relation in modern America. The paper required me to use my
sociological imagination to see through an unbiased view of race and ethnicity.

49

Austin Katz
Environment and Society
Online Course
Dr. Smith

Final Exam

Essay 1
Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT) puts forth the idea that an ecological crisis will lead to
macro level societal changes in economic and governmental institutions. The idea of EMT is that
institutions will develop an ecological conscience after an ecological crisis, meaning the institution will
make changes that will create modern industrialization that is ecologically sound. These institutional
changes will result in a modern society characterized by technological, economic, and governmental
changes yielding a sustainable society. EMT states that adding ecology to the social discussion of how we
organize our lives will fix the conflicts of business and the environment within our society. The Kuznets
Curve is used to explain the concept behind EMT. The Kuznets Curve explains that as a society experiences
more economic growth the inequality in that society will also increase, but to a point, and then being to
drop. Ecological Modernization theorists argue that the Kuznets Curve also applies to production and
environmental impacts. That as production increase so does the ecological impacts, but just as inequality
with economic growth, the ecological impacts will hit a peak and then being to fall. Modernization is what
is argued to be the way in which to increase this production, thus decreasing ecological impacts in society.
However, the idea that increased modernization will decrease ecological impacts has its critiques.
There are two major critiques that face EMT put forth by York and Rosa, institutional efficacy and
the pace of ecological efficiency. Institutional efficacy is explained by using the example of how the death

50

penalty in America is a crime deterrent, meaning the death penalty reduces crime. However, to make the
claim that the death penalty reduces crime there would need to be evidence, and research done on the
subject shows that the death penalty does not reduce crime. The critique of ecological modernization is
that is has the same problem because they make two claims: 1) Institutions will make change due to the
ecological crisis; 2) The changes in those institutions will resolve environmental problems and lead to
ecological sustainability. If EMT is to be applied then there needs to be some evidence that changes in
institutions will create ecologically sustainable practices, but York and Rosa argue that much of the
evidence does not support this idea. What their data indicates is that as economic development increases
and when the environmental impact hits its peak it remains constant and levels off instead of falling. So
there is no evidence to support the idea of ecologically modern societies having less of an impact on the
environment. The second major critique of EMT is the pace of ecological efficiency, which argues that
increased efficiency will be at a faster pace than economic growth, so efficiency is the way to a more
ecological sustainable society. York and Rosa use the example of Jevons Paradox to explain the problems
with this. Jevons Paradox explains that with an increase in coal production, as it becomes more efficient
technologically we do not see the downturn in consumption, instead there is actually an increase in
consumption. This is due to the rebound effect because the increased efficiency causes a decrease in
price, it in turn creates an increase in demand, thus creates an over increase in the use of that resources.
So that any gains society gets from increased efficiency is cleared out by the rebound of the greater
consumption of the resource, and that increased efficiency does not decrease consumption.
Ecological modernizationalists will agree that there are some problems with EMT and that it has
a long way to go, but it is still an important concept to be adopted. New standards from EMT are changing
the ways we live our daily lives with machinery. Bell states that refrigerators, air conditioners, and
plumbing systems are far more efficient on the whole than they used to be, using much less energy and
water. (2012:192). People in society are also making changes to their personal lives to reduce their
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ecological footprint by riding bicycles, carpooling, recycling, composting, and other means. Supporters of
the EMT argue that globalization will increase its success. By increasing globalization there will be more
political influence to make changes around the world. To be successful, ecological modernization needs
the individuals in society to also make changes and not just the institutions. The more individuals in a
society call for change the more likely there will be institutional changes for more ecologically sustainable
methods. So the success of ecological modernization depends upon the individuals of a society.

Essay 2
Global climate change is an issue that affects all living things on Earth. In order to make a positive
impact against global climate change there must be many alterations to how society views and responds
to environmental issues. Making a change as an individual to reduce the amount of carbon emissions one
creates is a positive step in the right direction, but without mass change in a society the change an
individual makes will not be worth much in the long run.
An individual can make a change, but without the change needed from industry for a more
ecologically sustainable methods there can be no real progress. In order for there to be major industrial
changes new environmental regulations must be implemented into society. These changes are politically
and economically driven, if there is no economic value in making these changes or economic repercussions
then the industries will not change their methods. This is why industries continue to cause catastrophic
environmental damage and still continue about their businesses without remorse. If a carbon tax was in
place industries would be required to change to more ecologically sustainable methods so to not lose
their profits. Wealth controls laws, industry, and consequently the amount of ecological damage that is
being created. No individual or industry is purposely trying to damage the environment, the damage is
caused by the desire for higher profits. If their profits are threatened then they would take the measures
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to protect them. If there are also incentives to use more ecologically sustainable methods for industries
along with the tax, then maybe the combination of the two will create some major positive changes in
society.
As said before, making individual changes toward reducing ones ecological footstep is a great
starting point. But without a large society-wide change there can be no real progress necessary to confront
global warming. There needs to be a new modernized social movement that combats the control
industries have over society. There must be changes in politics, norms, customs, and institutions in a
society for there to be any real change. This is the structural perspective way of combating global climate
change, every social component of society must understand how much environmental damage is being
caused and agree it needs to stop. The most threatening thing to the environment is ignorance, most
people within society understands that global climate change is bad but have no idea to what extent.
There needs to be reformations in education to address this information gap between the educated and
uneducated. Society needs to change the way it thinks about climate change, understand how serious it
is, and make the changes as soon as possible. Time is running out on how much more damage we can do
to the environment before it is too late, if society does not make the changes it needs then there may not
be a future on Earth to look forward to.

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Reference
Bell, Michael Mayerfeld. 2012. An Invitation to Environmental Sociology.. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
Class Notes

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Reflection
This paper from a course in environment and society was the final exam for the
course. It required me to write a paper on multiple concepts we learned in the course
and to use my sociological knowledge to explain their effect on society. The paper
allows me to reevaluate the course information to further my understanding of it.

55

Austin Katz
A04020633
Criminology
TTH 3:30-4:50
Whitehawk
The Nature of Elite Deviance

1. Elite deviance is defined in acts of economic domination, crimes of government and government
control, and denial of basic human rights. It also has three basic characteristics.
i. It occurs because it furthers the goals of economic and political organizations,
that is, the maintenance or increase of profit and/or power.
ii. It is committed with the support of the elites who head such organizations. Such
support may be open an active or covert and implied.
iii. It may be committed by elites and/or employees acting on their behalf.
b. Acts of Economic Domination: These include crimes and unethical deeds that are
usually committed by single corporations or by corporations in league with other
organizations (for example, the CIA). For example, an organic mercury fungicide, banned
by law for sale in the United States, was used in Iraq to coat by-products or 8,000 tons
of wheat and barley. This resulted in 400 deaths and 5,000 hospitalized.
c. Crimes of Government and Governmental Control: These include tax loopholes and
other forms of corporate welfare, including subsidies and certain special favors
granted in doing business with the government and numerous acts involving the
usurpation of power. Examples of this are the Watergate crimes, crimes of
electioneering, and other acts involving violations of civil liberties, graft, and corruption
and designed to perpetuate a given administration and to enrich its members. Also
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included are crimes committed by the government against persons and groups that are
supposed threats to national security, such as crimes of warfare and political
assassination.
d. Elite Deviance as a Denial of Basic Human Rights: Related to both deviance by
corporations and deviance by governments are notions that contribute to various types
if social injuries. Included here are threats to the dignity and quality of life for specific
groups and humanity as a whole. An example of this deviance would be when in 1975 it
was revealed that the CIA had violated its charter by engaging in domestic intelligence
by opening the mail of U.S. citizens and spying on members of Congress and newspaper
reporters.
2. One of the consequences of elite deviance is that it is estimated that five times as many persons
die each year from illnesses and injuries contracted on the job than are murdered by all street
criminals. This consequence is an example of elite deviance as a denial of basic human rights
because it explains corporations care more about profit than the safety of their employees.
However, one needs to take in the consideration of the different variations in danger between
different jobs in this statistic. Of course a coal miner is in far more danger of harm than an office
worker. Another consequence is that public confidence in U.S. economic and political elites has
drastically declined with revelations of elite deviance. In addition, many criminologists believe
that deviance by elites provides either motivation or rationalization for non-elites to commit
profit-oriented crimes. This is because they know the elites are committing these crimes and not
being punished for them, so they think that if the elites can get away with it why not commit
these crimes themselves. Another consequence is the monetary costs of elite deviance are
thought to contribute substantially to inflation. Estimates range from $17.7 to $231 billion a
year in the prices added to goods and services. This explains that elite deviance is causing the

57

economy to inflate which causes harm to citizens in lower socioeconomic positions. The only
benefit to society from elite deviance that I could think would be the use of subvert practices in
war time that are meant to keep the society as a whole safer, this may impinge on civil rights
however, besides that I could not see any redeemable qualities of elite deviance.
3. Three ways corporations impact my life through elite deviance would be the distribution of
personal information, elite dominance in mass media, and the distribution of products that are
meant to diminish in quality over time for profit. Many corporations take the personal
information you give them and sell that information to other corporations. This is an example of
elite deviance as acts of economic domination because it is distributing personal information
from one corporation to another without my consent. The elite has complete control over mass
media which means that they decide what we watch, listen to, and read. Besides completely
abstaining from all mass media there is no way to escape their influence. This is an example of
elite deviance as a denial of basic human rights because the corporations are using my personal
information to gain profit without my permission. Most corporations make products that are
not supposed to last very long so that you will be forced to by a new one every so often. A good
example of this would be with cell-phones, they have the technology to create phones that last
far longer than they do know, but that is not economically sound for them because they would
not make as much money. This is an example of elite deviance as acts of economic domination
because they are unethically making a product that will deteriorate in order for you to buy the
next version of the product.
4. The power elite own both great riches and the ability to make decisions that affect the conduct
of non-elites (political power), but studies reveal that they also exert a great deal of control over
such resources as education, prestige, status, skills of leadership, information, knowledge of
political processes, ability to communicate, and organization. C. Wright Mills proposed that the

58

dominant institutional structures of American life constitute a power elite of the largest
corporations, the federal government, and the military. These dominant institutions are headed
by elites, people whose positions within organizations have provided them the greatest
amounts of wealth, power, and often prestige of any such position in the nation.
5. The authors of the article use the Bush years as a metaphor for a scandal-plagued America
because from the election to the end of Bushs office as president there was a constant stream
of new scandals to impact the Bush administration.
6. A great problem in dealing with elite deviance is that laws are not administered equally. The
laws that are administered most strictly tend to be those related to the deviance of the
powerless non-elite. This process works in very subtle ways but nevertheless ensure a bias in
favor of the more affluent. As of 1992, the federal government still possessed no centralized
statistical compatibility to index the extent of elite and other white-collar crimes. Yet for years
the FBI, through its Uniform Crime Reports, has monitored street crimes involving both violence
and crime against property.
7. Organizational structure, complexity, and primary goals (autonomy and profit) all help to shield
top-level officials from the scrutiny of the press and the law. In addition, the lenient penalties
established for much elite deviance are ineffectual deterrents.
8. The political institution is being asked to perform two contradictory functions. On the one hand,
politically influential corporations demand state assistance in capital accumulation (profit
expansion) through tax relief, lucrative government contracts, subsidies, loans, and loan
guarantees. Corporations also receive military protecting of their overseas markets and
investments. But, on the other hand, for its legitimacy to be maintained, the state must meet
the demands placed on it for public assistance: social programs designed to aid those suffering
from poverty, unemployment, homelessness, mental illness and retardation, drug addiction, and

59

others. These two cause the state to have massive deficit. Allowing these corporations to spend
far more than they have and just having the government give them assistance simply prolongs
the problem. More money spent on these corporations means less money for social programs
that can greatly improve society. I personally believe the government is far too lenient on
corporate assistance, if a corporation spends more than they can it is their fault and they need
to accept the consequences.

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Reflection
This is an assignment from my criminology course. I was required to explain what
drives elite deviance in our society. I had to use my researching skills to choose the best
subjects to expand upon that would best fit to complete the assignment.

61

Reflection
This assignment required me to read the book Brave New World, and then
create a power point presentation that I had to present to the class. It required me to
take the time to read the book to analyze it in a sociological manner. After analyzing the
book, I had to use my skills in power point to create a presentation that I publically
presented in front of a room of my peers.

62

Section II
Anthropological Related Material

63

Article Evaluation

Austin Katz

Human Variation and Adaptation

MW 11-12:20

Dr. Spadley
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In the article, The Peopling of New Guinea: Evidence from Class I Human Leukocyte Antigen, the
authors Main, Attenborough, Chelvanayagam, and Gao performed a study the used new direct DNA
typing methods for HLA to gather new data about the people of New Guinea by examining the complete
polymorphism of eight different Melanesian populations. Based on HLA, their study revealed that
Melanesians most likely evolved from the same ancestors as Aboriginal Australians but diverted
evolutionarily due to migrations and isolation from each other. This article traces migration patterns and
population history of the people of New Guinea through the analysis of the populations HLA
frequencies.
The authors main thesis of the article is to reassess the evidence for the peopling of New
Guinea, based on an examination of class I human leukocyte antigens (HLA) using direct DNA
techniques, in the context of published archaeological, linguistic, and genetic data (Main 2001). This is
the main idea because the authors were studying the genetic trail of the Melanesian populations toward
the people of New Guinea. Archaeological evidence shows that the native population of New Guinea
have been there for at least 40-60,000 years, from a time when New Guinea and Australia were a single
land mass. About 10,000 years after New Guineas separation from the Australian land mass the native
populations of New Guinea and the native populations on the numerous smaller islands surrounding it
began migrating through each other. For the authors analysis they compared the HLA profile of the
Melanesian populations with those of other regional populations including Aboriginal Australians,
Polynesians, Micronesians, Javanese, and Chinese (Main 2001). The results of the research analysis
shows that modern day Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians share a common ancestor whom
migrated from island to island.
The authors looked at the population history, which is the study of how the history of a set of
populations has affected the pattern of genetic distance between them, of the people of New Guinea
and Melanesia to determine the genetic trail of a common ancestor. Population history was discussed
65

during lecture about population structure and population history. The authors used the HLA frequencies
of the population to determine genetic similarity and trace the genetic trail, HLA are cell surface
glycoproteins that stimulate immune responses by presenting antigenic peptides to T cells (Main 2001).
The HLA system was discussed in lecture and can be found on page 147 in chapter 13 of the textbook.
This article furthered my understanding of human biological variation by explaining how
examining population history combined with HLA analysis can show genetic ancestry from different
native populations even after many generations of isolation from each other. I did enjoy the article, it
was very interesting to learn how these native populations shared ancestors who kept migrating from
island to island. The article made me think of how and when other native populations from around the
world first populated the areas they stayed in, and how the people living in those areas may be their
descendants.
The article examines the HLA frequencies and population history of the people of New Guinea,
the Melanesian islands, and Aboriginal Australians to determine a common ancestry. They discovered a
common ancestry that linked a genetic trail from island to island. Using DNA analysis they were able to
create a picture of the human variation of the native populations. Tracing the genetic ancestry and
migration of population history can tell societies the story of their people and how they became who
they are today.

66

Bibliography
Main, P., Robert D. Attenborough, G. Chelvanayagam, and X. Gao. "The Peopling of New Guinea:
Evidence from Class I Human Leukocyte Antigen." Human Biology 73.3 (2001): 365-83. Web.

67

Reflection
This paper was a research assignment for my human variation and adaptation course. It
required me to find an anthropological subject through the use of a research data base. It
shows that I am able to research and write a scientific anthropological study.

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Section III
Non-Major or Minor Related Material

69

Reflection

This is a power-point presentation that I created and presented to my class about mass
media in todays society in a technical writing course. It allowed me further use of my power
point skills along with research skills for the subject involved.

70

Austin Katz
PHIL 1320
Final
5/6/2013

Scenario
A man and woman in their late 40s are living a happy normal life of marriage, until one day the
wife begins to develop memory problems that become more readily apparent over the next week. They
decide to go see a doctor on what may be the problem, they discover that the wife has early onset
Alzheimer's disease. The news of course shocks them, but they feel that they can get through it
together. After some more time passes, the wife's Alzheimer's has progressed to the point where
working or caring for herself are completely out of the question. The husband who is now working to
support the both of them and paying for the extra care his wife needs, loses his job and is unable to find
more work. His life becomes very hard while looking for work and still trying to care for is wife at the
same time because he is unable to pay for the extra support. Until one day his luck turns around when a
old friend of his has an opening for a well-paying job. However, the job would require him to live in
another country for a long period of time, which he knows he would not be able to bring his wife with
him, but he would be able to pay to put her in a home that could take care of her. So he has to decide
whether to stay with his wife and hope that eventually he will find another job soon, or take the job and
go live in the other country away from his wife and be able to support the help she needs.

71

Foucault on Scenario

The philosophy of Foucault says that what we take to be knowledge and the concepts through
which we understand ourselves are dependent on each other, variable and not historical, in other word,
they do not evolve along some 'path of progress' but rather change in response to the needs of
authority to control the individual's behavior. Foucault's philosophy is derived from looking at history
objectively as "There where one used to tell the history of tradition and invention, of the old and the
new, of the dead and the living, of the closed and the open, of the static and the dynamic, I have
undertaken to tell the history of perpetual difference; more precisely to recount the history of ideas as
the sum of the specified and descriptive forms of non-identity" (Foucault). His philosophy was
characterized as philosophy orientated historical research, which meant that he looked at history and
how things we and what they came to be and deducted his philosophy from it. He also focuses on how
power in society as he explained in his book Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, he says we need a
theory of power because "a theory assumes a prior objectification, it cannot be asserted as a basis for
analytical work. But this analytical work cannot proceed without an ongoing conceptualization. And this
conceptualization implies critical thought - a constant checking" (Foucault).
The scenario is that a man's wife is diagnosed with early onset Alzheimer's disease, and the man
loses his job and is now unable to support the care his wife needs. He gets the chance for a well-paying
job, however the job is in another country and he would not be able to bring his wife with him but
would be able to pay for the support she needs, so he must choose to either leave her and be able to
help her, or stay with her and risk becoming even worse off. Foucault's philosophy about power would
have the husband be the one with all the power and choice. Foucault would argue that whether the
man took the job or not he would still be in the power position of supporting his wife, when the man

72

could just leave her and not have to support her at all he doesn't and either way with the man's decision
he will still be there for his wife.

73

Foucault, Michael. "The Subject and Power." Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism
Hermeneutics. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1983. 208-26. Michel
and Power (1982). The University of Chicago Press. Web.

and

Foucault.The Subject

06 May 2013.

"Michel-foucault.com." Michel-foucault.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 May 2013.

74

Kant on Scenario

Kant was most notable for his moral stance on ethics, which the schools of thought are
consequentialism and deontology. Kant was a deontologist and was not a fan the moral objectivity of his
time. His philosophy refers to the categorical imperative, which was based on Kant's idea that morality is
derived from rationality, and a moral choices are rationally supported, it is not something he claims to
have invented but "a principle that transcends time and place, and has existed forever" (Alysia). He
believed that rational thought lead to an objective reality, so does it lead to an objective morality
through the same process. Kant believed the categorical imperative was absolute regardless of the
situation or context, what is right is right, and what is wrong is wrong, there is no grey area. Kant
believed that all your actions must have universality, which means that you should only do something if
you believed people did it all the time. He believed that every human being needed to be treated as an
end rather than a mean to an end, which means you are never allowed to manipulate anyone, which
goes against consequentialism's concept of doing things for the greater good. He also believed that you
should believe that you are the absolute moral authority of the world, which meant to never follow the
morality choices of anybody except your own and should "act as if the maxim of one's action were to
become through one's will a universal law of nature" (Alysia), because they have their own morals and
you have yours.
The scenario is that a man's wife is diagnosed with early onset Alzheimer's disease, and the man
looses his job and is now unable to support the care his wife needs. He gets the chance for a well paying
job, however the job is in another country and he would not be able to bring his wife with him but
would be able to pay for the support she needs, so he must choose to either leave her and be able to
help her, or stay with her and risk becoming even worse off. Kant's philosophy would argue to do the

75

rational thing, and take the job in the other country, because it would be irrational to stay and risk your
welfare of you and your wife because of emotional attachments.

76

Alysia, Kelly. "Kantian Ethics: What Immanuel Kant Was Talking about." (n.d.): n. pag.
Www.helium.com. 21 Nov. 2007. Web. 6 May 2013.

77

Myself on Scenario

My own ethical views are based on concepts such as honesty, being thoughtful of other people's
views, and acceptance of other people's personal decisions in life. I hate to lie, sometimes one has to lie
for certain reasons, such as not wanting to hurt another's feelings by expressing certain known truths. I
believe being honest in general is good for one's self, because no matter how small or insignificant a lie
may be, you are still betraying the trust of whomever you tell that lie to, and your inner conscience
realizes that and will cause you to feel guilty about it, whether you admit it or not. Being an honest
person allows others to feel that they can trust you, that doesn't mean they have to like you or agree
with you, they just feel you wont betray them. I try very hard to be aware and understand other
people's views, because if you know what they do and why exactly they do it you will have a better
understanding of them as a person. Once you know details about one's life and past you have a broader
view to understand exactly why someone is who they are by connecting the moments of their past with
the current moment of their life. Acceptance of other people's personal decisions in life is an important
value to have because one must understand that the only person who has control over one's life is you
yourself. So this would also mean that you have no control over what another person does and should
not try to change their own personal decisions, because you have no right to. Whether you believe their
choice is right or wrong doesn't matter, it is their choice, it is their life, and you have no power over it.
In the scenario I believe the man would most likely continue to stay with his wife and try harder
to look for a job and still take care of her, however if he did manage to find a well paying job he would
put her in a home that could give her the support, care, and safety that he himself would not be able to
accomplish. By not leaving the country he would still be close and able to visit her. I'm sure that if the
wife could speak she would tell him that he should live his own life.

78

Reflection
This was an assignment for my philosophy course which required me to think of a creative
dilemma, and too explain what different philosopher may have chosen to do. This paper shows my
knowledge in the ability to think philosophically and writing skills to explain my assumptions.

79

Section IV
Internship Material

80