Computer Storage +

CD
DVDs

Hard disk
RAM

Floppy Disk
Hard Disk with Cover

ROM

Flash-memory Stick

Malik Faisal Ayaz

Lecturer (Computer Science)

Email: faisal.manak@gmail.com
Govt. College of Commerce,
Mianwali

Topic Overview:

Computer Memory/Storage
Units to measure Memory / Storage
Hierarchical Representation of Computer Memory / Storage
Primary Storage
Types of Primary Storage
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Cache
Registers

Secondary Storage Devices

Types of Secondary Storage
Magnetic tape
Magnetic disk

Floppy disk

Hard disk

Zip disk

Optical Media

CD

DVD

Solid-State Storage Devices

Flash-memory Stick

Flash Memory Cards

Previous University Exams Questions From This Topic:

Q.1

Differentiate:
i.
Hard disk and RAM ii. ---2005 Supplementary

Q.2

Write notes of the following:

i. Secondary Storage Devices ii. ----

iii.

---2005 Annual

Q.3

What are storage devices? Describe various types of storage devices.

2004 Annual Paper

Q.4

What are storage devices? Explain with examples.

2003 Supplementary

Q.5

What are the storage devices? Explain with examples.

2002 Supplementary

Computer Memory/Storage
If we want to use anything again and again we save the thing at any place or we memorize
the thing. In computer, if we want to use any data again and again we store it in the computer
memory. When we give instructions to a computer, it checks the memory of the computer
system and from the memory the computer reads the instructions.
Memory can define as
A component in the computer used for storing instructions and data is
called memory. Simply, we can say, Memory is the power of remembering.

Usually, we use the word Memory for temporary storage (Primary Storage) and the word
Storage for permanent (Secondary storage). Storage refers to where your computer keeps
all the data/information that it uses (i.e. any programs that you might run, files that you have
created, or the computers operating system).

Registers
Cache
Main Memory
Disk Cache
Magnetic Disk
Removeable Media
Data Flow in different Memories
This diagram shows the difference and data flow among different types of computer
memories. In this diagram more expensive, faster and lesser in size, memories are higher
while less expensive, slower in performance and more in size memories are mentioned lower.

Units to measure Memory / Storage

The basic storage unit of memory is bit which stands for Binary Digit. A bit is a binary digit 1
or 0. A byte is a group of 8-bits. One character takes one byte of memory. Different
measurements of memory units or storage units are:
Unit Name

Unit Symbol

Unit Size

Bit

Smallest Unit

Nibble

4-Bits

Byte

8-Bits

Kilo Byte

KB

1024-Byte

Mega Byte

MB

1024-Kilo Byte

Malik Faisal Ayaz

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Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

Giga Byte

GB

1024-Mega Byte

Tera Byte

TB

1024-Giga Byte

Peta Byte

PB

1024-Tera Byte

Exa Byte

EB

1024-PetaByte

Zetta Byte

ZB

1024-Exa Byte

Yotta Byte

YB

1024-Zetta Byte

Hierarchical Representation of Computer Memory / Storage

Computer Storage

Primary

ROM

Registers
Disk
Cache

Secondary

CACHE
Memory
Cache

PROM EPROM EEPROM

Optical
Media

RAM
DRAM

SIMM

SRAM

Magnetic
Tape

Hard Disk

CD-R

Floppy Disk

Solid
State

ZIP Disk

Flash Memory Flash Memory

Stick
Cards

DIMM

CD

CD-ROM

Magnetic
Disk

DVD

CD-RW

DVD-ROM

DVD-RW

DVD-RAM

DVD-R DL

PRIMARY STORAGE

A primary or internal storage section is basic to all computers. Sometimes this portion of
the memory is called executable memory because the CPU can execute any program in this
memory. It is made up of several small storage areas called locations or cells. Each of these
locations can store a fixed number of bits called word length of that particular primary
storage.
Characteristics of Primary Storage:

Primary storage also known as the Main memory or memory of the computer
system.

Primary storage units have faster access time.

It is permanent (ROM) as well as temporary (RAM) memory.

It electrically in nature.

Normally primary memory is costly.

Malik Faisal Ayaz

*** E-mail: faisal.manak @ gmail.com***

Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

Smaller storage capacity than the Secondary storage in any computer system.

Normally Primary storage is volatile.

It consists of chips.

Programs are copied from secondary storage during execution.

Types of Primary Storage

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read Only Memory (ROM)
Cache
Registers

RAM
The main memory is most important part of computer used to store data and instructions
currently in use. In personal computer, the main memory is also called the Random Access
Memory (RAM) and is also referred to as read/write memory. It is near to the CPU and is
directly accessible to it. The program instructions are first loaded into RAM and then are
executed by the CPU.
The main memory consists of memory cells. Each cell is assigned a unique number known as
a memory address. The data is stored into the memory cells in binary form. The storage in
main memory is temporary and its contents are erased when computer is turned off. This type
of memory is known as Volatile memory.
Types of RAM:
The RAM is further divided into:

DRAM

SRAM

DRAM

DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAM is most common type of RAM
used to store data & instructions. In this type of memory data is stored in very small capacitor
in form of charges if a capacitor is charged then it stores logical 1 in it, and if a capacitor is
not containing any charges then it is storing logically0 in it. Simply one capacitor is used to
store one bit of data in DRAM. As the capacitors are very small in sizes, they need a constant
refresh of there charges to keep data. For that reason motherboard is equipped Refreshing
circuitry. The chip is refreshed frequently (hundreds of time a second) otherwise data may
be lost.
During the refreshing process, the CPU has to wait to read & write data in DRAM. It is
because DRAM decreases the processing speed of the computer.
However, it is cheaper, easily available and requires less power. Its advantage over SRAM is
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Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

its structural simplicity. Only one transistor and a capacitor is required per bit.
DRAM is available in two packages (or types of DRAM with respect to physical structure).
o SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module). It contains 30-72pins.
o DIMM (Dual/Double In-line Memory Module). It contains 168pins.

SRAM

SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. In SRAM data store unit in it, is flip-flop.
Flip-flops are electronic switches made by transistors. So if a switch is ON, it is storing a
logical1 in it and if a switch is OFF, it is storing logical 0 in it. It is faster than DRAM
because it does not require being refreshed frequently and the CPU has not to wait to read &
write data. It is more expensive and requires more power than DRAM.

ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The ROM contains instructions that are permanently
stored by the manufacturers of the computers. These instructions can only be read but cannot
be modified. This is why it is called Read only Memory.
It is a semiconductor chip, programmed at the time of its manufacture and is not reprogrammable by the user. The programs stored in ROM are called firmware. It is nonvolatile memory. The contents of ROM are not lost when the computer is turned off.
The ROM contains the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS), which is a set of instructions that
are automatically activated when the computer is turned on. It means that computer uses the
instructions of ROM at the time of booting for the following purpose.

To check different units of computer system.

To load the operating system into computer memory etc.

Many other devices also contain ROM chips. For example, a printer has a ROM chip that
contains data or information for fonts. You can say that all electronic devices have ROM
chips that contain information about that device.
Types of ROM:
The ROM is further divided into:

PROM

EPROM

EEPROM

PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. PROM is a blank ROM chip on
which the user can write his own program instructions and data but only once. However,
once the program or data is written in PROM chip, it cannot be changed. It is also non-

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volatile.

EPROM
EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar to PROM
but program instructions written in it can be changed. EPROM can be erased by exposure
to strong ultraviolet light. And then user can write new progran on it.

EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. In this
type of memory, the contents can be changed or altered electrically. EEPROM is based on
a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected
banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically.

Cache Memory
Pronounced cash and also known as high speed buffer, a special high-speed storage
mechanism. It can be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed
storage device. Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers:

Memory caching

Disk caching

Memory caching

A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of memory
made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper dynamic RAM
(DRAM) used for main memory. Memory caching is effective because most programs access
the same data or instructions over and over. By keeping as much of this information as
possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM.
A CPU has two types of internal high-speed memory to hold recently used instructions and
data.
Internal Cache: The best type of internal memory is the Level 1 (L1) cache. This memory is
part of the CPU core along with the units that decode instructions and perform arithmetic. If
the instruction and data are in L1 cache then the CPU can execute at full speed. The modern
Intel processors have 32K of L1 internal cache.
External Cache: The type of cache memory, which is present outside of CPU chip. Different
chips have 128K, 256K, or 512K of L2 cache depending on cost and technology. A "Pentium
IV" chip always has more L2 cache than the less expensive "Celeron" chip of the same
generation.

Disk Cache

Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead of using highMalik Faisal Ayaz

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speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory. The most recently accessed data
from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is stored in a memory buffer. When a program
needs to access data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the data is there.
Disk caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing a
byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a hard disk.
When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness of a cache is
judged by its hit rate. When data is not found in the cache is called a cache miss. Many cache
systems use a technique known as smart caching, in which the system can recognize certain
types of frequently used data.
Relationship among CPU, Cache, Main and Secondary Memories
If CPU needed certain data for processing, first of all it checks its required material in
Internal Cache, if CPU gets its requested details, its good other wise CPU contacts with
External Cache, if requested material finds at this point CPU dont request any other memory,
other wise control transfer to Main Memory (RAM), now if the requested material is here, it
will be good otherwise CPUs control will be transfer to Disk Cache, if getting requested
material here, CPU will stop transferring its control else control will be transfer to secondary
storage (Hard disk or other media), to get the required data or instruction, other wise CPU
will generate an error message.

Internal Cache
External Cache

Relationship among CPU, Cache, Main and Secondary memories

Registers
A special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must be represented in a register
before it can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers
must be in registers, and the result is also placed in a register. (The register can contain the
address of a memory location where data is stored rather than the actual data itself.)

Malik Faisal Ayaz

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The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help determine
the power and speed of a CPU. For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each register is
32bits wide. Therefore, each CPU instruction can manipulate 32 bits of data.
Usually, the movement of data in and out of registers is completely transparent to users, and
even to programmers. Only assembly language programs can manipulate registers. In highlevel languages, the compiler is responsible for translating high-level operations into lowlevel operations that access registers.
Although the number of registers varies from computer to computer but to all computers,
some common registers are:

Memory Address Register (MAR)

It holds the address of the active memory locations. It is loaded from the program control
register when an instruction is read from memory.

Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

It holds the contents of the memory word read from, or written in, memory. An
instruction word placed in this register is transferred to the instruction register. A data
word placed in this register is accessible for operation with the accumulator register or for
transfer to the I/O register. A word to be stored in a memory location must first be
transferred to the MBR.

Program Control Register (PC)

It holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. This register goes through a
step-by-step counting sequence and causes the computer to read successive instructions
previously stored in memory. To read an instruction, the contents of the PC register are
transferred to the MAR and a memory read cycle in initiated. The instruction placed in
the MBR in then transferred to the instruction register.

Accumulator Register (A)

This register holds the initial data to be operated upon, the intermediate results, and also
the final results of processing operations. It is used during the execution of most
instructions. The results of arithmetic operations are returned to the accumulator register
for transfer to main storage through the memory buffer register.

Instruction Register (I)

It holds the current instruction that is being executed. The operation part and the address
part of the instruction are separated. The address part of the instruction is sent to the
MAR while its operation part is sent to the control section where it is decoded and
interpreted.
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*** E-mail: faisal.manak @ gmail.com***

Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

Input/ Output Register (I/O)

This register is used to communicate with the I/O devices. All input information such as
instructions and data is transferred to this register by an input device. Similarly, all output
information to be transferred to an output device is found in this register.

SECONDARY STORAGE

Secondary storage is a category of computer storage. Secondary storage is also called

auxiliary storage/mass storage and is used to store data and programs when they are not being
processed. Secondary storage is more permanent than main memory, as data and programs
are retained when the power is turned off. The needs of secondary storage can vary greatly
between users.
It is usually slower and has higher capacity than primary storage and is almost always nonvolatile.
Characteristics of Secondary Storage:

It is a permanent storage.

It is (normally) magnetize in nature.

Data accessing speed is slower as compare with Primary memory.

It is not directly accessible by the CPU

It is cheaper in nature as compare with Primary memory.

It has larger storage capacity.

Normally less expensive as compare to Primary memory.

Secondary storage is non-volatile.

Programs are stored in storage when no execution takes place.

Types of Secondary Storage

The most common types of secondary storages are:
Magnetic tape
Magnetic disk:

Floppy disk

Hard disk

Zip disk

Optical Media

CD-ROM

CD-R

CD-RW

DVD

Malik Faisal Ayaz

*** E-mail: faisal.manak @ gmail.com***

Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a one-half inch or one-quarter inch ribbon of plastic material on which data
is recorded. The tape drive is an input/output device that reads, writes and erases data on
tapes. Magnetic tapes are erasable, reusable and durable. They are made to store large
quantities of data inexpensively and therefore are often used for backup. Magnetic tape is not
suitable for data files that are revised or updated often because it stores data sequentially.
Advantages of Magnetic Tape

High storage capacity

High data density

Low cost

Rapid transfer rate

Ease of handling

Portability

Erasable

Limitations of Magnetic Tape

No direct Access

Indirect interpretation

Environmental problems

Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disks are the most widely used storage medium for computers. A magnetic disk
offers high storage capacity, reliability, and the capacity to directly access stored data.
Magnetic disks hold more data in a small place and attain faster data access speeds.
The disk is formatted through operating system before to store data into it. The operating
system divides the disk into different circles called tracks. Each track is further divided into
pie-shape areas called sectors. The information is stored into
sectors. In one sector, normally 512 bytes are stored. The disk
with logical tracks & sectors is shown in the figure.
The number of tracks on the disk and number of sectors per track
depend on the density of the disk. Each sector is assigned a
unique number or address. The data is read or written with reference of sector number. The
computer goes directly to the specified sector and reads or writes data.

Types of Magnetic Disk:

Floppy Disk
Floppy disks are also known as floppies or diskettes (a name chosen in order to be similar to
the word "cassette").
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IBM as a new type of secondary storage introduced the diskette in the early 1970s.
Originally they were eight inches in diameter and were thin and flexible which gave them the
name floppy disks, or floppies. Diskettes are used as the principle medium of secondary
storage for personal computers. They are available in two different sizes: 3 1/2 inch and 5 1/4
inch.
Diskettes were everywhere in the 1980s and 1990s, being used to distribute software, transfer
data between computers, and create small backups.
3.5-Inch diskette
In the past one of the most commonly used methods to backup and store data. The 3.5-Inch
floppy diskettes have dimensions of 8.9cm in width by
9.3cm in height and are referred to as floppies because of the
circular magnetic floppy within the hard shell. 3.5-inch
floppy diskettes come in sizes of 720kb low-density and the
1.44MB or high-density capacity.
Most 3-inch floppy disks are now made with a plastic
shutter (door) instead of a metal one. This format is also
known as 3.5-inch.
When the disk was inserted, a part inside the drive moved the metal cover aside, giving the
drive's read/write heads the necessary access to the magnetic recording surfaces.
5.25-Inch diskette
Older diskette popular 1970's that is similar in concept to the 3.5-inch floppy diskette with
less capacity and a larger dimension of 13.3cm by 13.3cm in size. Unlike the 3.5-inch
diskettes the 5.25-inch diskettes did not have a hard shell
and were flimsy.
A 5-inch disk with a partly exposed magnetic medium
spun about a central hub for reading. The flexible plastic
cover contains a cloth inner liner to brush dust from the
medium. This format is also known as 5.25-inch.
The 5.25-inch diskettes were available in a capacity of
360kb low-density and 1.2MB high-density size by 1994
the 5.25-inch disk was extinct and was replaced by the popularity of the
3.5-inch disks.

Zip Disk
In 1994 Iomega introduce the Zip drive. Zip disk is similar to floppy disk but its storage
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10

capacity is greater. It boasted 100 MB, later 250 MB, and then 750 MB of storage and came
to market at just the right time. It is also more reliable storage medium than floppy. Zip disks
were very popular for several years but never reached the stage where you could assume that
almost every PC would have them.

Hard Disk
Hard disks were invented in the 1950s. They started as large disks up to 20 inches in diameter
holding just a few megabytes. They were originally called "fixed disks" or "Winchesters" (a
code name used for a popular IBM product). They later became known as "hard disks" to
distinguish them from "floppy disks."
Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic medium. A disk pack consists of a
number of disks, three or more, mounted about half-an-inch apart from each other on a
central shaft which rotates at speeds of 3600 revolution per minute (rpm) to 6000 rpm or
more.
Unlike RAM, the hard drive is a
semi-permanent storage device.
It is non-volatile. That means it
continues to hold data even
when power to the drive is
turned off (or even if the drive
were

removed

from

the

computer, for that matter). A

properly functioning hard drive
will retain data until the user or
a program instructs it to delete
or modify that data.
The disks are enclosed in a
protective casing that also contains the drive motor, servos, actuator arms, read/write heads,
and the logic circuitry necessary to interface with the system and read from and write to the
magnetic disks.
The main features of hard disk are:

Have large storage capacity. Normally its capacity is measure in GB.

The hard drives are sealed and there are less chances of disk damage due to dust,
cigarette smoke or mishandling.

Most application programs and operating systems require hard disk for installation
and operation.

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Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

11

It is the basic media for storing data and programs.

The data accessing speed is very high than floppy disks. The disk rotates (spin) at
high speed from 3600 RPM to 7200 RPM for a modern EIDE drive.

Manufacturers
Hitachi, Seagate, Maxtor, Western Digital, Samsung, IBM. Fujitsu continues to make
specialist notebook and SCSI drives but exited the mass market in 2001. Toshiba is a major
manufacturer of 2.5-inch and 1.8-inch notebook drives.

Solid State Storage Devices

Solid-state storage is a nonvolatile, removable storage medium that employs integrated
circuits (ICs) rather than magnetic or optical media. It is the equivalent of large-capacity,
nonvolatile memory.
The main advantage of solid-state storage is the fact that it contains no mechanical parts.
Everything is done electronically. As a result, data transfer to and from solid-state storage
media takes place at a much higher speed than is possible with electromechanical disk drives.

Types of Solid state Storage Devices:

Flash Memory Stick

Flash Memory Cards

Flash Memory Stick

Flash-memory stick (also called USB Flash drive, Pen drive or keychain derive) is a modern
secondary storage device. Flash memory data storage devices integrated with a USB
(universal serial bus) connector. They are typically small, lightweight, removable and
rewritable.
USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly
the floppy disk. They are more compact, faster, hold more data, and are more reliable due to
their lack of moving parts, and have a more durable design.
A single memory chip handles storage. Flash sticks are available 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB or
more.
Manufacturer of Flash-memory stick are Kingston, Apex, Sony, Toshiba, Panasonic etc.

Flash Memory Cards

Flash Memory Cards are available in different shapes, storage capacities and sizes. These
provide high access speed and reliability. Widely used in PDAs, Digital Cameras, Cell
Phones and Notebook Computers. Generally, these cards are not interchangeable from one
device to another.
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12

Examples:

Compact Flash Cards

Multimedia Cards

Secure Digital Cards

Smart Media Cards

Xd-Picture Cards

Optical Media
Optical media uses laser technology to read and write data. The laser stands for Light
Amplification through Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writes on the surface by creating
small pits (hole) in the disk.
Optical drive reads data by focusing laser beam on the surface of the disk. A laser detects the
presence of a pit. The presence of pit indicates 1 and absence of pit indicates 0. Laser beams
converts these pits into digital data.
CATEGORIES OF OPTICAL DISKS

CD-ROM

CD-R

CD-RW

DVD

CD-ROM

CD- ROM stands for Compact Disk Read-Only Memory. A removable disk which can store
large amounts of information. Because it is Read-Only, new information cannot be saved to
it. Requires a CD-ROM drive (usually called a E: drive) to read the information. A CDROM can hold 650 - 800 megabytes of information, much more than a floppy disk can hold.
The information on the CD-ROM is stored in the form of pits and lands. The pits are tiny
reflective bumps that are created with laser beam. The lands are flat areas separating the pits.
The presence of pit represents 1 and absence of pit represents 0. The laser beam is also used
to read data from the CD-ROM. The accessing speed of information from the CD-ROM is
slower than the hard disk.
Now-a-days, all the standard software, operating systems and video films are available on the
CD-ROMs

CD-R

CD-R stands for Compact Disk Recordable. It is a blank disk that is used to store
information. A locally CD-R can be used in any CD-ROM drive. A CD-R is functionally
equivalent to a pre-recorded CD-ROM. Mostly the users the CD-R store their valuable data
and software.
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CD-RW

CD-RW is a re-recordable medium. Data can be copied to the CD on more than one occasion
and can be erased. The write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the chemical properties
of the alloy and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference
in the reflectivity of lands and bumps as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many CD audio
players cannot read CD-RW discs, although the majority of standalone DVD players can.

DVD

DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk or sometimes called Digital Video Disk. It is an
optical disc storage media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with
high video and sound quality. DVDs resemble compact discs as their physical dimensions are
the same (12cm in diameter) but they are encoded in a different format and at a much higher
density, using the Universal Disk Format (UDF) file system. DVD discs can contain from
two to eight hours of high-quality digital video that is ideally suited for movies.
The first DVD players and discs were available in November 1996 in Japan, March 1997 in
the United States, 1998 in Europe and in 1999 in Australia.
The disc medium can be:

DVD-ROM (read only)

DVD-RW (RW = ReWritable)

DVD-RAM (random access rewritable)

DVD-R DL (double layer)

Communication Ports
All peripherals are connected to the CPU through ports at the back of the computer. You will
recall that the bus transfers data on the motherboard using wires, slots, and cards. The cards
must then be connected to the peripheral. This takes place on the back of the computer where
there are sockets known as ports.
Types of Ports
Five common types of ports are:
Parallel
Serial
PS/2
USB
Infrared
Parallel Ports
The parallel ports are referred to as LPT1 (Line Printer 1) or LPT2. They transfer 8-bits of
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data simultaneously. Printers are usually connected to the LPT1 port which has a 25-pin
female connector. Parallel ports are faster than serial ports
Parallel

Serial Ports
Serial ports are referred to as COM1 (Communication One) or COM2. Serial ports transfer
only 1-bit of data at a time in a series. The COM1 port is usually used to connect a mouse to
the computer (using a 9-pin male connector) and the COM2 port is reserved for your modem
or game port.
Serial (DB-9)

PS/2
A mini DIN plug containing 6 pins. Developed by IBM for connecting the keyboard and
mouse. A DIN connector is a connector that was originally standardized by Deutsches
Institut fr Normung (DIN), the German national standards organization.
PS/2

Universal Serial Bus (USB) Ports

The USB allows you to connect many devices through one fast connection. It is expected to
eventually replace the parallel and serial ports.
USB

In 1996 the USB port (Universal Serial Bus) was developed to quickly transfer data at 12Mbs
between peripherals and the CPU. In addition to the advantage of speed, a single USB port
can be used to connect up to 127 peripherals through the one port! For example, a single USB
port can connect a mouse, modem, keyboard, and printer to the CPU. This arrangement of
several peripherals connected through one port is called cascading or daisy chain. USB also
supports Plug and Play installations and allows you to plug in a new peripheral without
turning off the computer (called hot plugging).
Infrared Ports
Infrared connections are often used with notebook computers. The ports must have a clear
view of each other for the data to transfer. Some computers, especially notebooks, have
infrared ports (IrDA) for wireless connections. Data is transferred via infrared light from the
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computer to the various IrDA equipped peripherals such as a printer or network server
without any cables. The IrDA ports must be within a clear line of sight for data transfer.

Bluetooth Ports
Bluetooth uses short-range radio frequencies to transmit information from fixed and mobile
devices. These devices
Bluetooth uses short-range radio frequencies to transmit information from fixed and mobile
devices. These devices must be within the range of 32 feet, or 10 meters for Bluetooth to
effectively work.

Malik Faisal Ayaz

*** E-mail: faisal.manak @ gmail.com***

Lecturer (Computer Science) Govt. College of Commerce, Mianwali.

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