Human Anatomy and Physiology For Nurses

Section 1
The Human Body: An Orientation.
1.1 Define the following terms:
Anatomy:
Anatomy is the study if the structure of the body, the parts Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 4,
inside and the relationships between them. Marieb (2003) pg 2.
Physiology:
Physiology is the study of how the body parts work; how they Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 4,
work together and ensure life and health of the body. Marieb (2003) pg 2.
1.2 discuss the relationship between anatomy and physiology:
The body and all of the parts inside makes a good mechanism, every body part inside Marieb (2003)
the body have their own job to do to ensure that the body function as one pg 2
mechanised thing, the structure determines what does what, how and when.
1.3 Which of the following is the correct sequence, going for the simplest to the most
complex in the levels of structural organisation of the human body:
a. Chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organismal level.
1.4 The smallest living unit of all living things is:
E) A cell.
1.5 We have 11 organ systems in the human body. Name them and state one function of
each one:
Integumentary system Covers the exterior of the body and protect the deeper tissues.
Skeletal system Protects and support the organs as well as provide frame for muscles.
Nervous system Responds to changes inside and outside of the body.
Muscular system Allows movement and provides heat.
Endocrine system Regulates processes in the body., eg.: growth.
Cardiovascular system Transports blood, oxygen and carbon monoxide.
Lymphatic system Collects fluids left by the blood vessels.
Respiratory system Supply the blood with the oxygen and expel carbon monoxide.
HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 1

Digestive system Breaks down food.
Urinary system Eliminates waste.
Reproduction system Produce offspring.
1.6 Which of the following is NOT a necessary life function:
D) Nutrients.
1.7 The survival need that is required to release energy from food is:
D) Oxygen.
1.8 Describe Homeostasis:
Homeostasis is basically about the body's ability to maintain stability with the Mareib (2001) pg 9
internal condition while other circumstances outside the body is always
changing.
1.9 When the language of anatomy is being discussed, it is always assumed that the body
is in a standard position called the anatomical position. Described the anatomical
position.
Anatomical position is a position where the body is standing upright facing forward, palms
facing forward with arms by the side and feet are placed together. Ross & Wilson (2001)
1.10 The human body has many regional terms, visible landmarks on the surface of the
body.
Where is the occipital region? Posterior surface of the head.

Where is the tarsal region? Around the ankle area.
Mareib (2001) pg 13
1.11 Directional terms are used when describing the relationships between one body
structure in relation to another. Describe proximal:
○ Proximal is the closest point of attachment or origin. Ross & Wilson (200) pg 45.

1.12 label the following diagram.
Mareib (2001) pg 14 - 15.
1.3 We have 4 quadrants and 9 regions . Draw two diagrams and label.
The (9) Regions.

The (4) Four quadrants.
1.14 Identify 6 causes of disease:
○ Generic abnormalities
○ Infection by microbes or parasites
○ Chemicals
○ Ionising radiation
○ Physical trauma
○ Degeneration Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 15.

Section 2 & 3
Basic Chemistry, Cells & Tissues.
2.1 Matter exists in solid, liquid and gaseous states. Explain these three gases.
Solids have a definite shape and volume, liquid has a volume but it can take shape of a
container and gas has no shape or volume.
Marieb (2001) pg 23.
2.2 Fill in the following element symbols:
Calcium Ca Carbon Co2 Chlorine CI

Hydrogen H Iodine I Iron Fe
Magnesium Mg Nitrogen N Oxygen O
Phosphorus P Sodium Na Sulphur S
2.3 Compounds that make up living matter but do not contain carbon are called?
○ Inorganic compounds.
2.4 Draw and label a basic cell:
2.5 Briefly explain the stages of mitosis:
Mitosis is a sequence of events in a sell division which produces two daughter cells from a
single parent cell. The two daughter cells are the same as one another as well as being identical
to the parent cell.
In a typical cell, mitosis can be separated into four major stages;

○ Prophase: The chromatin moves out, interphase and condenses into chromosomes. Each
chromosomes would have duplicated and now have two sister chromatids, when the
prophase is nearing the end the envelope breaks down into vesicles.
○ Metaphase: At the equitorial plate the chromosomes meet and are held in position by
microtubules connected to the mitotic spindle and part parts of the centromere.

○ Anaphase: The centromeres begin to divide and the sister chromatids split up and move
towards the corresponding poles.
○ Telophase: When the daughter chromosomes arrives at the poles the microtubles
disappear. The condensed chromatin expands, the nuclear envelope shows up and the
cytoplasm divides them and the cell membrane pinches inward till finally producing two
daughter cells.
("mitosis," n.d., ¶ 3)
2.6 The process of facilitated diffusion requires energy. False
2.7 The greater the osmotic pressure the greater the tendency of the water to move in that True
area.
2.8 The movement of substances from an area of higher hydrostatic pressure to and area of False
lower hydrostatic pressure is called diffusion.
2.9 When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution it will swell and rupture. True
2.10 Groups of cell from different tissue types in the body, explain the following with an
example of where you would find this tissue.
Epithelial Epithelial tissue cells are packed closely together and can have several layers. The Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 35,
Tissue epithelial tissue is committed to form the covering or lining of the internal and the Marieb (2001) pg 78.
external body surfaces, epithelial cells are very close together and there is almost no
intercellular space with very little intercellular substance. Regardless of the type of
epithelial tissue it is usually separated from the underlying tissue with a thin
connective tissue called basement membrane which support the epithelium.
Epithelial tissue can be found in the kidney's where they excrete waste from the
body and reabsorb minerals from the urine.
Connective Unlike the epithelial tissue the main characteristics is that the tissue has a large Ross& & Wilson (2001) pg 37,
Tissue amounts of intercellular substance. The connective tissue has a relatively few cells Marieb (2001) pg 82.
which are sparsely separated from each other, the living cells within the tissue can
secrete large amounts of intercellular ground substance which is non-living material
that can be liquid ( eg; blood), semi solid (eg; connective tissue) or solid (eg; bone).
Muscle The muscle tissue is a type of tissue that is designed to contract and relax thus Marieb (2001) pg 85.
Tissue resulting in movement. There are three types of muscle tissue, smooth muscle,
skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle tissue.
All three types of muscle tissues use movement to act against the myosin to create
contraction, the skeletal muscle tissue uses contraction that is stimulated by
electrical impulses which is trans mitted by the nerves ( the motor nerves and motor
neurons especially). Cardiac and smooth muscle utilise contractions that are
stimulated by internal pacemaker cell which regularly contract, and propagate
contraction to other muscle cells they are in contact with, much of the skeletal and
many of the smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine.
Nervous Nervous tissue is made up of living cells with the ability to react to stimuli. The Marieb (2001) pg 86.
Tissue nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons, neurons transmit messages
rapidly and are easily stimulated, these are present in the brain, spinal cord and the
pe3ripheral nerves the branch throughout the body.
2.11 When injury occurs, it stimulated the body's inflammatory response so that the
healing process begins. Describe this process.
When the cells are injured this leads to inflammation which could result in either resolution and
healing of the injured site or in progression into chronic inflammation. Chronic inflammation
may result in healing or in progression into the development of a granuloma. The last steps of
the process is healing and reconstruction of the damaged tissue.
Huether & McCancce (2000) pg152

Section 4
Skin and Body Membranes
4.1 Label the following diagram:
Hair shaft
Epidermis
Dermal papillae
Reticular layer of dermis

Sebuceous gland
Arrector pili muscle
Sweat gland
Hair follicle
Hair root
4.2 Name the three structures of the skin:
○ Epidermis.
○ Dermis.
○ Subcutaneous Tissue.
4.3 The two major categories of the body membrane are epithelial and connective tissue,
briefly explain how these are classified to their tissue makeup.
The epithelial tissue can be found covering the body, lining cavities and glands. The epithelial
tissue cells are intimately packed together and the matrix is very small. The connective tissue
consist of cells the lie on the foundation membrane that is neutral, connective tissue is plentiful
in the body and the cells in the connective tissue are widely separated from each other
compared to the cells of the epithelial tissue and the matrix of the connective tissue are
plentiful.
Ross & Wilson (2001)

4.4 List the functions of the integumentary system:
○ Waterproof the body.

○ Cushion and protect the deeper tissue from injury.
○ Regulate body temperature.
○ Egests salt and urea in perspiration.
○ Synthesize vitamin D.
4.5 Discuss what makes our skin colour different to others:
The skin colour is determined by the amount and type id melanin which is a pigment in the skin,
there two types of melanin; pheomelanin and eumelanin. How much pheomelanin and
eumelanin someone may have in their skin is determined by their genes, a copy of each gene is
inherited from the parents and each gene comes as alleles.
4.6 The "tanning" effect (darkening of the skin) that occurs when a person is exposed to
the sun is somewhat protective due to:
A) Increased production of melanin the helps to block the ultraviolet light.

4.7 Distinguish between the appearances of the partial-thickness and full-thickness burns:
Partial-thickness is a burn that has affected the epidermis layer of skin and can be described as
superficial. When the burn had affected not just the epidermis layer of skin but also a deeper
layer of skin called the dermis, the damage to the skin is called full thickness burn as it has
affected the full thickness of the skin.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 370.
4.8 What is the first threat to life from a massive third-degree burn:
B) Dehydration. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 370
4.9 A physician estimates the volume of fluid lost in a severely burned patient by:
D) Using the "rule of nines." Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 370.
4.10 The ABCD rule describes the appearance of the most forms of skin cancer and
melanoma. Describe this rule:
The ABCD stands for Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Colour and Diameter.
○ Asymmetry is when the two sides of the pigment does not match.
○ Border irregularity describes the boundaries of the pigment.
○ Colour describes what colour is contained in the spot and
○ Diameter is the size of the spot or pigment in the skin.
4.11 Identify four changes that occur to the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue as a
result of aging and state how these changes can be delayed.
The four changes that occur to the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue due to aging is;
○ Decreased tissue regeneration,
○ Skin becomes drier,
○ Thinning of the skin,
○ Decreased elasticity of the skin and
○ Los of fat.
The process of aging can be slowed or delayed by having
○ Good nutrition,
○ Plenty of water and
○ Cleanliness.
Marieb (2001) pg 111.

Marieb (2001) pg 111.
4.12 Describe 6 areas of questioning when taking a health history:

The six areas of questioning in a health history are:
○ Health habits - A brief overview of chronicled varied habits which have a impact on health,
such as tobacco use, alcohol intake, exercise and diet. This section may also include
intimate details such as sexual habits and sexual orientation.
○ History of medication - This section covers the patient's current and previous medications.
○ Hospitalization and or operations - This section is chronicle of operations performed for
the patient and time spent in hospital. It may have dates of the operations, operative
reports and details of what the surgeon did.
○ Allergies to medications - Brief overview of any medical allergies of the patient.
○ Family health history - This section contains a list of health status of immediate family
members as well as their causes of death (if known). It may also contain diseases that are
common within the family or only in one sex of a side of the family.
○ Review of systems - This section covers a review of function, exposure and history in
respect to the body's system such as skin, blood, cardiovascular, psychological, and
gender specific questions.
Sorensen & Luckmann (1986) pg, 356.

Section 5
The Skeletal System.
5.1 Explain the five functions of the skeletal system:
Support The skeletal system provides internal framework which supports and
protects all soft organs.
Protection The bones protect soft organs.
Movement Muscles are attached to the bones and the bones are used as leverage to
move the body.
Storage Fat is stored inside the bones as well as minerals, calcium and
phosphorous.
Blood cell Formation of blood cells occurs inside the marrow cavities of particular
formation bones.
Marieb (2001) pg 117.
5.2 Name the classification of bone and an example of each:
There are two classifications of bones, Compact and Spongy.

○ Compact bones consist of long bones and flat bones.
○ Spongy bones are short bones and irregular bones.
Marieb (2001) pg, 111.
5.3 When a fracture occurs they are described initially as what?
○ Closed,
○ Open.
5.4 Name the six different fractures:
○ Comminuted
○ Compression
○ Depression
○ Impacted
○ Spiral
○ Greenstick.
5.5 By understanding how bone fraction occurs, explain the healing process of a bone
fracture:
At the site of the breakage the blood vessels are ruptured and swelling occurs, bone cells begin
to die. The break is supported by various types of repair tissue and the gap of the break soon
closes, the fibro cartilage is slowly replaced by callus which is made from spongy bone.

Overtime the callus is remolded in response to undue stresses whilst forming a strong.
Marieb (2001) pg, 124.
5.6 The five region of the vertebral column from superior to inferior are:
D) Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, Coccugeal. Marieb (2001) pg, 131.
5.7 Which is the correct order of ribs from superior to inferior:
C) True ribs, False ribs, Floating ribs. Marieb (2001) pg, 135.
5.8 Label the skeleton:
5.9 In the vertebral column name the cushion pad that absorbs and makes the spine
flexible:
○ Invertebral disks. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg, 48.

5.10 Name the six types of synovial curvatures and name one area where you will find
them.
○ Plain joint. This joint can be located in the intermetacarpal joints and the
acromioclavicular joint.
○ Hinge join. Can be found between the atlas and the occipital bone such as the elbow.
○ Pivot joint. This joint can be found in the proximal and distal radioulnar joints
○ Condyloid joint. This joint can be found in the wrist.
○ Saddle joint. In the hand there is a saddle joint on the thumb.
○ Ball and socket joint. Can be found in the shoulder and hip.
Marieb (2001) pg, 151.
5.11 Name three abnormal curvatures of the spine:

○ Scoliosis.
○ Kyphosis.
○ Lordosis.
5.12 Name the most common disorder of joints:
• Osteoarthritis. Marieb (2001) pg, 152

Section 6
The Muscular System

6.1 Name the three types of muscle tissue:
○ Smooth.
○ Skeletal.
○ Cardiac. Marieb (2001) pg, 85
6.2 Describe the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscle:
The voluntary muscle is a muscle that operates consciously like the muscles in the leg, the
operate only when required. Involuntary muscles is a muscle that operates unconsciously for
example the cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle as it is a vital component in keeping the
body alive.
6.3 Briefly explain the muscles function.
The functions of the muscle alternate between contracting and relaxing, as the muscle
contracts the fibres are thicker and shorter and some are stimulated by nerve impulses.
6.4 Briefly describe the six most common types of body movement:
The six most common types of body movement are:

○ Flexion > A movement mainly in the sagittal area.
○ Extension > Movement that increases the angle or the distance.
○ Rotation > Movement around the longitudinal axis.
○ Abduction > Moving the limb away from the midline.
○ Circumduction > A combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
movements.
Marieb (2001) pg 178 - 179.
6.5 There are four special movements that do not fit into the above category, describe
these:
○ Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion > Up and down movements of the foot.
○ Inversion and eversion > Invert of the foot or movement of the foot side to side.
○ Supination and pronation > Rotating the hands laterally and medially.
○ Opposition > touching of the fingers by the thumb.
Marieb (2001) pg, 178 - 179.

6.6 Name the three muscles used to give an intramuscular injection:
○ Deltoid muscle.
○ Gluteus muscle.
○ Vastus lateralis. Marieb (2001) pg, 185 - 188
6.7 Explain the abdominal muscles and how they work:
The abdominal muscles are classed into four separate types of muscles located between the
ribs and the pelvis. These muscles have also the transverse abdominal, the internal obliques,
the external obliques and the rectus abdominis. These muscle groups have a very important
role to play in the body's health.
The abdominal muscles are attached to the skeletal structures, within the abdominal muscles
there are many fibres. These fibres are filled with very small proteins called actin and myosin.
When the electrical impulses are sent through a passive of nerves to the fibres, this action
causes the actins and myosin to rub across each other making the muscle to shorten. The
shortening of the muscle causes the muscle to contract.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg, 432 - 433.

Section 7
The Nervous System
Cell body
Dendrites
Axon
Nucleus
Synapse
Myelin sheath
Axon terminal
7.2 Explain the electrical transmission that occurs between one neuron to another and
what this space called?
The electrical impulse travels along the axon of the first neuron to the synapse, the chemical

transmitter is then released in the synaptic space and eliminate the polarization of the dendrite
of the next neuron along the pathway.
Huether & McCance (2000) pg 293.
7.3 Name the structural classification of the nervous system:
○ Pseudounipolar.
○ Multipolar. Huether & McCance (2000) pg 293.
7.4 Functional classification is concerned only with the PNS structures, briefly explain this
function.
The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerve, PNS
structures are commonly found in groups called ganglia. The peripheral nervous system
connects the central nervous system to all of the body's sense organs, internal organs and
muscles. Without the peripheral nervous system the central nervous system would be starved
of sensory information and the ability to act.
Huether & McCance (2000) pg, 292.
7.5 Describe what happens during a simple reflex arcs:
A reflex action is a fast motor reaction to a sensory stimulus, the simple reflex arcs involves the
afferent neurons to connect directly to the efferent neurons and only requires one synapse in
the circuit to complete the reflex.
An example of a simple reflex is a knee jerk:

○ The patellar tendon is stretched.
○ The afferent neuron sends a signal to the spinal cord.
○ In the spinal cord at the synapse, the electrical signal is changed into a chemical signal.
○ Chemical message travels across the synapse and stimulate the efferent neuron.
○ The efferent neuron changes these signals into electrical signals which then travel down
to the quadriceps muscle.
○ Another synapse connected to the muscle receives the chemical message and stimulates
the muscle to contract.
7.6 Name the structures of the bran:

Parietal Lobe Frontal Lobe
Occipital Lobe Temporal Lobe
Cerebellum
Spinal Cord
Ross & Wilson (2001)
7.7 The term central nervous system refers to the:
E) Brain an spinal cord.
7.8 In which hemisphere is the Broca's area most commonly found?
○ Left hemisphere. Huether & McCance (2000) pg, 298 - 299.
7.9 Name and briefly describe the functions of the brain stem:
The brain stem is located underneath the brain which is comprised of the midbrain, Pons and
the medulla oblongata. The brain stem provides a pathway for incoming and outgoing electrical
impulses or messages as well as neurological functions that are necessary for survival such as
breathing, digestion, heart rate and blood pressure.
Marieb (2001) pg 219.
7.10 What is the function of the cerebellum:
The cerebellum has the responsibility of reflexive, involuntary calibrating the motor control and
the maintenance of balance and posture through panoptic neural connection with the medullar

the maintenance of balance and posture through panoptic neural connection with the medullar
oblongata and the midbrain.
Huether & McCance (2000) pg 301, 609.
7.11 Briefly explain the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.
The cerebrospinal fluid is a clear fluid with no colour similar to blood plasma and interstitial
fluid. The floating properties of the cerebrospinal fluid helps prevent the brain from tugging on
the meninges, nerve roots and blood vessels. Approximately there is about 125 to 150 ml of
CSF circulating within the ventricles and the subarachnoid space at any given time, about 600ml
of CSF is produced on a daily basis.
The cerebrospinal fluid flows through the interventricular foramen into the third ventricle and
then continues through the cerebral aqueduct into the paired lateral aperture or the median
aperture before communicating with the subarachnoid spaces of the brain and spinal cord.
The cerebrospinal fluid does not accumulate but instead it is reabsorbed into the venous
circulation by the arachnoid villi. The arachnoid villi sticks out from the arachnoid space though
the dura mater and lies within the blood flow of the venous sinuses.
The CSF is reabsorbed from the pressure gradient between the arachnoid villi and the cerebral
venous sinuses, the villi acts as a one-way valve directing the CSF outflow into the blood and
preventing the blood from flowing in the subarachnoid space.
Huether & McCance (2000)
7.12 The skull protects the soft and delicate tissue of the brain. Draw and label a diagram that
shows this.

7.13 Where does the spinal cord end.
The spinal cord ends at the first and second lumbar vertebrae.
Huether & McCance (2000) pg, 301.
7.14 We have twelve pairs of cranial nerves; name that functions outside the cranial cavity.
The nerve that functions outside the cranial cavity is the vagus nerve which extends through
the neck into the thorax and the upper part of the abdomen.
Marieb (2001) pg, 231 - 232
7.15 Describe the fight or flight response.
The fight or flight response is the bodies response to the threat or danger. The body releases
hormones that speeds up the heart rate, slows down the digestion and diverts blood to the
major muscles.
The hormones are responsible for the release of adrenalin and cortisone, which gives the burst
of energy and strength to enable the person to fight or run from immediate danger. When the
threat is gone the system winds down slowly returning to normal levels.

Scot, E MS, (n.d). Fight or flight. Retrieved 27th march 2008, from
http://stress.about.com/od/stressmanagementglossary/g/fightorflight.html
7.16 The hypothalamus:
A) Is the thermostat of the body since it regulates the body temperature.
7.17 Name three common conditions that relate to the nervous system:
○ Shingles.
○ Rabies.
○ HIV.

Section 8
Special senses
8.1 The special senses arise following stimulation of the specialised sensory receptor cell,
the senses are to give the body a general conscious awareness of what is going on
outside the body's surroundings. Though it is perceived that the senses are separate
and different from each other, they rarely work alone for example; when the smell of
smoke is perceived all other senses start to work like sight and sound, these other
senses try to help you locate the source of the fire.
8.2 Label the structure of the eye:
Anterior chamber
Posterior chamber Sclera
Choroid
Cornea Retina
Iris
Lens
Pupil Fovea
Ciliary muscle
Ciliary body
Optic disk
8.3 Explain light refraction:
Light refraction occurs when the light rays pass from a particular density to a density of a
different medium which then are refracted or bent; for example in one eye the biconvex lens
bends and focuses the rays of light .
8.4 Name the instrument used to examine the retina, optic disk and the blood vessels of
the eye.

8.4
the eye.
○ Ophthalmoscope.
8.8 The three sets of colour receptors within the retina are sensitive to wavelengths of
visible light that are:
B) Red, Blue, and Yellow.

8.8 Hearing receptors within the organ of Corti are called:
A) Hair cells. Huether & McCance (2000) pg 304.
8.10 Label the ear:
Pinna
Incus Semicircular canals
Malleus Stapes
Cochlea
External Canal
Tympanic Membrane
Eustachian Tube
7.11 Sound waves entering the external auditory canal hit the eardrum, also known as the:
A) Tympanic membrane.
8.12 Explain the following:
Conduct Conduct deafness occurs when there is a change in the outer or middle ear
deafness impairs the conduction of the sound entering from the outer ear to the inner
ear.
Sensorineural Sensorineural deafness is a impairment of the corti organ or it's central

Sensorineural Sensorineural deafness is a impairment of the corti organ or it's central
deafness connection, this may happen slowly over time or suddenly.
8.13 Name the nerve that enables us to smell:
○ Olfaction.
8.14 There are many taste buds on our tongue, describe what and how we distinguish
taste.
When we taste foodstuff and or fluids we use the taste buds on our tongue. Taste buds contain
sensory receptors which is located in the papillae of the tongue.
The receptors are stimulated by chemicals that enter the pores. The nerve impulses are
created and conducted along the pertaining tongue, throat, facial, and vagus nerves before
meeting up in the medulla and thalamus. Finally, they finish up at the parietal lobe of the
cerebral cortex where the taste is perceived. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 207

Section 9
The Endocrine System
9.1 Label the Endocrine glands:

Pancreatic duct
Adrenal glands
9.2 Briefly describe the mechanisms of the hormone response:
The endocrine glands react to particular signals by synthesizing and releasing hormones in to
circulation which triggers a intracellular response.
The endocrine and nervous systems works with each other to regulate feedback from the
internal and external environments, the feedback is regulated by the secretion of regulatory
substances in the bloodstream and the production of electrical potential.
Huether & McCance (2000) pg304
9.3 Briefly describe ho hormone release is controlled:

9.3 Briefly describe ho hormone release is controlled:
When the hormones are released it is then controlled either indirectly by the hypothalamus
and the anterior pituitary gland.
A regulatory mechanism is used to regulate the secretion of the hormone. For example, insulin
is secreted in response to an increase of glucose levels ( a chemical stimulus); to direct
stimulation of the insulin secreting cells. Feedback and regulatory mechanisms provide precise
monitoring and control of the cellular environment.
9.4 The pituitary gland is located:
B) Within the "Turks saddle" of the sphenoid bone.
9.5 Tropic hormones:
C) Stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones.
9.6 Hypersecretion of growth hormone in adulthood after long bone growth has ended
leads to:
C) Acromegaly.
9.7 Which one of the following is NOT produced by the hypothalamus:
E) Oxygen.
9.8 Hyposecretion of the andidiuretic hormone may lead to:
E) Addison's disease.

Section 10
Blood
10.1 Describe the composition of blood. (in your answer include how blood is made, how
long blood last and how blood is Brocken down.)
Every blood cell originate from pluripotent stem cells, the cells go through several
developmental levels before moving on into the blood. The process of blood cell
formation is called haemopoiesis, this process takes place in red bone marrow.
The red blood cells are made in the red bone marrow and only last for about 120 days
in circulation, white blood cells are the largest of all cell and they branch out into two
groups granulocytes and agranulocytes. The last puzzle piece in the blood is the
platelets, platelets are very small disks with no nucleus and they come from the
cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in red bone marrow, the platelets only have a life cycle of
8 to 10 days and those not used in haemostasis is destroyed by macrophages, mainly
in the spleen.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 61 - 69
10.2 What do you call a red blood cell?
○ Erythrocytes.
10.3 What do you call a white blood cell?
○ Leukocytes.
10.4 What are the names and functions of the white blood cells?
White blood cells are the largest of all cell and they branch out into two groups
granulocytes and agranulocytes.
○ Granulocytes have a multilobed nuclei in their cytoplasm and they separate into
three cell types esinophils, basophils and the neutrophils.
○ Neutrophil's main function is to protect against potentially harmful foreign
substances that may enter the body.
○ Esinophils are less actives than the neutrophils but are capable of phagocytosis,
esinophils specialize in eliminating parasites such as worms which are too big to
be phagocytosed.
○ Basophils contains cytoplasmic granules filled with heparin, histamine and other
substances that promote inflammation.
○ Agranulocytes have a large nucleus with no granules in the cytoplasm and they
make up a quarter to half of all leukocytes.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 64 - 67.

10.6 Although whole blood transfusion can save lives, people have different blood groups.
Name these groups.
A Blood group B blood group A B Blood group O Blood group

10.7 Describe haemostasis:
Haemostasis is when the blood flood is halted by mechanical, chemical or a complex process
of the body which consists of vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation and blood clotting.
○ Vasoconstriction is the platelets coming together at the damaged site and
becoming sticky and release serotonin which constricts the vessel, reducing the
flow of blood.
○ Platelet plug formation: as the platelets come into contact with the damaged site
and they release their substances they attract more platelets to join the party,
passing platelets also stick to the platelets already at the site and they too release
chemicals.
○ Blood clotting is a complex process that involves positive feedback system and
results in formation of a soluble mesh of fibrin which traps the blood cells.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 67 - 68.
10.8 Along with blood grouping, some are not compatible. Explain why?
Everyone has different types of antigens on the surfaces of our red blood cells, these
antigens are inherited and they determine an individuals blood group. Individuals make
antibodies to all other antigens but not to their own type of antigens.
The immune system attacks foreign substances of anything that should be in the body,
if a transfused blood does not match that of the receiver the immune system mounts an
attack on that blood type as the antigens of the transfused blood did not match that of
the receiver and the receivers blood had antigens against the trans fused blood
antigens.

Section 11
The Cardiovascular System

11.1 Where is the heart located?
The heart is located sub-sternal, center thoracic, superior to the stomach with the apex on the
left.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 82 - 89.
11.2 Label the heart:
Aorta
Right Pulmonary Artery
Left Pulmonary Artery
Superior Vena Cava Left Pulmonary Veins
Left Atrium
Right Atrium
Chordae Tendineae
Right Ventricle Left Ventricle
Septum
Inferior Vena Cava
Huether & McCance (2000) pg 599

11.3 Label the conduction to the heart:
Sinoartial Node
Atrioventricular Node Bundle of His
Purkinje Fibers Huether & McCance (2000) pg 599
11.4 Name the system with a close relationship of the cardiovascular system:
○ Lymphatic system. Huether & McCance (2000) pg 599
11.5 Name the three layer of the heart wall from outside to inside:
○ Pericadium.
○ Myocardium.
○ Endocardium.
11.6 Define:
Electrocardi The electrocardiograph is a machine that prints out a graphic record

ogram (electrocardiogram) of the electrical impulses of the heart.
Bradycardia A condition where the heart rate is less then 60/bpm.
Tachycardia Fast or irregular heart rhythm usually with a heart rate above 100/bpm, often
can reach 400/bpm; at these rates the heart is unable to efficiently supply
oxygen rich blood to the body.
Mosby's Dictionary (2002)
11.7 Explain the cardiac cycle:
The pumping action of the heat involves contraction and relaxation of the myocardial layer in
the hearts wall. With every contraction and relaxation sequences this makes up a cardiac cycle,
when the heart relaxes the ventricles fills up with blood and after the heart contracts this forces
the blood out into circulation.

11.8 Explain cardiac output:
The cardiac output is the volume of blood running through either the systemic or the
pulmonary circuit per minute and the measurement is expressed in litres per minute. The
volume to which the ventricle fills is determined by the ventricular filling pressure and the
ventricles obedience.
11.9 Name the pulse points.
Temporal
Maxillary
Carotid
Brachial
Ulnar
Radial
Femoral
Posterior Tibial Popliteal
Dorsal Pedis
Marieb (2000) pg 335

11.10 The path of blood flow within the systemic vascular system is:
E) Arteries, arterioles, capillary beds, venules, veins.
11.1 The volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle with each beat of the heart is
called the :
C) Stroke volume. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 89 -90.

11.2 Name the main artery that supplies blood to the liver:
○ Hepatic artery. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 100.
11.13 Name the main vein of the brain that returns blood to the heat:
○ External jugular. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 100.

11.14 Explain the physiology of the blood pressure.
To maintain the tissue perfusion or blood supply to the capillary throughout the panoptic range
of physiologic conditions as well the changes in the body position it is essential to constantly
regulate the arterial pressure.
The medulla oblongata effectively responds to and regulates changes in variables of the blood
pressure from moment to moment.
11.15 What is the average blood volume in an adult?
○ 5.5ltr.
11.16 Describe the difference between and artery and vein structure:
Arteries channel blood out to all of the body parts and the veins channel the blood back to the
heart from the capillaries.
11.17 If you were uncertain in relation to variation in observation what action would you
take?
Actions to be taken when there is a variance in observation recording:

○ Check the equipment being used.
○ Use another device or machine.
○ When possible take the measurement of observation manually.
○ Ask a fellow colleague to check your results.

Section 12
The Lymphatic System

and
the Body Defenses.
12.1 Describe the function of the lymphatic system:
The lymphatic system is a special system that picks up excess tissue fluid and returns the excess
fluid to the blood stream. Usually the excess fluid is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream but
the capillary outflow exceeds venous reabsorption so some fluid is left behind, to maintain
sufficient volume in the cardiovascular system, this fluid must be returned to the bloodstream,
this is the function of the lymphatic system.
12.2 Lumph flows:
C) Towards the heart. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 129 - 138.
12.3 The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from:
A) Right upper quadrant. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 129 - 138.
12.4 The immune system is also called the:
D) Specific defense system. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 385 - 386.
12.5 Which of the following is NOT one of the non-specific body defense:
D) Fever. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 385 - 386.
12.6 The part of the immune system that recognizes foreign molecules and attempts to
inactivate or destroy them is sometimes called.
A) Body's first lines of defense. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 379 - 382.
12.7 Regardless whether is matures into a B cell or a T cell, a lymphocyte is capable of

responding to a specific antigen by binding to is said to be:

A) Clonal. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 385 - 386.
12.8 Long-lived B cell clone members that do not become plasma cell but are capable of an
immune response against the same antigen at a later time are called:
B) Memory cells. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 374 - 380.
12.9 The specific type of acquired immunity that a fetus from maternal antibodies that
cross the placenta is called:
A) Naturally acquires active immunity. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 379 - 382.
12.10 What specific type of acquired immunity do vaccines provide:
D) Artificially acquired passive immunity. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 381 - 382.
12.11 Which one of the following is NOT an autoimmune disease:
A) AIDS. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 385 - 386.

Section 13
The Respiratory System

13.1 Label the structures:
Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Epiglottis
Larynx
Oesophagus
Cartilage Ring
Bronchus
Heart
Rib
Bronchiole
Parietal Pleura
Diaphragm
13.2 Briefly explain the physiology of the respiratory system.
The respiratory system does two things supply the body with oxygen and expel carbon dioxide,
this happens over four events. The four events are pulmonary ventilation, external respiration,
respiratory gas transport and internal respiration, with these four events occurring gas
exchange is made possible.
Marieb (2001) pg 391.

exchange is made possible.
Marieb (2001) pg 391.
13.3 Define the following:
Dyspnoea Difficult or laboured breathing with potential to worsen.

Apnoea A condition when the breathing temporary stops.
Cyanosis Bluish discolouration of the skin and mucus membranes.
Tabner's Medical Dictionary (1977)
13.4 Describe the protective mechanisms of the respiratory system.
The respiratory system has a number of protective mechanisms;

 Nasal hairs: The large airborne particles are trapped in the nasal hairs which stretch
across the nares.
 Mucus production: The respiratory tract above the bronchioles is lined with epithelium,
which secretes thick, sticky mucas. This waterproofs the inside of the respiratory system
and provides a protective barrier against any irritants.
 Cilia: These are minute hair-like projections of the epithelium lining along the respiratory
tract. They move the mucas and trapped particles towards the throat
 Sneezing: Protective reflex which is stimulated when the nasal mucosa is irritated.
 Coughing: Reflex mechanism for removing excess mucus or other irritants from the air
passengers beyond the nose.
 Phagocyte activity: Phagocytic cells in the epithelium engulf debris, dust and bacteria s
well as help to filter incoming air.
 Epithelial lining: The filtration in the nasal cavity removes large particles, small particles
are trapped as they pass through the bronchial tree and smaller particles are trapped in
the mucus of the respiratory bronchioles or in the alveolar fluid where they are engulfed
by the macrophages. The debris are cleared out of the system by the coughing and
sneezing reflexes.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 240 - 256.
13.5 Explain the respiratory volumes and capacities.
Lung volumes and lung capacities refer to the volume of air associated with different phases of
the respiratory cycle. The lung volumes are directly measured and the lung capacity are
established by deduction from lung volumes.
The average lung capacity of an homo sapien is about six (6) litres of air, only a small amount of
the air capacity is used during normal breathing. The breathing mechanism in the mammals is
called tidal breathing, tidal breathing is the volume of air that is inhaled and exhaled in normal
resting breathing. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 204 - 256.
13.6 The auditory (Eustachian) tubes, which drain the middle ear, open into the:
A) Nasopharynx.
13.7 Which of the following is NOT true of the lungs:
E) Both lungs have two lobes.

E) Both lungs have two lobes.
13.8 Exchange of both oxygen and carbon dioxide through the respiratory membrane
occurs by:
A) Osmosis.
13.9 The conducting passageways of the respiratory system include all of the following
structures except:
E) Alveoli.
13.10 Describe the following:
External Exchanging gasses between the pulmonary blood stream and the alveoli.
Respiration
Gas Oxygen is transported in the blood via two ways; small amount of oxygen is
Transport transported by the plasma and the most part of the oxygen is carried in the
blood bound to the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells.
Internal Internal respirations is the exchange of the gases between the blood and the
Respiration tissue cells.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 240 - 256.
13.11 Identify four factors that may influence changes in respiration.
Four factors that may influence changes in respirations are:

○ Airway resistance.
○ Alveolar.
○ Surface tension forces.
○ Lung compliance.
○ Concentration of oxygen in the environment
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 240 - 256.

13.12 Indentify four assessment parameters you should observe when recording respirations:
Respiration parameters that should be observed are;

○ Respiration rate and pattern.
○ Respiration depth.
○ Skin colour.
○ Physical condition.
○ Presence of cough.
13.13 Circle the acceptable range of respirations per minute of an adult.
B) 12 - 20.

Section 14
The Digestive System

14.1 label the following diagram.
1 Teeth 2 Epiglottis 3 Liver 4 Gall 5 Common

bladder bile duct
6 Large 7 Appendix 8 Salivary 9 Tongue 10 Esophagus
bowel gland
11 Stomach 12 Duodenum 13 Pancreas 14 Small 15 Rectum
intestine
14.2 Discuss the physiology of digestion:
Digestion is a process of breaking down the foodstuff into molecules so it is able to be

consumed by the body and absorbed into the blood which allows it then to be delivered to all
body cells by the cardiovascular system.
Huether & McCance (2000) pg 918 - 921.
14.3 List and describe the function of the digestive system:
Mouth This is a reservoir for the chewing and mixing of foodstuff and saliva.

Mouth This is a reservoir for the chewing and mixing of foodstuff and saliva.
Esophagus Hollow, muscular tube that carries substances from the oropharynx to the
stomach.
Stomach Hollow muscular organ that stores foodstuff during eating then secretes digestive
juices mixing it in the foodstuff and moves the substance into the small intestine.
Small Has three segments; duodenum, jejunum and the ileum. Duodenum begins the
intestine pylorus and jejunum controls the flow of digestive material and prevents reflux
into the small intestine.
Large Consist of cecum, appendix, colon, rectum and anal canal. Cecum is at the
intestine beginning of the large intestine, this receives chyme from the ilium and it has two
sphincters which control the flow of intestinal fluid. The rectum is a slightly
dilated , it leads from the sigmoid to the anal canal. The anal canal is a very short
passage with two sphincter muscles two control the anus.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 299 - 305.
14.4 Nearly all food absorption occurs in the small intestine, name the mucosa that
facilitates this absorption:
○ Mucosal epithelium.
McCance & Huether pg 924.
14.5 Name the accessory digestive organs and what role they play:
Liver Produces bile which contains salts necessary for fat digestion and absorption.
Pancreas Produces enzymes for completing the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats as well as creating a alkaline fluid that neutralize chyme.
Gallbladder Store and concentrate bile between meals.
McCance & Huether pg 925.
14.6 Name the acid that is released in the stomach and the pH value is:
○ Hydrochloric acid (pepsin) 2.0 pH Ross and Wilson (2001) pg 299 - 305.
14.7 In order to have a healthy digestive system. We need to understand nutrition and
metabolism. Briefly describe your answer:
The role of the digestive system in the human body is to provide mechanical and chemical
breakdown of the foods the person may consume.
To have the human body function at the optimal level the body needs protein for growth,
repair and maintenance of cells; carbohydrates for energy, fats for many functions inside the
body including the protection of the bodies internal organs and nerves.
Digestion is a process of the body that is continually working around the clock, we only become
aware of this process when something has gone wrong within the system. The digestive system
can take a lot of beating however the digestive system can only take it for a limited period.
You can help your digestive system by eating a healthy diet that is high in fibre, rich in fruit and
vegetables, and wholegrain. Reduce the intake of processed foods as they contain large
amounts of saturated fats, salts, and preservatives but up the anti on the "good fats" in
moderation such as the omega 3 and 6.
Eat moderately, slowly and regularly don't over eat and avoid putting too much stress on the

Eat moderately, slowly and regularly don't over eat and avoid putting too much stress on the
digestive system. Regular exercise of the cardiovascular system helps to strengthen the muscles
of the abdomen and reduces the sluggishness by stimulating the intestinal muscles to push
along the digestive contents along through the system.
Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 282-313.

14.8 Explain the five food groups and give example and nutritional value of these
foods.
The food pyramid is a fantastic tool for helping to make the healthy food choices. The food pyramid can help you
choose from a variety of foods that your body needs to get the needed nutrients from.
Fats and sweets;

At the top of the pyramid is the
Fats and Sweets stuff, this group should
compromise the smallest part of your diet.
The foods in this group are oils, cream, butter, sugar,
Soft drinks margarine, lollies and sweat desserts.
Dairy Products.
These are products made up of protein and vitamins and minerals as
well as calcium. The suggested serving of food for this group is 2 to 3 servings
Per day, such food include milk, cheese and ice crème.
Beans, eggs, lean meat and fish.

Meat, poultry and fish supply protein, iron and zinc to the human body, non-meat foodstuff like
The dried peas and beans can also provide many of these nutrients as well. The suggested serving for this
food group is 2 to 3 serves per day.
Fruits and vegetables.

Fruits and vegetables are rich in nutrients and many are a good source of vitamin A, C, folate or potassium. They are
also low in fat and high in fibre, some food that is included in this food group are apples, bananas, carrots, and
pumpkin.
Bread, grain, cereal and pasta.

At the base of the pyramid the food group contains breads, grains, cereals and pastas. These foodstuff provide the
human body with complex carbohydrates, which is a important source of energy. The serving size for this group is 6
to 11 servings per day.
"food pyramid." The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Retrieved Feburary 09, 2010
from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-foodpyr.html
14.9 If a patient is admitted with gastroenteritis, what organisational requirements need to

be implemented.

Section 15
The Urinary System
15.1 Label the following:
Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra

15.3 Describe the anatomical position of both female and male urinary system:
The urinary system are separated into two positions in the human body, the first position of the
urinary system; this is the kidneys, they are located behind the abdominal cavity in the
retroperitoneum.
The second position of the urinary system; the bladder, depending on the sex of the homo
sapien the bladder can be in a different position. In males the base of the bladder sits between
the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate and separated from the
rectum by the rectovesical pouch.
In females, the bladder lies inferior to the uterus and the anterior to the vagina. It is separated
from the uterus by the uterovesical pouch.
5.4 State three process that result in urinary formation.
○ Glomerular filtration.
○ Tubular reabsorption.
○ Tubular secretion.
CliffsNotes.com. Regulation of Urine Concentration. 15 Feb 2010
<http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-22032,articleId-22020.html>.
5.6 Define Micturition:
○ Urination, the act of urinating.
5.7 The characteristics of the urine are:
○ Colour.
○ Smell.
○ Acidity.
○ Density.

5.8 You may see bile or blood traces in a healthy person, what could be the course of
this?
The probable course for traces of bile or blood in a healthy person could be a result of what
they had eaten or drunk recently such as a beetroot.
15.9 State the pH and specific gravity ranges:
○ Specific gravity in human urine is from 1.003 to 1.030.

○ Normal pH levels should be in the range of 4.0 to 9.0
15.10 Briefly summarise your understanding of fluid and electrolytes:
Inside our cells we have fluid as well as fluid on the outside of the cells. The fluid inside the
cells is intracellular fluid, the fluid on the outside is extracellular fluid.
One type of extracellular fluid is intravascular fluid, this is a plasma that is found in blood
vessels. Another kind of extracellular fluid is interstitial fluid, the interstitial fluid is a fluid that
surrounds the cell.
The major cation in the intracellular fluid is potassium (K+). The potassium is vital in
maintaining the intracellular water balance, the potassium is also important for skeletal, cardiac
and smooth muscle trans mission and conduction.
The major cation in the extracellular fluid is sodium (Na+). The sodium is vital in directing and
regulating the water balance.
15.11 Which one of the following terms describes the location of the kidneys:
E) Retroperitoneum.

Section 16
Reproductive System
16.1 Label the following:
Male:
Female:
Ovary
16.2 State the action of hormones in both females and males:

16.2 State the action of hormones in both females and males:
Males The testosterone is synthesized by the leydig cells which are located between the
somniferous tubules being influenced by the luteininising hormone (LH). In adults the
testosterone difusses into tubules, together with follicle stimulating hormones (FSH);
helps to maintain spermatogenesis. In
the fetal stage the testosterone is responsible for the virilization of the male
reproductive tract. At pubic stage testosterone secretion stimulates change in sexual
maturation including growth, pubic hair development, and the breaking of the voice. For
these general effects that take place, it is necessary for the "target" cells to possess a
particular enzyme 5α - dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
Females The steroid synthesis in women is more complicated the male steroid synthesis process.
The ovary requires the actions of both LH and FSH for the production of the
progesterone and oestrogen. When the follicles becomes sensitive to the
gonadotrophins the outer thecal cells respond to the LH and synthesize progesterone
and androgens. The androgens then diffuse into the inner granulosa cell layer and when
they are under the influence of FSH they are converted to oestrogens.
When at mid-cycle, the single dominant follicle is destined to release a mature egg which
will develop receptors for LH in the granulosa cell layer and the action of the LH
precipates ovulation. After ovulation the follicle is luteinized.
Ross & Wilson pg 212 - 123.
16.3 Explain the ovulation cycle:
Ovulation is a term used for an action of releasing a mature egg from the ovary surface. This
occurs around the mid-cycle, approximately two weeks or so before the onset of menstruation.
In the follicular phase, the ripening of the follicle causes a rise in levels of oestrogen. The
hypothalamus recognizes the rising levels and releases a chemical called gonadotrophin-
releasing hormone (GnRH). This hormone prompts the nearby pituitary gland to produce
higher levels of LH and FSH. Within two days the ovulation is triggered by the high levels of LH
and the egg is funneled into the fallopian tube towards the uterus by waves of small
projections. The egg is viable for 24 hours then the egg dies and ejected from the system if the
egg does not come into contact with sperm.
16.4 Describe how fertilization takes place:
Sperm is like guided missiles a bit like the patriot missiles, latching onto heat; and they charge
towards the ovum, which secretes an odorant molecule; this guides the sperm to the target.
Only one sperm of many can penetrate through the fortress, aka ovum. Once one sperm come
in close contact of the ovum the sperm secrete a enzyme (hyaluronidase) which melts the
ovum's tough defense layer called zona pellucida.
The action of meeting between the ovum and the sperm is called fertilization.
Ross & Wilson (2000) pg 438 - 451.
16.5 Briefly discuss the three trimesters of pregnancy.
First In the first trimester of pregnancy the women no longer have her period and her

First In the first trimester of pregnancy the women no longer have her period and her
trimester breast will begin to enlarge to accommodate the milk for the child to be. Women
will begin to experience morning sickness and an increase in urination output,
heartburn and probable constipation. During the first trimester the baby's heart
begins to beat and the lungs, eyes, ears, arms, legs, fingers, and toes start to form.
Second The second trimester marks the middle stage of the pregnancy. During this period
trimester the women's tummy starts to expand and their appetite increases; the baby's
organs begin to develop further and start working for the first time. The baby will
begin to start kicking and pass urine, hear, swallow, and suck on their thumb. At
the end of the trimester the uterus would have moved closer to the ribs of the
women.
Third Throughout the third trimester the women would be experiencing an increase
trimester urge to urinate as the baby has dropped down and puts extra pressure on the
bladder. Milk may begin to seep from the breast throughout periods of the
trimester, contractions may start to occur and the cervix will thin out and dilate.
The baby's major developments has finished at this point and the child will begin
to gain weight. Sorensen & Luckmann (1986) pg 296.
16.6 Label the female external reproductive genitalia:
16.7 Briefly explain the function of the mammary gland:

The main function of the mammary glands are to provide milk and nourishment to the
newborn. Sorensen & Luckmann (1986) pg 296. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 440.

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Section 1

The Human Body: An Orientation.

1.1 Define the following terms:

1.2 discuss the relationship between anatomy and physiology:

1.4 The smallest living unit of all living things is:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 1

1.6 Which of the following is NOT a necessary life function:

Where is the occipital region? Posterior surface of the head.

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 2

Mareib (2001) pg 14 - 15.

The (9) Regions.

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 3

1.14 Identify 6 causes of disease:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 4

Basic Chemistry, Cells & Tissues.

2.2 Fill in the following element symbols:

Calcium Ca Carbon Co2 Chlorine CI

2.4 Draw and label a basic cell:

2.5 Briefly explain the stages of mitosis:

In a typical cell, mitosis can be separated into four major stages;

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 5

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 6

Skin and Body Membranes

4.1 Label the following diagram:

Reticular layer of dermis

4.2 Name the three structures of the skin:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 7

○ Waterproof the body.

A) Increased production of melanin the helps to block the ultraviolet light.

B) Dehydration. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 370

D) Using the "rule of nines." Ross & Wilson (2001) pg 370.

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 8

4.12 Describe 6 areas of questioning when taking a health history:

Sorensen & Luckmann (1986) pg, 356.

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 9

The Skeletal System.

5.1 Explain the five functions of the skeletal system:

5.2 Name the classification of bone and an example of each:

There are two classifications of bones, Compact and Spongy.

5.4 Name the six different fractures:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 10

D) Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, Coccugeal. Marieb (2001) pg, 131.

5.7 Which is the correct order of ribs from superior to inferior:

5.8 Label the skeleton:

○ Invertebral disks. Ross & Wilson (2001) pg, 48.

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 11

5.11 Name three abnormal curvatures of the spine:

5.12 Name the most common disorder of joints:

• Osteoarthritis. Marieb (2001) pg, 152

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 12

The Muscular System

6.2 Describe the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscle:

6.3 Briefly explain the muscles function.

The six most common types of body movement are:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 13

6.7 Explain the abdominal muscles and how they work:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 14

The Nervous System

7.1 Label the following diagram:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 15

7.3 Name the structural classification of the nervous system:

An example of a simple reflex is a knee jerk:

HLTAP401A, Kelly J Wilson 4140880602.4 Page 16