Advanced Foundation Engineering (57011)

AdvancedFoundationEngineering
(57011)
IVYearB.Tech,ISemester
Dr.PVSNPavan Kumar
Associate Professor
AssociateProfessor
GuruNanakInstitutionsTechnicalCampus
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
Unit 1BearingCapacitytheories,eccentricand
inclined loading layered soil
inclinedloading,layeredsoil
Unit 2Settlementoffoundations
Unit
Unit 3Pilefoundations
3 Pile foundations Loadcarryingcapacity
Load carrying capacity
Unit 4Pilefoundations Settlementofpiles
Unit 5Lateralearthpressuretheories
Retainingwalls
Unit 6sheetpilewalls
Unit 7Caissons&wellfoundations
Unit 8Expansivesoilandtreatmentmethods
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
TEXT BOOKS
1.
1 Das,
Das B.M.
B M (1999) Principles of Foundation Engineering 4th edition,
edition
PWS Publishing, Singapore
2. Bowles, J.E., (1988) Foundation Analysis and Design 4th edition,
McGraw Hill Interntaional.
McGraw-Hill
Interntaional
3. Geotechnical Engineering : Principles and practices of soil mechanics and
foundation engineering by VNS Murthy, Taylor & Francis Group
REFERENCE BOOKS
1.. Geo
Geotechnical
ec c Engineering
g ee g by C. Ve
Venkataramah,, NewAge
ew ge International
e
o
Pvt. Ltd, Publishers (2002).
2. Analysis and Design of structures Swami Saran, Oxford & IBH
Publishing Company Pvt.
Pvt Ltd.
Ltd (1998)
3. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics by Gopal Ranjan & ASR Rao, New
Age International Pvt. Ltd, Publishers (2002).
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Unit I
Bearingcapacitytheories
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Contents
Introduction
Terminology,Terzaghi andMeyerhofbearingcapacity
theories
Hansenbearingcapacitytheory
Vesic bearingcapacitytheory
Footings subjected to eccentric and inclined loading
Footingssubjectedtoeccentricandinclinedloading
Foundationsonlayeredsoil
Tutorialsandassignments
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Foundation
Allthedesignedstructuresrestingontheearth
All th d i d t t
ti
th
th
mustbecarriedbysomekindinterfacingelement
called fo ndation
calledfoundation.
Foundationtransmitstheloadintothesupporting
soilorrock.
Structurewillconsistofthreeparts Super
structure,substructureandfoundation.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Foundationsareclassifiedasshallowfoundations
anddeepfoundations.
ShallowfoundationhaveD/B 1.Footings,
combinedfootings,strapfootingsormat/raft
foundations.
p
/B 4.Examplespiles,
p p ,
DeepfoundationhaveL
P/
drilledpiersordrilledcaissons.
Shallowfoundationsdistributetheloadby
Shallow foundations distribute the load by
spreadingtheloadslaterallyandsupportcolumn.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Matisaspecialfootingusedtosupportseveral
y p
pp
randomlyspacedcolumnsortosupportseveral
rowsofparallelcolumns.
Deepfoundationsdistributetheloadvertically
Deep foundations distribute the load vertically
ratherthanhorizontally.
Foundationsaredesignedsuchthatstressleveldue
Foundations are designed such that stress level due
tostructureislessthanbearingcapacityofsoiland
settlements are within permissible limits
settlementsarewithinpermissiblelimits.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Fewbuildingscollapsefromexcessivesettlements,
partial collapse or localized failure in a structural
partialcollapseorlocalizedfailureinastructural
member.Unsightlywallandfloorcracksuneven
floors sticking doors and windows
floors,stickingdoorsandwindows.
Variabilityofsoilincombinationwithunanticipated
loads or subsequent soil movements (earthquakes)
loadsorsubsequentsoilmovements(earthquakes)
canresultinsettlementproblems.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacity
Soilmustbecapableofcarryingtheloadsfromthe
p
structureplacedonitwithoutshearfailureandwith
resultingsettlementswithintolerablelimits.
Ultimatebearingcapacity,q
Ultimate bearing capacity, qultlt isthemaximum
is the maximum
pressurethefootingissubjectedforshearfailureof
soil below footing.
soilbelowfooting.
Footingpunchesintothegroundwitha
simultaneous rotation
simultaneousrotation.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearing capacity
Bearingcapacity
Allowable
Allowablebearingcapacityisthesafepressure
bearing capacity is the safe pressure
thefootingissubjectedtoavoidabaseshear
failure.
failure
q
qa = ult
FS
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacitytheory( =0)
S=c+ tan
Unitwidthstrip
footing,
L
L
Element2
Element1
Rotationoffootingaboutpointo
g
p
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacitytheory
Element2
Element1
1 and3=Majorandminorprincipalstress
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacityequation
Element2
32 =q
=q
12 =q +2c(for =0)
Element1
31 =12 =q +2c
11 =q +2c+2c=q+4c(for =0)
Ultimate bearing capacity = qult =q+4c
Ultimatebearingcapacity=q
= q + 4c
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacity(c soil)
Element2
Soilwedge
agb moves
down
Element1
l
Lateralpressures
developalongline
p
g
ag andtranslates
blockagf
horizontallyagainst
wedge afe
wedgeafe.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DeterminethepassivepressurePP andconsiderthe
vertical equilibrium of forces to determine ultimate
verticalequilibriumofforcestodetermineultimate
bearingcapacity,qult asfollows
qult =CN
= CNc +q
+ qN
Nq +BN
+ BN
Somelimitationsoftheaboveprocedureis
Zoneagf isneglected.
Footinginterfaceisroughandcontributestoroughness
effect
ff t
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Shapeofblockagfe poorlydefinesthezoneresistingthe
wedgemovementintothesoil.Alogarithmicspiralbetter
definestheslipsurfacefromgtofandpartlyalongftoe.
Solutionisforunitwidthstripacrossaverylongfooting,so
ithastobeadjustedforround,square,orfinitelength
footings(itneedsshapefactors).
Shearresistancefromplaneae tothegroundsurfacehas
beenneglected,itrequiressomekindofadjustment(i.e.
depth factor)
depthfactor)
Ifloadisinclinedfromvertical,inclinationfactorsare
required.
required
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearing capacity theories

Bearingcapacitytheories
Terzaghi bearingcapacitytheory,1943
bearing capacity theory 1943
Meyerhofbearingcapacitytheory,1963
Hansenbearingcapacitytheory,1970
b i
i h
9 0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Terzaghi bearingcapacityequation(1943)
Acomprehensivetheoryfortheevaluationofthe
ultimatebearingcapacityofroughshallowfoundations
g p y
g
(Df B).
Applicableforacontinuous,orstripfoundation(i.e.,
pp
,
p
( ,
onewhosewidthtolengthratioapproacheszero).
Theeffectofsoilabovethebottomofthefoundation
The effect of soil above the bottom of the foundation
mayalsobeassumedtobereplacedbyanequivalent
surcharge,q=D
g , q f ((where isaunitweightofsoil).
g
)
Generalshearfailureisassumed.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Terzaghi bearingcapacitytheory
=
=
ADC triangular zone below base of footing makes an angle with horizontal
Radial shear zones ADF and CDE, with the curves DE and DF being arcs of a
logarithmic
g
spiral.
p
Two triangular Rankine passive zones AFH and CEG
Shear resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected i.e. along the failure
surfaces GI and HJ was neglected.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Terzaghi bearingcapacityequation
Consideringverticalequilibriumofforcesonfooting
Rectangularfooting
Sc =1+0.3
B
L
Sq =1
S =10.2
B
L
cc=cohesionofsoil,B=Width,L=Length
= cohesion of soil B = Width L = Length
=angleofinternalfriction,
q=effectiveoverburdenpressureatbase
offooting
f f ti
kp =Coefficientofpassivepressure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Terzaghi bearingcapacitytheory
Terzaghi developedbearingcapacityequations
g g
consideringageneralshearfailureinadensesoil
andalocalshearfailureforaloosesoil.
Forthelocalshearfailureheproposedreducingthe
For the local shear failure he proposed reducing the
cohesionand as
cc"=0.67c
= 0 67c
For local shear failure modified bearing capacity
f t are determined
factors
d t
i d from
f
" = tan
t 11 (0.67
(0 67 tan
t ))
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial1
Compute the allowable bearing capacity using Terzaghi
equation for a square footing and soil properties shown
in Figure below. B = 3m Use factor of safety = 3.0
calculate
l l t qa
=20
Nc =17.7,N
= 17 7 Nq =7.4,N
= 7 4 N =5.0
=50
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Meyerhofbearingcapacitytheory
Terzaghi bearingcapacitytheoryhasfollowingshort
comings
Shearresistancealongfailuresurfaceinsoilabovethe
basefoundationisneglected(alongGIandHJ).
Loadonthefoundationmaybeinclined.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Meyerhofbearingcapacitytheory
Meyerhof
Meyerhof(1963)suggestedthefollowinggeneralequationfor
(1963) suggested the following general equation for
bearingcapacity
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Meyerhofbearingcapacityequation
qult =cNcScdcic +qNqSqdqiq +0.5BNS d i
Nc,N
, Nq, N bearingcapacityfactors
bearing capacity factors
Sc,Sq, S Shapefactors
dc,d
dq, d depthfactors
d th f t
ic,iq, i inclinationfactors
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Meyerhofbearingcapacityequation
(
N c = N q 1 cot
Any
Nq = tan2 45+ e tan

2
N = Nq 1 tan(1.4)
Any
S c = 1+ 0.2 K p
B
L
d c = 1+ 0.2 K p
>10
>10
S q = S = 1+ 0.1K p
B
L
=0
D
B
d q = d = 1+ 0.1 K p
=0
D
B
d q = d = 1
S q = S = 1

Any i c = i q = 1
90
2

>10
i = 1

=0 i = 0 for > 0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FordepthD=BMeyerhof
qult issameasTerzaghi
theory.Differenceismore
pronouncedatlargerD/B
ratios.
Inclinationfactorsreduce
thebearingcapacitywhen
theloadisinclinedfrom
vertical.
Tutorial
A foundation column has to carryy a ggross allowable total mass Q of
15,290 kg. The depth of foundation is 0.7m. The load is inclined at
angle 20 to the vertical as shown in Fig.1 below. Determine the
width
id h off the
h foundation,
f
d i
B Use
B.
U
f
factor
off safety
f
off 3.
3 Use
U
Meyerhofs method. For = 30, Nc = 30.14, Nq = 18.4, N = 22.4
(Dec 2012)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
qult =cNcScdcic +qNqSqdqiq +0.5BNS d i
C=0; =30;Nc =30.14,Nq =18.4,N =22.4
q=18*0.7=12.6kN/m2
Considering strip footing Sc =1.0;S
ConsideringstripfootingS
1.0; Sq =1.0;S
1.0; S =1.0
1.0
kp =3
dc=1+(0.23*0.7/B)d
= 1+(0 23*0 7/B) dq =d
= d =1+(0.23*0.7/B)
= 1+(0 23*0 7/B)
ic =iq =(1(20/90))2=0.60i =(1(20/30))2 =0.11
qult =15290/B
/
B=0.75m
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Afootingofsize2mx4misplacedatadepthof1.5m
belowthegroundsurface.Estimatethenetsafe
loadthatcanbesupportedbythefooting.Take
factorofsafety=2.5,c=22kN/m2. =30 Nc =
30.1,Nq =18.4,N =16.7.UseMeyerhof
f
recommendation(June/July2014)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Hansenbearingcapacitytheory(1970)
Hansen theory extends the bearing capacity equation for a footing

tilted from horizontal and possibility of slope of ground supporting the
footing.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
qult =cNcScdcic gc bc +qNqSqdqiq gq bq +0.5BNS d i g b
B.C.Factors
N c = N q 1 cot
Nq = tan2 45+ e tan

2
N = 1.5 N q 1 tan
ShapeFactors
Nq B
Sc = 1+
Nc L
B
tan
Sq = 1+
L
S
B
= 1 0 .4
0 .6
L
IncaseofeccentricloadingBandLarereplacedbyBandL,the
effective dimensions of footing (B=B2e,
effectivedimensionsoffooting(B
B 2e,LL=L2e)
L 2e)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DepthFactors
InclinationFactors
d c = 1.0 + 0.4 K
ic = i q
D
K = D / B for
1
B
D
K = tan 1 ( D / B ) for
>1
B
Kinradians
1
1
iq
N q 1
0.5 H
i q = 1
V
+
Ac
cot
0.7 H
i = 1
V
+
A
Ac
cot
t
d q = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin ) 2 k
d = 1.0 for all
Hishorizontalloadonfooting,Vverticalloadonfooting,A=BL(effectivearea),
Ca =Adhesion=0.6to1.0c
= Adhesion = 0 6 to 1 0c
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Groundfactors(baseonslope)
(
p )
Basefactors(tiltedbase)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
For =0
qult =5.14su (1+sc+dc ic bc gc)+q
Kisdefinedabove
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Vesic bearingcapacitytheory(1973)
Vesic conformed the basic nature of failure surface
similar to Terzaghi.
g
Inclined surface AC and BC make an angle 45+ with
2
horizontal instead of
.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
SameasHansentheoryexceptN
qult =cNcScdcic gc bc +qNqSqdqiq gq bq +0.5BNS d i g b
B.C.Factors
N c = N q 1 cot
Nq = tan2 45+ e tan

2
N = 2 N q + 1 tan
ShapeFactors
Sc
Nq B
= 1+
Nc L
Sq = 1+
B
tan
L
B
= 1 0 .4
0 .6
L
DepthFactors
d c = 1.0 + 0.4 K
D
K = D / B for
1
B
D
1
K = tan ( D / B ) for
>1
B
Kinradians
d q = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin ) 2 k
d = 1.0 for all
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
InclinationFactors
Groundfactors
isinradians
Basefactors (tiltedbase)
(
)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
u =0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Compare the ultimate bearing capacity of a strip footing 1.5m
wide with its base at a depth of 1m resting on a dry sand
stratum with c = 0, = 38 and d = 17 kN/m3. Use
Meyerhof, Hansen and Vesic theory (June 2010)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Inclinedloadedfooting
Analysisofhorizontalload
y
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Eccentricload
Bearingcapacityoffootingssubjectedto
eccentric loading
eccentricloading
Foundation subjected to lateral loads and moments
result in eccentric loading.
g
If point of application of resultant of all loads is away
from centriod results in eccentric loading.
Eccentricity, e is distance between the point of
application of resultant load and centre of footing. This
should
h ld be
b < B/6.
B/6
Foundationsubjectedtoaneccentricverticalloadtilts
towards the side of the eccentricity and the contact
towardsthesideoftheeccentricityandthecontact
pressureincreasesonthesideoftiltanddecreaseson
the opposite side.
theoppositeside.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacityoffootingssubjectedtoeccentric
loadingg
Eccentricity about x axis

Eccentricityaboutx
Eccentricallyloadedfooting
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
loadingg
Eccentricityabout
yy axis
Eccentricityabout
xandy axis
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
loadingg
Meyerhofindicatetheeffectivefootingdimensions
are
L'=L2ex andB'=B2ey
Effectiveareaoffooting,A=L'B
Ultimateloadbearingcapacityofafooting
subjectedtoeccentricloads=Q'ult=qu A
qu =ultimatebearingcapacityofthefootingof
g p y
g
dimensionLxB
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Maximumandminimumbasepressures
Maximumpressuredevelops
atCandminimumatDgiven
asfollows
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Eccentricloading
IIncreaseofeccentricityofloadincreasesthe
f
t i it f l d i
th
maximumpressureatoneedgeoffootingand
d
decreasesthepressureatotherend(tension).
th
t th
d (t i )
Soilispoorincarryingtensilestressandthe
eccentricityislimitedtoanareaknownasKern.
ex <L/6
ey <b/6
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Asquarefooting2.0mwideatadepthof2.0missubjected
A
square footing 2 0 m wide at a depth of 2 0 m is subjected
toanaxialloadof2000kN andamomentof360kN.m.The
soilbelowisgranularwithanangleofshearingresistanceof
g
g
g
36.Isthefootingsafe?(Nov/Dec2009)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
AneccentricallyloadedfoundationisshowninFigure
A
t i ll l d d f
d ti i h
i Fi
below.Determinetheultimateloadthatthe
f
foundationcancarry(Nov13).
d ti
(N 13)
e=0.1m
0 8m
0.8m
Eccentricity
inone
direction
only
Qall
1.5mx1.5m
Centerline
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
=17kN/m3
c=0
=32
Footings
Footingsarelaidonstratifieddepositswherethicknessofsoil
are laid on stratified deposits where thickness of soil
topstratumbelowbaseoffooting,d1 islessthan,H= B tan 45 +
2
2
qult shallbemodified
B
Case1:Footingonlayeredclays
a. Toplayerweakerthanlowerlayer
( 1 <c2 )
(c
b. Toplayerstrongerthanbottom
layer(c
y ( 1 >c2 ))
Case2:Footingonlayeredc soil
Case3:Footingonlayeredsandand
Case
3: Footing on layered sand and
claysoils
a. Sandoverlyingclay
b. Clayoverlyingsand
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
45+
d1
Circulararcmethodwherestrengthratio,c2/c1 between0.6to1.3.
Shearstrengthbetweentoptwolayersislargelydifferentfollowingmethodsareused.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
CR 1
1.5d 1
+ 5.14c R 5.14
Strip footing N cs =
Stripfooting
B
3d 1
+ 6.05c R 6.05
Circularfooting N cr =
B
CR >1
Strip footing
Stripfooting
N 1s
0.5 B
1.1B
= 4.14 +
N 2 s = 4.14 +
d1
d1
Circularfooting
N 1r
0.33B
0.66 B
= 5.05 +
N 2 r = 5.05 +
d1
d1
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
2 N1 N 2
Nc =
N1 + N 2
Foundationonlayeredsoil
Case 2: Footing on layered c soil
Case2:Footingonlayeredc
Modified
f =
d 11 + (H d 1 ) 2
H
Modified c =
d 1 c1 + (H d 1 ) c 2
H
Ultimatebearingcapacity,qult isdeterminedfrommodifiedc,
Dr.PVSNPavan Kumar
UNITII
Settlementoffoundations
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
Introduction
Elasticsettlementoffootingsinsandsandclays
infinite thickness
infinitethickness
FootingsonsoilsofFinitethickness
Schmertamann's method
Janbu method
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Allowablebearingcapacity
Inmanycases,theallowablesettlementofa
shallow foundation may control the allowable
shallowfoundationmaycontroltheallowable
bearingcapacity.
Settlementsarelargewhenthewidthoffootingis
l
l
h
h
d h ff
large
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Causesofsettlement
Duetobuildingorsuperstructurecolumnload
Due
to building or super structure column load
Duetoweightofrecentlyplacedfill
Fallofgroundwaterlevelorpumping
ll f
d
l l
i
Undergroundmining/tunneling
Formationofsinkholes
Lateral movements from nearby excavations
Lateralmovementsfromnearbyexcavations
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
What is settlement
Whatissettlement
Statistical
Statisticalaccumulationofgroundmovements
accumulation of ground movements
duetotheapplicationofloadisknownas
settlement.
settlement
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Foundationsettlementsmustbeestimatedwithgreat
careforbuildings,bridges,towers,powerplants,and
g,
g ,
,p
p
,
similarhighcoststructures.
Forstructuressuchasfills,earthdams,braced
,
,
sheeting,andretainingwallsagreatermarginoferror
inthesettlements.
WhatistheconsequenceofUnderandoverprediction
ofsettlements?
Underprediction Unsafedesignandfailureofstructure.
Over prediction leads to deep foundation such as pile or
Overpredictionleadstodeepfoundationsuchaspileor
caissonfoundationorimprovementofsoil.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
D
D
qult
Additional stress due to the footing produces a time

dependent accumulation of particle rolling,
rolling sliding,
sliding crushing,
crushing
and elastic distortions in a limited influence zone beneath the
loaded area.
The statistical accumulation of movements in the direction of
interest is the settlement. Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Particleslidingandrollingproduceadecreaseinthe
void ratio and grain crushing.
voidratioandgraincrushing.
Onlyasmallfractionofsettlementiselasticand
removal of applied stress results in a little recovery
removalofappliedstressresultsinalittlerecovery
ofsample.
Inspiteofabovesoilistreatedasaelasticmaterial
I
it f b
il i t t d
l ti
t i l
withparameters Es, G', , and ks to estimate
settlements.
ttl
t
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Classificationofsettlements
Immediate, or those that take place as the load is
applied or within a time period of about 7 days.
Applicable for all fine-grained soils including silts and
clays with a degree of saturation, s 90 % and for all
coarse-grained soils with a large coefficient of
permeability above 10-3 m/s.
C
Consolidation
lid ti settlements
ttl
t are those
th
that
th t are timeti
dependent and take months to years to develop.
Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy has been undergoing
consolidation settlement for over 700 years. The lean is
caused byy the consolidation settlement beingg ggreater on
one side.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Classification of settlements
Classificationofsettlements
Magnitude
Magnitudeandtimerequiredforsettlementare
and time required for settlement are
important.
Porewaterpressuresarehighifthesoilissaturated
Pore water pressures are high if the soil is saturated
(S=100%)andnegligibleforS=0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
LeaningtowerofPisa
Constructionofthetower
beganintheyear1173
By1178ringshapedfootingof
By 1178 ring shaped footing of
19.6mdiameterand3.5stories
ofthetowercompleted.
Bearingpressure=330kPa.
Towerstartedtilting.
Construction stopped at this
Constructionstoppedatthis
stageduetopoliticaland
economicalproblems.
From1271construction
resumedbytaperingthe
successive stories and adding
successivestoriesandadding
extraweighttothehighside.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Workstoppedin1278.
LeaningtowerofPisa
Towercompletedbetween1360to1370.Angleof
tiltatthattimeis3 fromrestoftower.
Ittook200yearstocompleteproject.
Earlynineteenthcentury,thetowerhadsettled
Early nineteenth century the tower had settled
about2.5metersintotheground.
Byendofthe20
B
d f th 20th centurythetotaltiltwasabout
t
th t t l tilt
b t
5.5degrees.
Towerisclearlyonthebrinkofcollapse.
Pressureonsoil62to930kPa.
Aminorearthquakecouldcauseittotopple.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Classificationofsettlement
SecondaryCompression:
D l d progressive
Delayed
i slippage
li
off grain
i as the
th particles
ti l
adjust themselves to a medium dense condition.
Settlement due to secondary compression
c
t c Secondarycompressionindex
Secondary
compression
index
Ss =
H log
l
1 + e0
t p e0 initialvoidratio
Hthicknessoflayer
tisanytime
tp timeforcompletionofprimary
consolidation
lid i
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
h1
qult
E1,1,1,q 1
h2 H
Depth of influence, H is taken as

4B to 5B or hard layer with bottom
layer having E ten times higher
than top layer
Obtaining a reliable stress profile.
profile
Theory of elasticity assumes that
soil is homogenous
g
and isotropic
p
n
E2,
q2
2 2,2,q
h3
E3,3,3,q
3
Total settlement H = i h i
i =1
1
q
=Strain
Strain =
Es
Elasticsettlementof
Elastic
settlement of
foundationonlayeredsoil
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Problems in settlement analysis

Problemsinsettlementanalysis
Obtaining
Obtainingreliablevaluesofelasticparameters
reliable values of elastic parameters
(Es G', , and ks)
Recoveringundisturbedsoilsamples
Recovering undisturbed soil samples
Duetoaboveproblemsgreatertendencytouse
i i
insitutestssuchasSPT,DCPT,SCPT,Plateload
h SPT DCPT SCPT Pl
l d
testetc.
Thesetestsgivehorizontalvaluesinsteadof
verticalvaluesactuallyneeded(Anisotropy)
9
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
UnconfinedCompressiontest
Triaxial Compressiontest
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Stress strainmodulus,E
Stress
strain modulus, Es
Unconfined
Unconfinedcompressiontest
compression test
Triaxial test
InsitutestssuchasSPT,CPT,pressuremeter
i
h S C
test,flatdilatometer.
Theabovetestsgivemodulusofelasticityin
horizontaldirectionbutthemodulusofelasticity
in ertical direction is req ired
inverticaldirectionisrequired.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Modulusofelasticityfromfieldtests
y
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Stressincreaseinsoilduetofootingpressure
Other methods
Othermethods
2V:1HMethod
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Boussinesq theory(1885)givethestressatdifferent
p
pointsbelowthegroundsurfacedueto
g
concentratedload,lineandstriploads,rectangular
andcircularloadedareas.
Westergaard (1938)equationisusedestimateof
the stress qv whenthesoilmassconsistsoflayered
thestressq
when the soil mass consists of layered
strataoffineandcoarsematerials,asbeneatha
road pavement.
roadpavement.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Immediatesettlement
Settlement of the corner of a rectangular base of
dimensions B
B' X LL' on the surface of an elastic
halfspace can be computed from an equation
from the Theory of Elasticity [e.g., Timoshenko
and Goodier (1951)] as follows
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Immediatesettlement
q0 =intensityofcontactpressureinunitsofEs
B least
B=
l t lateral
l t l dimension
di
i off contributing
t ib ti base
b
area
Es, = elastic soil parameters (Avg. mod of different layers)
(tan1 inradians)
in radians)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Depth
factor,If
Settlement
Settlementisreducedwhenitisplacedatsomedepthinthe
is reduced when it is placed at some depth in the
ground,dependingonPoisson'sratioandL/B.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Immediatesettlement
Aboveequationisapplicableforflexiblefootings.
Thickslabsbehaveasrigidfootingsandthesettlement
Thick slabs behave as rigid footings and the settlement
decreasesby7%offlexiblefootings.
Settlementofrigidfooting=0.93xSettlementofflexible
footing
Settlementofrigidfooting=0.8xSettlementofflexible
footing
Obtaintheweightedaveragemodulusofelasticityofsoil
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Estimatethesettlementoftheraftormat
g
foundationforthefollowingdata.
q0 =134kPa BxL=33.5x39.5m
Soil is layered clay with one sand layer from ground
Soilislayeredclaywithonesandlayerfromground
surfacetosandstonebedrockat14m.Raftisat
3m.
3m
Es ofclaylayerfrom3to6m=42.5Mpa
Es ofclaylayerfrom6to14m=60Mpa
Es forsandstone>500Mpa
=0.35
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Elasticsettlementoffoundations
Netelasticsettlementforaflexiblesurface
footingis
Se =Elasticsettlement
= Elastic settlement
B=widthoffoundation
=Poissonratio
Es =Modulusofelasticityofsoil
If =Influencefactor
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Elasticsettlementoffoundation
InfluencefactorIf (Bowles,1988)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Elastic settlement of foundations

Elasticsettlementoffoundations
Finalelasticsettlement
Final elastic settlement
Sef = Cr d f Se
Cr =Rigidityfactortakenas0.8forhighlyrigid
foundation
df =depthfactor
p
Se =Settlementofasurfaceflexiblefooting
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Depthfactor,df
Correction curves for elastic

settlement
for
rectangular
footings at different depths
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Arectangularfootingof1.5mx1.0msizeexertsapressure
of150kN/m2 onacohesivesoilhavingEs =3x104 kN/m2
andm=0.5.Determinetheelasticsettlementatthecenter
offootingassumingthefootingisflexible.Takethevalueof
influence factor If as1.36.(Nov2008,SetNo.1)
influencefactor,I
as 1 36 (Nov 2008 Set No 1)
Asquarefootingof1.2msizeissubjectedtoapressureof
200 kN/m2 inacohesivesoil.Determinetheelastic
200kN/m
in a cohesive soil Determine the elastic
settlementatthecornerofthefootingassumingthe
footingisrigid.TaketheaverageinfluencefactorI=0.82
g
g
g
andEs =4x104 kN/m2.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Schmertmann method
Schmertmann (1970) observed that variation of
strain under the footing over sand is similar to the
distribution of vertical stress due to footing
pressure.
Pressure bulb changes more rapidly from a depth of
about 0.4B to 0.6B and this depth is interpreted to
have the largest strains for square and circular
footings.
Method proposes to use a triangular relativestrain
relative strain
diagram to model the strain distribution with
ordinates of 0.1,
0 1 0.6,
0 6 and 0 at 0B,
0B 0.5B,
0 5B and 2B,
2B
respectively for square and circular footing.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Schmertmann method
ForstripfootingofL/B>10,maximumstrainwill
occur at a depth B. Strain at a depth 4B below
occuratadepthB.Strainatadepth4Bbelow
thebaseiszeroandimmediatelybelowthebase
of footing strain influence factor, Iz is0.2
offootingstraininfluencefactor,I
is 0.2
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Schmertmann method
Squareandcircularfooting
d
l f
Stripfooting
q
I z = 0.5 + 0.1
p o
q=Netfoundationpressure=q0 q
q0 footingcontactpressure
footing contact pressure
q effectiveoverburdenpressure
atbase
p0 = effective overburden
pressure at depths B/2 and B for
square and strip foundations
respectively.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Schmertmann method
Settlement=Areaofthestrain
influence factor diagram x strain
influencefactordiagramxstrain
Twocorrectionfactorsfor
Two
correction factors for
embedmentdepthandtimeshall
beadoptedasfollows:
q0
0.1
0.5B
0.6 Variation
Forembedment
Fortime
2B
tinyears
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ofstrain
influence
factor,Iz
forsquare
and
and
circular
footing
Schmertmann method
Forsquarefooting
Es =2.5qc
Forstripfooting,L/B10
Es =3.5qc
qc =Staticconepenetrationresistance
q=Netfoundationpressure=q0 q
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Schmertmann method
Static cone penetration test is conducted in sub soil
Cone
Cone penetration resistance diagram is divided into
layers of approximately constant values of qc.
The strain influence factor,, Iz diagram
g
is p
placed
alongside cone penetration diagram beneath the
foundation to the same scale.
Settlement of each layer resulting from the net
contact pressure q is then calculated using the values
of Es and Iz appropriate to each layer.
Sum of the settlements in each layer is then
corrected
d for
f the
h depth
d h and
d creep factors
f
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
StaticCone
penetrationtest
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Estimate
the
elastic
settlement
by
Schmertmann's method by making use of the
relationship qc = 4 Ncor kg/cm2 where qc = static
cone penetration value in kg/cm2. Assume
settlement is required at the end of a period of 3
years. Depth of foundation = 2m
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Acontinuousfootingonalayerofsandisshownin
fi
figurebelowalongwiththevariationofthe
b l
l
ih h
i i
f h
modulusofelasticityofthesoil,Es.Assumingthat
=18kN/m
18 kN/ 3 andassumingacreeptimeof10
d
i
i
f 10
yearsforthecorrectionfactorC2.Calculatethe
elasticsettlementofthefoundation,usingthe
l ti
ttl
t f th f
d ti
i th
straininfluencefactor(Nov2012).
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Janbu method
Janbu et al. (1956) proposed an equation for
evaluating the average settlement of flexible strip,
rectangular, square or circular foundations on
saturated clay soils (Poissons ratio, 0.5)
q0 footingcontactpressure
B Width of footing
BWidthoffooting
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Janbu method
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Janbu method
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Consolidationtestsetup
Consolidationtest
Time
Ti
(Min)
Dial gauge reading

Dialgaugereading
0.5kg/cm2
Load
ingg
Unload
ingg
1kg/cm2
Loadin
g
Unload
ingg
2kg/cm2
Loadin
g
Unload
ingg
4kg/cm2
Loadin
g
0
0.5
1
2
4
8
16
25
1
2
4
8
16
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Unload
ingg
8kg/cm2
16kg/cm2
Loadin
g
Loadin
g
Unload
ingg
Unload
ingg
Consolidationsettlements
VirginCompressionornormal
consolidation
RecompressionorOverConsolidation
Vi i C
VirginCompression
i
ornormal
consolidation
Swelling
Resultofconsolidationtest
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Settlementsoffinegrained,saturatedcohesive
soilswillbetimedependent,andconsolidation
th
theoryisusuallyused.
i
ll
d
Incaseofnormallyconsolidatedclays
wherecc =compression index from the e versus

log p plot = 0.009(LL 10),LL=Liquidlimit(%)
eo = in situ void ratio at the middle of clay stratum
H = Stratum thickness,, for a thick stratum divide
into several layers
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
po =effectiveoverburdenpressureatmidheightof
H
p = average increase in pressure at middle of clay
layer from the foundation loads in layer H
Overconsolidated clays
y
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Preconsolidated clay
Recompression
Virgin
g
Compression
Normal
consolidation
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
If soil is preconsolidated
Cr recompressionindex
Cc compressionindex
p
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Consolidationsettlement
Otherequationtodeterminethesettlementof
foundationis
mv =Coefficientofvolumecompressibility
p=increaseofpressureinmiddleofclaylayer
H=thicknessofclaylayer
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
A square footing 1.2m1.2m rests at a depth of 1m

in a saturated clay layer 4m deep.
deep The clay is
normally consolidated, having an unconfined
compressive strength of 40 kN/m2. The soil has a
liquid limit of 30%, sat= 17.8 kN/m3, w=28% and
G = 2.68. Determine the load which the footingg
can carry safely with a factor of safety of 3
against
g
shear. Also determine the settlement if the
footing is loaded with this safe load (May 2010).
Square
q
footingg
qu = 1.3cNc + Nq + 0.4BN
=0
0, Nq = 1,
1 N = 0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Allowable settlement
Allowablesettlement
Maximum
settlement
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Allowablesettlement
Settlements can be computed for various points such
as corner, center, or beneath the lightest and heaviest
loaded footings to obtain the total settlement and the
differential settlement between adjacent points.
If the entire structure moves vertically some amount
or rotates as a plane rigid body, this movement will
not generally cause structural or architectural distress.
If a structure
t t
settles
ttl 20 mm on one side
id and
d 100 mm
on the other with a linear settlement variation
between the two p
points,, structural damage
g is not
likely to develop but there are aesthetic and public
confidence considerations.
Settlement = 20mm Differential settlement = 80 mm
Tilt = (10020)/L
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Allowablesettlement
Localsettlementsbelowtiltlinewillcausethe
structural distress of building
structuraldistressofbuilding.
Initialsettlementsthatoccurduringconstruction
can s all be hidden d rin completion of
canusuallybehiddenduringcompletionof
building.Acrackedwallorwarpedroofismuch
more difficult to conceal
moredifficulttoconceal.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Allowablesettlement
Longtimespansallowthestructuretoadjustandbetter
resistdifferentialmovement
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Assignment
Write
Writeashortnotesonelasticsettlementof
a short notes on elastic settlement of
foundations
ExplainSchmertmann
Explain Schmertmann methodwithneatsketch
method with neat sketch
Whatarethetypesofsettlementsandhow
consolidationsettlementisestimated?
lid i
l
i
i
d?
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
UNITIII
PileFoundations
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
Staticmethodsforloadcarryingcapacity
Static
methods for load carrying capacity
Dynamicmethods
Pilegroups
il
Negativeskinfriction
Underreamedpiles.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Necessity
Shallowfoundationsarenormallyusedwherethe
g
p
soilclosetothegroundsurfaceanduptothe
influencezonepossesssufficientbearingstrength
tocarrythesuperstructureloadwithoutcausing
y
p
g
distresstothesuperstructureduetosettlement.
Iftopsoiliseitherlooseorsoftorofaswellingtype
If top soil is either loose or soft or of a swelling type
theloadfromthestructureistobetransferredto
deeper firm strata.
deeperfirmstrata.
Thestructuralloadsmaybetransferredtodeeper
firm strata by means of piles
firmstratabymeansofpiles.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Endbearingandfrictionalpiles
Frictionalpile
Endbearingpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
End bearing and frictional piles

End bearing piles are used to transfer load
through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing
stratum They carry heavy loads safely to hard
stratum.
strata and settlements are less.
Frictional piles transfer the loads to the
surrounding granular soil along their length by
skin friction.
friction
Piles carry super imposed load through end
b i and
bearing
d skin
ki friction.
fi i
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
End bearing and frictional piles

Endbearingcumfrictionalpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pilefoundations
Piles are long slender columns either driven,
bored or castinsitu.
cast in situ
Driven piles are made of a variety of materials
such
h as
concrete, steel, timber
Castinsitu piles are concrete piles.

If the diameter of a boredcastinsitu p
pile is
greater than about 0.75 m, it is referred as a
drilled p
pier,, caisson or shaft.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ClassificationofPilefoundations
Pilesmaybesubjectedtoverticalcompression,
tension lateral or inclined loads
tension,lateralorinclinedloads.
PilesareclassifiedasshortorlongbasedonL/d
ratio.
Pilesareconstructedasverticalorinclinedpiles.
Inclinedorbatterpilesareusedtocarrylarge
lateralloads.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Usesofpiles
Uplift/tension
/anchorPiles
CompressionPiles
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pilessubjectedtolateralload
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Timberpiles
Protectingshoe
Splicing
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Timberpiles
Materials: Timberpilesaremadeoftreetrunkswiththe
branchestrimmedoff.Suchpilesshallbeofsoundquality
andfreeofdefects.
Lengthofpiles: 15mormore.Forlargerlengthstheends
arespliced.
Diameter ofthepilesatthebuttendvaryfrom30to40
cmandattipendmorethan15cm.
Life:Pilesentirelysubmergedinwaterlastlongifmarine
borersarenotpresent.Thelifeofpilessubjectedto
alternatewettinganddryingisless.Pilesshallbetreated
withawoodpreservative,usuallycreosoteat250kg/m
ith
d
ti
ll
t t 250 k / 3
3 inseawater.
forpilesinfreshwaterand350kg/m
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Timberpiles
Driving: Crushingofthefibersonthehead(or
brooming) is controlled by using a driving cap or
brooming)iscontrolledbyusingadrivingcap,or
ringaroundthebutt(top).
Maximumdesignload
Ma im m desi n load perpileislessthan250
per pile is less than 250
kN.
Timberpilesarelessexpensive inplaceswhere
timberisplentiful.
Afterbeingdriventofinaldepth,allpileheads,
treatedoruntreated,shouldbesawedsquareto
soundundamagedwoodtoreceivethepilecap.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Timberpiles
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ConcretePiles
Eitherprecastorcastinsitupiles.
Precastconcretepilesarecastandcuredina
Precast concrete piles are cast and cured in a
castingyardandthentransportedtothesiteof
work for driving.
workfordriving.
Precastpilesaremadeofuniformsectionswith
pointed tips
pointedtips.
Taperedpilesaremanufacturedwhengreater
b i
bearingresistanceisrequired.
it
i
i d
Normallypilesofsquareoroctagonalsections
aremanufactured.Theseshapesareeasytocast
inhorizontalposition.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ConcretePiles
Necessaryreinforcementisprovidedtotakecare
g
ofhandlingstresses.
Pilesarealsoprestressed.
Maximumloadonaprestressed
Maximum load on a prestressed concretepileis
concrete pile is
approximately2000kN andforprecastpiles
1000 kN Optimumloadrangeis400to600kN.
1000kN.
Optimum load range is 400 to 600 kN
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Castinplace
concretepiles
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PrecastDrivenpiles
Pil
Piles may be
b off timber,
ti b steel
t l or precastt concrete.
t
They are driven either vertical or inclined.
Piles are driven using a pile hammers as follows Drop,
Drop
single acting, double acting and differential acting steam
hammer, diesel, hydraulic and vibratory hammers.
Compaction piles: Pile is driven into granular soil
displaces the surrounding soil equal to the volume of the
driven pile.
pile
Compacts the soil around the sides of pile.
The displaced soil particles enter the soil spaces of the
adjacent mass which leads to densification of the mass.
compactionofthesoilmassaroundapileincreasesits
bearingcapacity.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Compactionpiles
Compactssandysoil
2 =
= 1/2+20
/2 + 20
Decreasesstrengthofclaysoil
whichgraduallyregainswithtime
hi h
d ll
i
ih i
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PrecastDrivenpiles
Pile
Pileisdrivenintosaturatedsilty
is dri en into sat rated silt orcohesivesoilwill
or cohesi e soil ill
notdensify thesoilaroundthepilebecauseofits
poordrainagequalities.
Displacedsoilparticlescannotenterthevoidspace
unlessthewaterintheporesispushedout.
Stressdevelopedinsoilduetopiledrivinghaveto
S
d l
di
il d
il d i i h
bebornebyporewater.
Results in the development of pore water pressure
Resultsinthedevelopmentofporewaterpressure
andaconsequentdecreaseinthebearingcapacity
ofthesoil.
Immediateeffectofpiledrivingistodecreasein
bearingcapacityofsoil.Remoldedsoilregainspart
of its lost Strength due to the reorientation of the
ofitslostStrengthduetothereorientationofthe
disturbedparticleswithtime(thixotrophy).
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PrecastDrivenpiles
Advantages:
Can be precasted to the required specifications, any
size length and shape.
size,
shape
Progress of the work is rapid.
Pile driven in granular soil increases bearing
capacity.
Construction work is neat and clean,,
Supervision of work at the site is reduced
Storage space required is very much less.
Used in sites where a fear of meeting ground water
under pressure due to drill holes.
Preferredforpilesinwharfstructuresorjetties.
P f
df
il i h f t t
j tti
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PrecastDrivenpiles
Disadvantgaes: Must be properly reinforced to with
stand handling stresses during transportation and
di i
driving.
Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
Method involves cutting off extra lengths or adding
more lengths thus increases the cost of project.
They are not suitable in soils of poor drainage
qualities due to heaving of the soil or the lifting of
the driven piles during the driving of a new pile.
Foundationsofadjacentstructuresarelikelytobe
affectedduetothevibrationsgenerated.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Drivencastinsitupile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Driven cast in situ pile

Drivencastinsitupile
Involves
Involvesdrivingofasteeltubetotherequired
driving of a steel tube to the required
depthwiththeendclosedbyadetachable
conical tip
conicaltip.
Tubeisnextconcretedandtheshellis
simultaneously withdrawn
simultaneouslywithdrawn.
Insomecasestheshellwillnotbewithdrawn.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
BoredCast insitupiles
Constructedbymakingholesinthegroundto
therequireddepthandthenfillingtheholewith
concrete.
Straightboredpilesorpileswithoneormore
bulbsatintervalsmaybecastatthesite.The
lattertypearecalledunderreamedpiles.
Advantages:Pilesofanysizeandlengthare
constructed,damageduetodrivingandhandling
is eliminated vibrations are avoided and
iseliminated,vibrationsareavoidedand
adjacentstructuresaresafe.Suitableinsoilsof
poor drainage qualities
poordrainagequalities.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
BoredCastinsitupiles
Disadvantages:
Careful supervision
p
and q
qualityy control of all the
materials is necessary for casting of piles.
Sufficient storage
g
space
p
is necessaryy for
construction materials used in the construction.
No advantage
g of increased bearingg capacity
p y due
to compaction in granular soil. decreases by 3.
piles in holes with a heavyy
Construction of these p
ground water flow or artesian pressure is very
difficult.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steelpiles
They are rolled H shapes or pipe piles.
Designed to withstand large impact stresses
during hard driving.
Pipe
p p
piles are either welded or seamless steel
pipes which may be driven either openend or
closedend.
Pipe piles are often filled with concrete after
driving.
driving
Optimumloadrangeonsteelpilesis400to
1200kN.
1200kN
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
SteelHpiles
Beforedriving
Afterdriving
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steelpipepiles
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Methodstodetermineloadcarrying
capacityofsingleverticalpile
f
l
l l
9Staticbearingcapacityequations
9St
ti b i
it
ti
9UseofSPTandCPTvalues
9Fieldpileloadtests
9Dynamic
Dynamicmethods
methods
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Staticcapacityofsinglepile
Bearingcapacityofpiledepends
Typeofpile,sizeandlengthofpile
Type of pile, size and length of pile
Typeofsoil,positionofwatertable
Methodofinstallation
M th d f i t ll ti
Designofpileshouldbesafeagainstshearfailure
andsettlementswithinlimits.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Ultimateload,Qu =Qb +Qf
Qb ,Baseorpointload
,Base or point load =q
qbAb
qb =Ultimatebearingcapacityof
the pile at base
thepileatbase
Ab =bearingareaofbaseofpile
Qf =frictionloadorskinload=f
= friction load or skin load = fsAs
fs =unitskinfriction
As =Totalsurfaceareaofpile
T t l f
f il
embeddedbelowground
surface
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cohesionless pile
Netultimateloadcapacityofpile, Qu = q0 N q Ab + i=1 q0 k s tan As

qq'o = effectiveoverburdenpressureatthebaselevelofthe
effective overburden pressure at the base level of the
pile
Nq =bearingcapacityfactor
= bearing capacity factor
q'0=averageeffectiveoverburdenpressureoverthe
embedded depth of the pile
embeddeddepthofthepile
ks =averagelateralearthpressurecoefficient
Pile
Pile
Values of ks
Valuesof
=angleofwallfriction
= angle of wall friction
material
LowDr
HighDr
n=no.oflayers
Steel
0.5
1.0
20
Maximumskinfriction<110kN/m2
C
Concrete
t
3 /4
3/4
10
1.0
20
2.0
wood
2/3
1.5
4.0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Drivenpiles
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
VariationofNq with
Criticaldepth
qb andfs increaseswithdepthuptocriticaldepth,
Lc givenasfollows
Maximumbaseresistanceqb islimitedto11000
k / 2
kN/m
Endbearingandfrictionalresistanceofboredpiles
islesscomparedtodrivenpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cohesivesoils
Netultimateloadcapacityofpile
N
t lti t l d
it f il
Qu=cbNcAb+As cu
cb =undrained
d i d shearstrengthorcohesionofclay
h
t
th
h i
f l
atbaselevel
Nc =Bearingcapacityfactor=9
B i
it f t
9
cu =Averageundrained shearstrengthofclay
alongtheshaft
l
th h ft
= adhesionfactor
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Variationof withcu
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Inatwolayeredcohesivesoil,boredpilesof350mm
diameterareinstalled.Thetoplayerhasathickness
of 4m and the bottom one is of considerable depth
of4mandthebottomoneisofconsiderabledepth.
Thecvalueoftoplayeris40kN/m2andthatofthe
bottomis100kN/m2.Determinethelengthofthe
pilerequiredtocarryasafeloadof400kN.Assumea
F.S.of3.
AR.C.C.pileofsize30cmx30cmand10mlongis
drivenintocoarsesandwithunitweightof16kN/m
g
/ 3
andangleofinternalfrictionof310.Whatisthe
allowableloadonthepile.For=310,Nq=16and
N=14,K=1.0andfactorofsafetyof3.0.
= 14 K=1 0 and factor of safety of 3 0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pileloadtest
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pileloadtest
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pileloadtest
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Loadtransfermechanism
Vertical movement of the pile is required to mobilize

full end resistance is much greater than that required
to Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
mobilize full skin friction
Loadtransfermechanism
Boredcastinsitupiles
Settlementofpileforfullfrictionalload=0.5to1%ofd
Settlement of pile for full base load =10to20%ofd
Settlementofpileforfullbaseload
10 to 20 % of d
Failureloadistheloadwhichcausesasettlementequal
to10percentofthepilediameter.
Qu
All
Allowableorworkingload,Q
bl
ki l d Qa =
FS
FS=2.5
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Generalshear
Welldefined
failure
Failsbybuckling
Punchingshear
Nowell
definedfailure
Onlyfrictionalresistance
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Piledrivinganddynamicpileformulas
Singleactinghammer Inasingle
Drop hammer Drop hammer is lifted up by rope

and dropped freely on the pile head.
head During the actinghammer,hammerisliftedup
driving operation, cap is fixed to the top of pile. bycompressedairanddropped
Cushion is provided in between the pile and the freely.Suitableforstifftohardclay.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
cap.
Dieselhammer Dieselhammer
Double acting hammer In a doubleacting
double acting consistsofaramandafuelinjection
consists of a ram and a fuel injection
hammer, air pressure is used to raise the system.Inthismethod,ramisfirst
hammer. When the hammer reaches the raisedmanuallyandfuelisinjected
required
equ ed height,
e g t, aair p
pressure
essu e iss app
applied
ed to tthee neartheanvil.Impactofhammer
near the anvil Impact of hammer
other side of the piston and hammer is pushed resultsinexplosion.Suitableforall
downward under pressure. This is suitable for soilsexceptforsoftclays.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
granular soil.
Vibratory hammer In this

method pile is driven by
method,
applying
vibrations.
Vibratory pile driver is
suitable only for sand and
gravel soils.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dynamicpileformulas
Pil
Pile which
hi h meets
t greater
t resistance
it
during driving is capable of carrying
a greater load.
Number of dynamic formulae have
been developed which equate pile
capacity in terms of driving energy.
energy
Driving energy = Pile capacity
wh
Wh = Qus Qu =
s
W weight of the hammer
h drop of hammer
s pile penetration under
one hammer blow
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dynamicpileformulas Hiley Formula

Aboveequationisapplicablefor100%efficiency.
Drivingofpileinvolvesmanylosses
g p
y
Energyinput=Energyused+Energylosses
Energy used = Energy input Energylosses
Energyused=Energyinput
Energy losses
Qus =hWh E1 E2
h =Efficiencyofthehammer=1.0fordrophammer
=0.75to0.85forsinglehammer
0 75 0 85 f i l h
=0.85doubleactinghammer
=1.0Dieselhammer
1 0 Di l h
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar

E1 =Elasticcompressionsofthepilecap,pilematerial
andsoilsurroundingthepile
c1 =Elasticcompressionofthepilecap
Precastconcretepilewithpackinginsidecap,c1 =0.120.50
Timberpilewithoutcap,c1 =0.050.20
Steel Hpile,
SteelH
pile,cc1 =0.04
0.04 0.16
c2 =Elasticcompressionofthepile=
L =lengthofthepile,A
L
length of the pile, A =Areaofpile,E
Area of pile, E =Young
Young'ss
modulusofpilematerial
p
,
c3 =Elasticcompressionofthesoil=0forhardsoil,0.2
forsoils
C=(C1 +C2 +CDr.PVSNPavanKumar
3)/2

EnergylossE
Energy
loss E2 duetotheinteractionofpile
due to the interaction of pile hammer
hammer
system(impactoftwobodies).
WP =Weightofpile+weightofhelmet,dollyandpacking
Cr =coefficientofrestitution=0deterioratedconditionof
pileheadorcap,
=0.25woodenpile
=0.32woodencushiononsteelpile
= 0 4 cast iron hammer on concrete pile without cap
=0.4castironhammeronconcretepilewithoutcap
=0.55ironhammeronsteelpipewithoutcushion
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
AllowableloadQ
Allowable load Qa isobtainedbydividingQ
is obtained by dividing Qu bya
by a
suitablefactorofsafety.
Pile resting on rock use WP/2 insteadofWinthe
instead of W in the
PilerestingonrockuseW
aboveequation.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dynamicpileformulas ENRFormula
EngineeringNewsRecordformula(1886)
Engineering
News Record formula (1886)
Substitutinginaboveequation
h =1,Cr =1Factorofsafety,FS=6
f f
Allowableloadinkg,
W=weightofhammer,kg
h = height of fall of hammer cm
h=heightoffallofhammer,cm
s=finalpenetrationincmperbloworset
averagepenetrationperblowforlast5blowsofdrophammeror20
average
penetration per blow for last 5 blows of drop hammer or 20
blowsofasteamhammer.
C =2.5cmdrophammer,0.25cmsingleanddoubleacting
C
2.5 cm drop hammer, 0.25 cm single and double acting
hammer
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dynamicpileformulas
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
A reinforced concrete pile weighing 30 kN is driven by a
drop hammer weighing 30 kN with an effective fall of 0.9
m. The average penetration per blow is 15 mm. The total
temporary elastic compression of the pile, pile cap and soil
may be taken as 18 mm.
mm The coefficient of restitution is
0.36. What is the allowable load on the pile with a factor of
safety of 2? Use Hiley
Hiley'ss formula. (June 2010 Set No.4)
Aprecastconcretepileisdrivenwitha30kN singleacting
steamhammerwithafreefallof1.5m.Thepenetration
p
recordedinthelast5blowswas20mm.Estimatethe
allowableloadonthepileusingENRformula.(June2010
SetNo.4)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Limitationsofdynamicformulae
ENR
ENRformulagivespileloadsaslowas44%of
f
l i
il l d
l
44 % f
theactualloads.Betterloadcarryingcapacityis
obtained by taking
obtainedbytaking
C=1cm,steelpipepiles,
C 15
C=1.5cm,precastconcretepiles
t
t il
Hiley's formuladoesnotgiveconsistentresults,
computedloadcarryingcapacityvaluesare
t dl d
i
it
l
eitherhighorlow.
Dynamicpileformulahavelimitedvaluebecause
D
i il f
l h
li it d l b
thedynamicresistanceofsoildoesnotrepresent
the static resistance
thestaticresistance.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Limitationsofdynamicformulae
Piledrivenintoasaturatedloosefinesandand
silthavepossibilityofdevelopmentof
liquefactionwhichreducesthebearingcapacity
ofthepile.
Inasaturatedcohesivesoilpiledrivingdecreases
g
y
thestrengthsuddenly.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pilegroup
Rarelystructuresarefoundedonasinglepile.
Aminimumofthreepilesunderacolumnora
p
foundationareusedtoavoidproblemsof
g
y
misalignmentandeccentricity.
Spacingbetweenthepilesinagroupdependon
overlappingofstressesofadjacentpiles.
overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles
costoffoundation
efficiencyofthepilegroup
efficiency of the pile group
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Overlappingofstressesbetweenpiles
GroupofPileswith
largerspacing
Cost of pile cap is more
Costofpilecapismore
SinglePile
In case of group of piles closely

spaced, Soil will fail or pile
group settles excessively
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Arrangementofpilesinagroup
Spacingbetweenpiles
Frictionalpiles
Drivenpilesinloosesand:Pilesdrivenatcloser interval
compactstheloosesand.
p
y
Drivenpilesinsaturatedsiltorclaysoil:
Drivenpilecannotcompactthesoilbetweenpiles.
Soilbetweenthepilesmaymoveupwardsandlift
Soil between the piles may move upwards and lift
thepilecap.
Greater spacingisrequiredbetweenthesepiles.
spacing is required between these piles
Castinsitupiles: Soilisnotstressedandsmaller
spacing is permitted
spacingispermitted
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Spacingbetweenpiles
Pointbearingpiles
i b i
il (pilesfoundedonrock)
Highpointbearingstressesandtheirsuperposition
willnotoverstresstheunderlyingmaterialnor
causeexcessivesettlement,spacingbetween
pilescanbesmall.
Straightuniform diameterpiles
Friction piles
Endbearingpilespassinginrelativelycompressible
strata
Endbearingpilespassinginrelativelycompressible
strata and resting in stiff clay
strataandrestinginstiffclay
Compactionpiles
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
S=2to6d
Min.S=3d
Min.S=2.5d
Min.S=3.5d
S=2d
Pilegroupefficiency
Ultimateloadofthegroup,Qgu isgenerally
differentfromthesumoftheultimateloadsof
individualpilesnQu.
Efficiencyofpilegroup=
y p g p
Qgu ultimateloadbearingcapacityofthegroup
Qu ultimateloadcarryingcapacityofindividual
ultimate load carrying capacity of individual
pile
Groupefficiencywilldependontypeofsoil,
G
ffi i
ill d
d
f il
methodofinstallationandspacingbetweenpiles.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pilegroupcapacityinsandandgravel
DrivenPiles :Soilaroundthepilestoaradiusof
atleastthreetimesthepilediameteris
compactedifthepilesaredrivenatacloser
spacing
Drivenpilesactaspierfoundationandefficiency
ofthegroup>1.
Ifspacingisincreasedto5to6timesdiameter,
h <1
Forallpracticalpurposes
Boredpiles
Bored piles donotcompactthesoilaroundthe
do not compact the soil around the
pileandcapacityofpilegroup,
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pilegroupcapacityincohesivesoil
Pilesdriven intosoftandsensitiveclaysoilsresultin
considerableremolding,heavingofsoilbetween
pilesandnocompaction.
il
d
ti
Inclaysoilbored pilesaremorepreferredthandriven
piles.
il
Ifdriven pilesareusedspacingshouldbelarge,piles
shouldbedrivenfromcentertoedgesanddriving
h ld b d
f
d
dd
shallbeslowtominimizedevelopmentofporewater.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Experimentalresultsindicatethatapilegroup
installedincohesivesoilwillfailinanyoneofthe
followingways:
Failasablock(blockfailure)
Individualpilefailure
Blockfailure: Whenpilesarespacedatcloser
i
intervali.e.2dto3dsoilbetweenthepilesmove
l i 2d 3d il b
h il
downwardwithpiles.
Forwiderspacingpilesfailindividually.
F
id
i
il f il i di id ll
Capacityofpilegroupisleastofblockand
i di id l il
individualpileactions
ti
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Capacityforblockfailure:
Qgu=cNcAg +Pg L c
c=Cohesionbelowpilegroup
Nc =9
Ag =Areaofpilegroup
= Area of pile group
Pg =Perimeterofpilegroup
L =Lengthofpile
L
Length of pile
c =Averagecohesionaroundpile
Capacitybasedonindividualpile
failure:
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Blockfailureofapilegroupinclaysoil
Pilegroupsinclay
Agroupof9pilesarrangedinsquarepatternare
y p
p p
drivenintoaclaydepositwhosepropertiesare
=0,cu =70kN/m2 and=0.65.Pilesare300mmin
diameter,8mlongandspacedat1.2mcenterto
g
p
center.Calculatethecapacityofthegroup.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Whenafillstartsconsolidatingunderitsownoverburden
pressure,itdevelopsadragonthesurfaceofthepile.
Thi d
Thisdragonthesurfaceofthepileiscallednegative
th
f
f th il i
ll d
ti
friction.
SinglePile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
GroupofPiles
Negative skin
k friction
f
will develop if the fill
material is loose
cohesion less soil or
when a fill is placed
p
over peat or soft clay
stratum.
By lowering ground
water table.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Negativeskinfrictionofsinglepile
Cohesivesoil
Fn =sPLn
Cohesionless soil
ss=shearstrengthofcohesivesoils
shear strength of cohesive soils =Cohesion,c
Cohesion c
P=perimeterofpile
Ln =Lengthofpileincompressiblematerial
= Length of pile in compressible material
K=earthpressurecoefficientvariesfromka tokp
=angleofwallfriction,variesfrom/2to
l f ll f i i
i f
/2
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Negativeskinfrictionofgroupofpiles
Singlepileaction
Fng =nFn
Block failure
Blockfailure
Fng =sLnPg +LnAg
n=numberofpiles
p
=unitweightofsoilwithinthepilegroup
Ln =Lengthofpileincompressiblematerial
Pg =perimeterofpilegroup,
Ag =sectionalareaofpilegroupwithintheperimeterP,
s = shear strength of soil along the perimeter of the
s=shearstrengthofsoilalongtheperimeterofthe
group=cohesion,c
Maximumofabovetwovaluesisusedasnegativeskin
f i ti
frictionofpilegroup
f il
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Asquarepilegroupof9pilespassthrougharecentlyfilled
upsoil.Thedepthoffill=3m.Thediameterofpileis300
p
p
p
mmandtheyarespacedat90cmapart.Ifthesoilis
cohesivewithqu =60kN/m2, =15kN/m3,computethe
negative skin frictional load on the pile group (June 2007)
negativeskinfrictionalloadonthepilegroup.(June2007).
A
Apilehavingadiameterof0.3mandlength20misdriven
pile having a diameter of 0.3m and length 20m is driven
intotwolayeredsoilhavingsandfillabovetheclaylayer.
Heightofsandfillis2mwithdensityof16.5kN/m3.The
clay has clay =20
clayhas
200,sat(clay)=17.2kN/m
17 2kN/m3.Thewatertable
The water table
coincideswiththetopoftheclaylayer.Determinethe
downwarddragforce.Assumethat=0.6clayy.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Underreamedpiles
Pilesconstructedwitha
bellorpedestalatitsbase.
Underreamer
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Underreamedpiles
Underreamer
In closed position,
position the under
reamer fits inside the straight
section of a pile shaft. It can
expand at the base of the pile to
produce the enlarged base.
Belling tool has hinged arms,
which can be pushed outward by
a downward
d
d force
f
on the
h kelly
k ll
(drill rod).
Rotation of the tool in the
borehole cuts away the soil.
Upward
p
force on kellyy retracts
the cutter arms and the
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
underreaming tool is lifted.
Loadcarryingcapacityofunderreamedpile
Singleunderream closetotipofpile
qu = cN
N c Ab + c As
Ab =areaofpileshaft+bulb
Nc =9, =0.4,alengthof2Babovethe
bulbisneglectedassoillosesitscontact
c =Avg.cohesionalongpile
Single underream farfromtipofpile
Singleunderream
far from tip of pile A /2
qu = cN c Ab + c N c Ab + c As
Ab =areaofpileshaft
f il h ft
Ccohesionatbaseofbulb,Abareaofbulb
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
As
Ab
Ab /2
Loadcarryingcapacityofunderreamedpile
withtwobulbs
qu = cN c Ab + c N c Ab + c a As + c a Asb
As
As Surfaceareaofshaftabovetopbulb
(neglect2Blength)
Ca averagecohesiononA
average cohesion on As
Asb
Asb surfaceofcylindercircumscribing
thetopandbottombulbs
Ca averagecohesiononA
g
sb
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
As
Ab /2
Ab
Ab /2
Tutorial
A single underreamed pile is installed in a deep
deposit of stiff fissured clay. The diameter of the
stem is 1.0 m and that of underream is 2.5m.
The length of the pile is 16m. The unconfined
compressive strength of clay is 140kN/m2.
Estimate the allowable load carrying capacity of
the pile for a factor of safety of 3.0.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
A bored
b d pile
l with
h enlarged
l
d base
b
is to be
b installed
ll d in a stiff
ff clay,
l
the undrained shear strength at base level being 220 kN/m2.
The saturated unit weight of the clay is 21 kN/m3. The diameters
of the pile shaft and base are 1.0m and 3.0m respectively. The
pile extends from a depth of 4m to a depth of 22m, the top of
the underream being at a depth of 20m. Past experience
indicates that a skin friction coefficient of 0.70 is appropriate for
the clay.
clay Compute the allowable load on the pile to ensure
i. an overall load factor of 2, and
ii. a load factor of 3 under the base, when shaft resistance is
fully mobilized.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Assignment 3
1. Writeashortnotesonnegativeskinfriction
and under reamed piles with neat sketch and
andunderreamedpileswithneatsketchand
equations.
2 Howpilegroupcapacitiesarecalculatedin
2.
How pile group capacities are calculated in
sandandclaysoil
3 Explainstaticanddynamicpileformulae.
3.
E l i t ti
dd
i il f
l
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorials
Forapilegroupofsize3x3showninFigure,the
pilediameter,D=400mmandspacing,d=900
mm determine the efficiency of pile group (Nov
mm,determinetheefficiencyofpilegroup.(Nov
2013)
ConverseLabarre
Converse
Labarre Formula
Efficiencyofpilegroup,
m=numberofcolumnsofpilesinagroup,
n=numberofrows,
=tan1(d/s)indegrees,
d=diameterofpile,
s=spacingofpilescentertocenter.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Unit IV
UnitIV
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
Settlement
SettlementofPilegroupsrestinginsandsand
of Pile groups resting in sands and
clays
laterallyloadedpiles
laterally loaded piles
Ultimatecapacityoflaterallyloadedpiles.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Settlementofpilegroup
Si l Pil
SinglePile
Pilegroup
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Settlementofpilegroupinsand
Settlement of a group and a single pile at
corresponding working loads is expressed as
Fg = Group settlement factor

Sg = Settlement of group
S = Settlement of single pile
Settlement
l
off a single
i l pile
il is
i determined
d
i d from
f
pile
il
load test.
Settlement of group is very large as the pressure bulb
for the group is much deeper than a single pile.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Skempton etal.,(1953)
Curvesapplytodrivenorboredpiles.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Curveisbasedon
Curve is based on
testsongroupof
p
pilesembeddedin
mediumdensesand
Groupsinlooser
ordenserdeposits
willhavedifferent
behavior
behavior.
V i 1967
Vesic,1967
d,diameterofpile,
B h di
B,thedistancebetweenthecentertocenterofouterpilesinthe
b
h
f
il i h
group
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Elasticsettlementofpilegroupinsandand
gravels in mm, Meyerhof, 1976.
gravelsinmm,Meyerhof,1976.
q=Loadintensity=Qg /Ag
Bg =Widthofpilegroup
Width f il
I=Influencefactor=
D=lengthofpile
N =CorrectedSPTN
N
Corrected SPT N valuewithinseatof
value within seat of
settlement(approximatelyequaltoBg belowthe
tip)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Settlementofgroup,
S ttl
t f
qc averageconepenetrationresistancewithin
seatofsettlement
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Settlementofpilegroupinclay
End bearing Pile
EndbearingPile
Piles are point bearing

piles.
Load in this case is
assumed to act at the level
of the firm stratum and
spreads out at a 2 : 1 slope
Consolidation settlement =
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Fi i
FrictionalPile
l Pil
Fictitious
footing
is
assumed at a depth 2L/3
from the surface and load
distributed over the area of
group.
group
Increase in stress, p
beneath a pile group
subjected to a vertical load,
Qg is to be evaluated .
H
Homogenousclay
l
Load
L d spreads
d att 2V:1H
2V 1H
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pile passes through a very
weak layer of depth L1 and
the lower portion of length
L2 is embedded in a strong
layer.
layer
Load Qg is assumed to act
at a depth equal to 2L2 /3
below the surface of the
strong layer and spreads at
the rate of 2 : 1 slope as
b f
before.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Calculatethesettlementofasquarepilegroupforthe
followingconditions(Nov2012)
(i) Diameter of the pile 200 mm
(i)Diameterofthepile:200mm
(ii)Centertocenterspacingofpiles:500mm
(iii) Depth of the pile group from GL: 5m
(iii)DepthofthepilegroupfromGL:5m
(iv)Loadonthepilegroup:500kN
(v) Hard strata is at a distance of 7m from the ground
(v)Hardstrataisatadistanceof7mfromtheground
level.
(vi)BetweenGLandhardstrataclayeysoilisexisting
(vii)Propertiesofnormallyconsolidatedclay:sat =20
kN/m3,LL=40%,PL=25.5%,e=1.05.,
Cc =0.009(LL
0 009 (LL 10)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Nineprecastconcretepilesof30cmdiameterwere
l
f
d
driventhreeinarowtosandysoiltoformasquaregroup.
Thedistancebetweencentretocentreofpilesis75cm.
Thepilesareconnectedbyarigidpilecap.Thelengthof
pileis8m.Thereisasoftclaystrataof0.5mthickata
depthofonemeterfromthetipsofthepiles.
Computethefollowing:
(a)theallowableloadonthepilegroupaccordingtoshear
criteria
criteria
(b)thesettlementofthegroupatthisload.Given:Dry
densityofsand=18kN/m3,averageN valueinsandy
strata=18,liquidlimitofclay=45%,initialvoidratioof
t t 18 li id li it f l
45% i iti l id ti f
clay=0.83,naturalwatercontentofclay=32%,G=2.71
Assumethatthewatertableisatgroundlevel.(June
2010)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Agroupoffrictionpilesof300mmdiameterand
g
j
12mlongissubjectedtoanetloadof2000kN.
Pilegroupconsistsof9pilesarrangedinsquare
withc/cspacingof1.1m.Thesoilpropertiesare
p
g
p p
asfollows:0to3m, =16kN/m3;3mto5m, =
, sat =18.5kN/m3,,Cc =
18kN/m3;;5mto18m,
0.25,eo =0.75;18mto28m,sat=19kN/m3,Cc =
0.20,eo =0.65.Estimatetheconsolidation
settlement(June2010).
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Laterallyloadedpiles
Pilesusedundertallchimneys,televisiontowers,
highrisebuildings,highretainingwalls,offshore
structuresaresubjectedhighlateralloads.
Forsatisfactorydesignofpilefoundation
Horizontalmovementshouldnotexceedpermissible
limit.
Surroundingsoilorpilematerialshouldnotfailbyyield.
Ifhorizontalloadismorebatterpilesshouldbe
used.
Researchersconductedmodeltestsandformulated
theoreticalsolutions.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
WinklerHypothesis
Soil medium is approximated by a series of closely spaced
independent elastic springs. Reaction at any point on the base
depends
p
on deflection at that p
point.
Beamrestingonelasticfoundation
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Model
Laterallyloadedpile
Problem of laterally loaded
pile embedded in soil is
closely related to the beam
on an elastic foundation.
Beam is loaded at one or
more points whereas piles
are subjected to external
loads and moments applied
at or above the ground
surface
su
ace o
only.
y
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Modeloflaterallyloadedpile
Differentialequationelasticcurve
Atadepthx
Defectionofpile=y
EIflexural
EI
flexural
rigidityof
pilematerial
dyy
Slope =
Slope=
dx
Moment, M =
Moment,M
Shearforce,V=
Soilreaction,p=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Differentialequationelasticcurve
Soil modulus at a depth x below the surface Es =

Soilmodulusatadepthxbelowthesurface,E
= y p=
p = Es y
Differentialequationforelasticcurvewithzeroaxialload
Es
x
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Coefficientofsoilmodulus,h =
Variationofcoefficientofsoilmodulus,h
Coefficientof
soil modulus,
soilmodulus,
h forclay
varies from 28
variesfrom28
kN/m3 to
11,070 kN/m3
11,070kN/m
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Fixed head pile

Fixedheadpile
Free head pile

Freeheadpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pilesubjectedtolateralload,Pt andmoment,Mt
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Solutionofdifferentialequation
(Matlock and Reese, 1960)
(MatlockandReese,1960)
Freehead
T=Relativestiffness
factor
factor
Deflection,y=
Slope,S=
Fixedhead
yg =
Moment,M=
Momentatgroundlevel=M
Moment
at ground level = Mt
=
Shear,V=
Soilreaction,P=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
A steel pipe pile of 61 cm outside diameter with a wall
thickness of 2.5 cm is driven into loose sand (Dr = 30%)
under submerged conditions to a depth of 20 m. The
submerged unit weight of the soil is 8.75 kN/m3 and the
angle of internal friction is 33
33. The El value of the pile is
4.35 x 1011 kgcm2 (4.35 x 102 MNm2). Compute the
ground line deflection of the pile under a lateral load of
268 kN at ground level under a free head condition using
the nondimensional parameters of Matlock and Reese.
The nh value for Dr = 30% is 6 MN/m3 for a submerged
condition.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Ifthepileinaboveexampleissubjectedtoa
lateralloadataheight2mabovegroundlevel,
whatwillbethegroundlinedeflection?
Ifthepileintheaboveexampleisfixedagainst
p
p
g
rotation(fixedhead),calculatethedeflection
g
atthegroundline.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
UnitV
E h
Earthpressuretheories
h i
Stabilityofretainingwall
y
g
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
LateralEarthpressures
Rankine theory
Coulombtheory
y
Graphicalmethods
Stability of cantilever and counterfort retaining
Stabilityofcantileverandcounterfort
retaining
walls,
Stabilityreinforcedearthretainingwalls
S bili
i f
d
h
i i
ll
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Angleofrepose
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Embankment
Highways
Railwaylines
Earthdams
Canalbanks
Slopefailureoccursifdevelopedshearstress>Shearstrengthofsoil
Forstabilityofslopeinsandysoilsslopeangle<angleofrepose
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Retainingwalls
Retaining walls are constructed to retain vertical
earth or other material embankments.
Constructed of masonry, PCC, RCC or sheet pile.
These
Th
walls
ll are subjected
bj t d lateral
l t l pressure from
f
earth or other materials.
Walls are designed to keep them in stable
position.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofretainingwall
Backfillor
soil
Backfillor
soil
Excavationorcutting
i
i
Embankment
Backfill
orsoil
Backfillorsoil
Retainingwall
Watertanks,Culvert
BridgeAbutment
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofretainingwall
Sheetpilewall
(Flexiblewalls)
Floodwall,weir
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Differenttypesofretainingwalls
Backfill
Gravitywalls
Semi Gravitywalls
Gravity
G i walls
ll resist
i movement because
b
off Semigravitywallsarenotasheavyas
S i
i
ll
h
gravitywalls.
their heavy sections.
They are built of mass concrete or stone Asmallamountofreinforcementis
or brick masonry.
masonry
used for reducing the mass of concrete
usedforreducingthemassofconcrete.
No reinforcement is required in these
walls.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cantileverwalls
Counterfort walls
SStems off cantilever

il
walls
ll are thinner
hi
i
in
section.
Base slab is the cantilever portion.
These walls are made of reinforced
concrete.
SStemofthewallspanshorizontallybetween
f h
ll
h i
ll b
verticalbracketsknownascounterforts.
Counterfortsareprovidedonthebackfill
side.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Buttressedwalls
Buttressedwallsaresimilartocounterfortwalls.
p
pp
Bracketsorbuttresswallsareprovidedontheoppositesideofthe
backfill.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wall under construction

Wallunderconstruction
Wall after construction

Wallafterconstruction
Mechanically Stabilized walls

MechanicallyStabilizedwalls
Becomingmorepopular
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Classical earth pressure theories

Classicalearthpressuretheories
Coulomb
Coulomb'ssearthpressuretheory(1776)
earth pressure theory (1776)
Rankine's earthpressuretheory(1857)
Threepressuresareestimatedfromtheories
h
i
df
h i
Atrestpressure
Activepressure
Passivepressure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
TypesofEarthpressure
At rest pressure: If the wall does not move even
after back filling,
filling the pressure exerted on the
wall is termed as at rest pressure.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Atrestpressure
Active earth pressure:
Activeearthpressure:
Ifwallrotatesabout
PointAandmoves
awayfrombackfill,
pressureonthewall
graduallydecreases.
Afteraparticular
After a particular
displacementofwallat
top pressure decreases
top,pressuredecreases
toaminimumvalue
calledactiveearth
pressureandremains
constant.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Ifthewallissmooth,theresultantpressureacts
normaltothefaceofthewall.
Ifthewallisrough,itmakesanangle withthe
normalonthewall.
= angleofwallfriction
Whenthewallmovementissufficient,asoilmass
When the wall movement is sufficient a soil mass
ofweightWrupturesalongsurfaceADC.This
surfaceisslightlycurved.
f
i li h l
d
PlanesurfaceACmakesanangle45 +/2with
horizontal.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Typesofearthpressure
Passive earth
h pressure:
If the wall is now rotated
about A towards the
backfill, the actual failure
plane ADC is a curved
surface.
surface
If the failure surface is
approximated as a plane
AC this
thi makes
k an angle
l
45 /2 with the
horizontal.
Pressure on the wall
increases from the value
of at rest condition to
the maximum value.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Typesofearthpressures
MaximumpressurePp thatisdevelopedis
termed as passive earth pressure.
termedaspassiveearthpressure.
Pressureiscalledpassivebecausetheweightof
the backfill opposes the movement of the wall
thebackfillopposesthemovementofthewall.
Ifthewallisroughpassivepressuremakesan
angle
l withthenormal.
ith th
l
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Typesofearthpressures
Movementp requiredto
develop the passive state is
developthepassivestateis
considerablylargerthana
requiredfortheactivestate.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Atrestpressure
wallisrigidand
doesnotmove
withthepressure
exertedonthe
wall,soilbehind
ll il b hi d
thewallwillbein
a state of elastic
astateofelastic
equilibrium.
Homogenous
Isotropic
v= z
h= K0z
K0 coefficientofatrestpressure
Consideran
Atbaseofwall,h= K0H
element E in the
elementEinthe
Intensityofpressure,P0 =Areaofearthpressure
backfillatdepthz diagram=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Atrestpressure
L t l t i 0
Lateralstrain=0
=0
EYoungsmodulusofsoilandPoissonratio
=K
K0
Jacky(1944)K0 =1sin
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Rankine theory(1857) Activeearthpressure

Normalstressonthebase
ADisV= Z
Normalstress h onthe
vertical planes A or C at
verticalplanesABorDCat
depthzh= K0H
Entiremassissubjectedto
Entire mass is subjected to
horizontaldeformation.
Everyverticalsectionthroughthemassrepresentsaplaneof
vertical section through the mass represents a plane of
Every
symmetryfortheentiremass.
Theshearstressesonverticalandhorizontalsidesoftheprismare
equaltozero.Duetothestretching,thepressureonverticalsidesAB
lt
D t th t t hi th
ti l id AB
andCDoftheprismdecreasesuntiltheconditionsofplasticequilibrium
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
aresatisfied,whilethepressureonthebaseADremainsunchanged.
Rankine theory Activeearthpressure

Furtherstretchingcausesaplasticflowwithout
changing the stress state. This is failure of soil
changingthestressstate.Thisisfailureofsoil
mass.
Weightofthemassassistsinproducingan
Weight of the mass assists in producing an
expansioninhorizontaldirectionandtypeof
failure is called active failure
failureiscalledactivefailure.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar

MinorP.P
FailurePlane
(3)
MajorP.P
CE=CD=CB=r=OCSin
MinorPrincipalstress,
pa =OE=OC CE=OC(1sin)
MajorPrincipalstress,
v =OB=OC+CB=OC(1+sin)
p a 1 sin
=
= ka
v 1 + sin
Majorprincipalplane Horizontal
Mi
Minorprincipalplane
i i l l
V ti l
Vertical
FailureplaneDEmakesanangle45
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
withhorizontalormajorp.p
+
2
Resisting force decreases the earth pressure acting on the wall

Resistingforcedecreasestheearthpressureactingonthewall
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Rankine theory Passiveearthpressure

Surfaceofsemi infinitemass
C h i l
Cohesionlesssoil
il
=z
Massofsoiliscompressedinhorizontaldirection,thepressureon
Mass of soil is compressed in horizontal direction the pressure on
verticalsidesABandCDoftheprismincreaseswhilethepressureon
itsbaseremainsunchangedatz.
Lateralcompressionofthesoilisresistedbytheweightofthesoil,
l
f h
l
db h
h f h
l
thesubsequentfailurebyplasticflowiscalledapassivefailure.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar

Major P P
MajorP.P
Failure
Plane
(3)
Minor v
P.P
BC=CD=CE=r
pp =OC+CE=OC+OCsin
v =OC BC=OC OCsin
p p 1 + sin
=
= kp
v 1 sin
Majorprincipalplane vertical
Minorprincipalplane Horizontal
FailureplaneEDmakesanangle45
withhorizontalorminorp.p
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
2
Resistingforceincreasesbecauseresistancebuildsindirection
towardsthewall.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
1
2
k
H
a
Activeearthpressureforce,Pa =varies
2
linearlyandactsataheightofH/3frombaseof
wall.
1
Passive earth pressure force Pp =actsata
Passiveearthpressureforce,P
= 2 k p H 2 acts at a
heightofH/3frombaseofwall.
1 sin
ka =
1 + sin
1 + sin
kp =
1 sin
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ActiveEarthPressure BackfillSubmerged
Retainingwall
Retaining
wall
Submergedunitwt,b
Retainingwall
Duetosubmergedbackfill
Duetopore
water
1
2
1
2
TotalpressureactingonthewallataheightH/3abovethebase= k a H 2 + w H 2
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ActiveEarthPressure BackfillSubmergedand
subjectedtosurcharge
Surcharge
moistsoil
Submergedsoil
TotalpressurePa actingperunitlengthofthewall=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PointofapplicationofPaisthecentriod ofcompositeearthpressurediagram.
Pore
water
Slopinggroundsurface Activeearthpressure
Consideranelementofsoilatdepthzbelowsoilsurfaceinclined
d
l
f l d h b l
l f
l d
atangleiwithhorizontal.
Verticalstressonelement,v
weight of soil above element

Area
=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
zb cos i
b
= z cos i
P,Pole
v >x
OA=Verticalstress=
OA
V ti l t
v =zcosii
Normalstress=n =zcos2 i
Shearstress= =zcosisini
OB=Horizontalstress=x =OB=Pa =OP
Pa
OP OD DP
=
OA OD + DA
OD=OCcosi
DP = CP 2 CD 2
Pa
CP=CA=CF=OCsin
CD=OCsini
OC cos i OC 2 sin
i 2 OC 2 sin
i 2i
v OC cos i + OC 2 sin 2 OC 2 sin 2 i

2
DA = CA 2
CD
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
pa =
cos i cos 2 i cos 2

cos i + cos 2 i cos 2
ka =
z cos i
cos i cos 2 i cos 2

cos i
Totalpressure,P
p
, a forunitlengthofwall=
g
actsataheightofH/3frombaseofwallat
acts
at a height of H/3 from base of wall at
ananglei withhorizontal
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Earthpressuredistribution
Slopinggroundsurface Passiveearthpressure
Consideranelementofsoilatdepthzbelowsoilsurfaceinclined
d
l
f l d h b l
l f
l d
atangleiwithhorizontal.
Verticalstressonelement,v
weight of soil above element

Area
=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
zb cos i
b
= z cos i
v <
< x (PP )
)
P,Pole
= OP
=OP
Pp
v
PP
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
OP OD + DP
=
OA OD DA
OC cos i + OC 2 sin 2 OC 2 sin 2 i

OC cos i OC 2 sin 2 OC 2 sin 2 i
pp =

cos i cos 2 i cos 2
kp =
z cos i

cos i cos 2 i cos 2
cos i
Totalpressure,P
p
, a forunitlengthofwall=
g
actsataheightofH/3frombaseofwallat
acts
at a height of H/3 from base of wall at
ananglei withhorizontal
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Earthpressuredistribution
Backofwallinclined
LineACisdrawnthroughHeelpoint,A
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Rankine theory Cohesivesoil

Soiliscohesivesoil
Soil
is cohesive soil
andwillhavec&
parameters
Activeearthpressure
v =1 =Majorpri.Stress
h =3 =Minorpri.Stress
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar

Tension
C k
Crack
Z=0pa =2cka
Z=Hpa =ka H2cka
Pressureisnegativeanditappliespullonthewallwhichgradually
P
i
ti
d it
li
ll
th
ll hi h
d ll
decreasestozeroatadepth
zc ==Depthoftensioncrack
Beforeformationofcrack:actsatH/3from
base
Afterformationofcrack:actsat
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
(Hzc)/3frombase

Unsupported vertical height of wall
Unsupportedverticalheightofwall
Activepressureisnegativeandbecomeszeroata
d h f c andispositivewithincreaseofdepth.
depthofz
di
ii
i hi
fd h
Iftheheightofwallis2zc activeearthpressure
forceiszeroandthisdepthiscalledcriticalheight
ofunsupportedverticalcut.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Rankine theory Passivepressureincohesivesoil

Passive earth pressure
Passiveearthpressure
h =1 =Majorpri.Stress
v =3 =Minorpri.Stress
Mi
i St
Failureplanemakesan
angleof45 /2with
horizontalwhichisthe
minorprincipalplane
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Rankine theory Passivepressureincohesivesoil

Whenz=0pp =2ckp
z=Hpp =kkp H+2ck
kp
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Coulombtheory(1776) cohesionlesssoil
ActiveEarthpressure
Backfill
Ret
Ret.
wall
Weightofwedge,W=A,
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
A=AreaofsoilwedgeABC
Rupturesurface
Equilibrium of sliding wedge is considered. It is a type of limit
equilibrium method.
Active Earth pressure
In active earth pressure condition failure wedge moves
downward and outward relative to the backfill
Assumptions:
1. Backfill is dry, cohesionless, homogenous, isotropic and ideally
plastic
l i material.
i l
2. Slip surface is a plane surface passing through the heel of wall.
3. Wall surface is rough and earth pressure on the wall is inclined
at angle to the normal to the wall. = angle of friction
between
bet
ee wall
a aand
d so
soil.
4. Sliding wedge is a rigid body.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
As the wall moves away from backfill
soil slides from B to A and shear stress
acts from A to B due to friction between
wall and soil.
Pn is the total normal reaction of the soil
pressure actingg on face AB combines with
p
shear resistance and results in active
pressure, Pa at angle to the normal of
back of wall AB.
Wedge ABC ruptures along plane AC and this is
resisted by the frictional force acting between the
soil at rest below AC and the slidingg wedge.
g
Wn is the normal component of the weight of
wedge W on plane AC, the resultant of the normal
Wn and the shearing stress is the reaction R. This
makes an angle with the normal since the
rupture takes place within the soil itself.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
AC is not the actual rupture

plane, the three forces do
not meet at a point.
Iff the
h actuall surface
f
off
failure AC'C is considered,
all three forces meet at a
point.
point
Error
due
to
the
nonconcurrence of the
forces is very insignificant
and as such may be
g
neglected.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
AreaofwedgeABC=ACBD
Fromlawofsines le ABC
AC sin( + )
=
AB sin( )
sin( + )
sin( )
AC=AB
FromtriangleABD
Sin(180(+))
Sin(180
( ))= BD
AB
BD=ABsin(+)
AB=H/sin
W=
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ActiveEarthpressure
Rupturesurface
Backfill
Ret
Ret.
wall
Anglemadebyfailureplanewithhorizontalisvariableandrestoftermsareconstants
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
dPa
=0
MaximumvalueisobtainedbydifferentiatingPa with
d
KA decreaseswithan
increaseof.
Themaximumdecreaseis
not more than 10 percent
notmorethan10percent.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Passive pressure
Passivepressure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
MinimumvalueisobtainedbydifferentiatingPp with
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
dPp
d
=0
Graphicalmethods
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Trialwedgemethod
Weightofsoilwedgefordifferentfailuresurfaceisplottedalonga
Weight
of soil wedge for different failure surface is plotted along a
verticallineandpressurelocusisdrawn.
Maximumearthpressureiscalledactiveearthpressure.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Coulombtheory(1776) cohesivesoil
Active pressure
Activepressure
Failure wedge ABC is in equilibrium under W, Ca, C, P1, R

Adhesion = Unit adhesion x AB
Cohesion = Unit cohesion x BE
Active earth pressure force, P1 is the maximum value out of different failure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
surfaces.
Culman method(1875)
Weightline,AEisdrawnatangle
tothehorizontal.
LineADisdrawnatanangle
Weightofsoilwedgeisplotted
along line AE.
alonglineAE.
LinesaredrawnparalleltoAD
fromV,1,2,3,4representPfor
differentsoilwedges.
PointV,1,2,3,4arejoinedbya
P i V 1 2 3 4
j i db
curvecalledpressurelocus.
CCisthemaximumlateralpressureoractiveearthpressureforce
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Proportioningofgravityretainingwalls
0.6m
Top width of stem > 0.3m for

proper placement of concrete in
stem.
Depth
D th off foundation,
f
d ti
D below
b l
g.l > 0.6m.
Base width of wall is between
0.5 H to 0.7H.
For Rankine theory a vertical
line AB is drawn through the
heel point.
Rankine active conditions are
assumed along the vertical line
AB. This is justified if AC makes
an angle
does not intersect stem
i = angle of surcharge
To check the stability of wall, weight of soil above the heel in the zone ABC, Ws shall be
considered, Weight of concrete in stem, Wc and active earth pressure force Pa shall be
considered.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Proportioningofgravityretainingwalls
Coulombtheorydirectlygivesearthpressureonthebackfaceofwall,
weightofsoil,W
i ht f il Ws nottobeconsidered.
tt b
id d
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Proportioningofsemi gravityretaining
walls
Base width of semi gravity retaining wall is
slightly smaller than gravity retaining wall.
Rest of the design procedure is similar to
gravity retaining wall.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Proportioningofcantileverretaining
walls
Topwidthofwall>0.3m
Widthofbaseslabranges
from0.4Hto0.7H.
Widthofstematbottomis
0.1H
Thicknessofbaseslabis
0.1H
Lengthoftoeprojectionis
0.1H
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Proportioningofretainingwalls
Proportionsforstemand
baseslabaresameas
cantileverwall
il
ll
Counterforts maybe
0.3mthick
Centertocenterspacing
Center to center spacing
0.3Hto0.7H
Conterfort retainingwall
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Stabilityofretainingwalls
wt
ws
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pa =activeearthpressure
Ph
h =Pa cos
Pv =Pa sin
=slopeangle
Ws =Weightofsoilon
Weight of soil on
heelslab
Wc =Weightofwall
i l di b
includingbaseslab
l b
Wt =resultantofwall,Wc
andsoil,Ws
Pp =passiveearth
pressureatthetoesideof
the wall
thewall
FR =Basesliding
resistance
Forceresistingsliding,FR =caB +Rtan +Pp
ca =unitadhesion
B=Widthofbaseofretainingwall
R = total vertical force = Ws +W
R=totalverticalforce=W
+ Wc +P
+ Pv
=angleofwallfriction
Factorofsafetyagainstsliding,
IfFs <1.5shearkeyisprovidedatbaseofwall
y p
ThepassivepressurePp shouldnotberelied
upon.
upon
Sliding
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FFactorofsafetyagainstsliding<1.5shearkeyisprovidedbelow
t
f f t
i t lidi < 1 5 h
k i
id d b l
baseofwall
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Overturningandstabilizing
momentsaredetermined
moments
are determined
aboutpointo.
Factorofsafetyagainst
overturning,
MR
Fo =
Mo
>2.0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Overturning
PR istheresultantofPa and
Wt. PR meetsthebaseatm.
wt
Ristheresultantofallthe
verticalforcesactingatmwith
aneccentricitye.
Pressuredistributionatthe
b
baseofwallwithamaximumq
f ll ith
i
t
atthetoeandaminimumqh at
theheel.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacityfailure
Stressattoe,
qt =
V
b
6e qu
1 +
b FS
qu ultimatebearingcapacityconsideringthe
eccentricity
eccentricity
FS factor of safety
FS,factorofsafety
Stress at heel qh =
Stressatheel,
V
b
6e
1 > 0
b
i e toavoidtensioninsoile<b/6
i.e
to avoid tension in soil e < b/6
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bearingcapacityfailure
Aretainingwall
restingonmedium
t
tosoftsoilwillfail
ft il ill f il
byglobalfailure.
Slopestabilityis
analyzedbymethod
y
y
ofslices
Basefailure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
(
(Drainage)
g )
Saturation of backfill of a retaining wall is
accompanied by a substantial pore water
pressure on the back of the wall and
increases the earth pressure on wall.
Weep hole
Weephole
Itisessentialtoeliminateorreducepore
pressurebyprovidingsuitabledrainage.
Drainscollectthewaterthatentersthe
backfillanddisposesofthroughoutletsin
thewallcalledweepholes.
Verticaldrain
Drainisagradedfiltermaterialdesigned
Drain is a graded filter material designed
topreventcloggingbyfinematerials.
Presentpracticeistousegeotextiles orgeogrids.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
(
(Drainage)
g )
weep holes are usually made by

embedding
b ddi 100 mm diameter
di
pipes
i
i
in
the wall
Vertical spacing between horizontal
rows of weep holes should not exceed
15m
1.5
Weephole
Inclineddrain
Horizontal spacing in a given row

d
depends
d upon the
h provisions
ii
made
d to
direct the seepage water towards the
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
weep holes.
(
(Drainage)
g )
Horizontaldrain
CombinationofHorizontaland
inclineddrain
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Reinforcedearth
Soilcancarrycompressivestressbutitstensile
capacity is poor similar to reinforced concrete
capacityispoorsimilartoreinforcedconcrete.
Reinforcedearthtechniqueisstrengtheningof
soilbyinclusionofrods,fibers,barsornets,
lb
l
f d fb
b
metalstrips,geogrids andgeotextiles.
Thisisaoldtechniquebutstudiedsystematically
byVidal(1969).
Reinforcedearthhasseveralapplicationsand
g
g
oneamongthemisreinforcedearthretaining
walls.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
MechanicallyStabilizedwalls
Becoming more popular
Becomingmorepopular
Wallunderconstruction
Wallafterconstruction
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Typeofreinforcements Metallic
Metalstrip
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Barmat
Typeofreinforcements Ploymeric
Geogrid
Geotextile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Geogrid
P t
PartsanddimensionsofReinforcedsoilwall
d di
i
fR i f
d il ll
Design consists of verifying external and internal stability
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Atypicalsectionofwallwithgranularbackfill
p g
g
reinforcedwithmetalstripsisgiveninFigure5.
Thefollowingdataareavailable.
H =6m,b
H
6m, b =15mm,t
15 mm, t =5mm,f
5 mm, fy =240Mpa,FSfor
240 Mpa, FS for
steel=1.75,FSonsoilfriction=1.5.Theother
data are given in the figure. Spacing: h =0.6m,
dataaregiveninthefigure.Spacing:h
0.6m,
andS=1m.Checkforexternalstability?(Nov
2013)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Metalstripsb=75mm,t=5mm
h=0.6m
S=1m
6m
Backfill
= 17 kN/m3
=17kN/m
=34,
C=0
wallll
=36,c=0, =24, =18kN/m3
FoundationSoil
=36, =17kN/m3
Figure.5
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
For =36
Nq =37.75
N =56.31
Assignment4(Unit5)
1. Aboveproblem
2. Writeashortnotesonproportioningof
Write a short notes on proportioning of
retainingwalls
3 Explainculman
3.
Explain culmanss graphicalmethodwithneat
graphical method with neat
sketch
4 WriteashortnotesonCoulombearthpressure
4.
W it
h t t
C l b
th
theoryalongwithassumptions.
5. ExplainhowtodetermineRankine Activeearth
pressureforinclinedbackfill
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
UNITVI
Sheet pile walls
Sheetpilewalls
Timberingoftrenches
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
Cantilever
Cantileversheetpilesand
sheet piles and
AnchoredSheetpiles
DeterminationofDepthofembedmentin
i i
f
h f
b d
i
sandsandclays
Timberingoftrenches
Earthpressurediagrams
p
g
Forcesinstruts.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Sheetpilewalls
Introduction
d
Sheet
Sheetpilewallsareretainingwallsconstructedto
pile walls are retaining walls constructed to
retainearth,wateroranyotherfillmaterial.
Thesewallsarethinnerinsectioncomparedto
These walls are thinner in section compared to
masonrywalls.
Usesofsheetpilewall
Uses of sheet pile wall
Waterfrontstructures,forexample,inbuilding
wharfs,quays,andpiers
Buildingdiversiondams,suchascofferdams
Riverbankprotection
Retainingthesidesofcutsmadeinearth
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofsheetpilewalls
Earthretention
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofsheetpilewalls
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Waterfrontstructures,forexample,inbuildingwharfs,quays,andpiers
Useofsheetpilewalls
Buildingdiversiondams,
B
ildi di
i d
suchascofferdams
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofsheetpilewalls
RiverBankprotection
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofsheetpilewalls
RiverBankprotection
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofsheetpilewalls
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Useofsheetpilewalls
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Classification based on materials

Classificationbasedonmaterials
Timber
Reinforcedconcrete
Steel
S l
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Timbersheetpilewalls
Timber piling is used for short spans and to resist light lateral loads.
loads
Usedfortemporarystructuressuchasbracedsheetingincuts.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Timbersheetpilewalls
Foruseinpermanentstructuresabovethewaterlevel,
properpreservativetreatmentisnecessary.
Theyhaveshortlife.
Timbersheetpilesarejoinedtoeachotherbytongue
Ti b h t il
j i dt
h th b t
andgroovejoints.
Timberpilesarenotsuitablefordrivinginsoilsconsisting
Timber piles are not suitable for driving in soils consisting
ofstonesastheydislodgethejoints.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Concretesheetpilewalls
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Flatsheetpile
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Corrugatedsheetpile
Tongueandgroovejoint
Reinforced concrete sheet piles are precast concrete members

Thesepilesarerelativelyheavyandbulkyandtheydisplacelarge
volumesofsolidduringdriving.Increasesdrivingresistance.
Designofpilesshalltakeintoaccountthelargedrivingstresses
andsuitablereinforcementhastobeprovidedforthispurpose.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steelsheetpilewalls
Straightsheetpiling
Shallowarchwebpiling
Zpile
Archwebpiling
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steelsheetpiles
Archwebpiles
p
Shallowarchpiles
Steel sheet piles are available in the market in several shapes.
To resist large bending moments archweb and Zpiles are used.
When bending moments are less, shallowarch piles with smaller section moduli
can be used.
Ballandsocket type of joints offer less driving resistance than the thumband
finger joints
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steelsheetpilewalls
Ballandsocket
B
ll d
k t
interlock
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Hookandgripsheetinterlock
Steelsheetpilewalls
Most common types of sheet piles are steel
sheet piles. They have several advantages over
the other types.
types
Lighter in section
Resistant to high driving stresses as developed in
hard or rocky material
Can be used several times
Can be used either below or above water and
possess longer life.
Suitable joints which do not deform during driving
can be provided to have a continuous wall.
Pile length can be increased either by welding or
bolting
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cantileversheetpilewall
Sheetpilesfixedatbottomand
Sh
il fi d b
d
freetorotateattoparecalled
cantileversheetpiles.
Acquiresstabilitydueto
embedmentintothesoilbelowthe
dredge line
dredgeline.
Thesepilesareeconomicalonlyformoderatewallheights,sincethe
requiredsectionmodulusincreasesrapidlywithanincreaseinwall
height,asthebendingmomentincreases.
g ,
g
Lateraldeflectionofthistypeofwallisbecauseofthecantilever
action,willberelativelylarge.
Erosionandscourinfrontofthewall,i.e.,loweringthedredgeline,
Erosion and scour in front of the wall i e lowering the dredge line
shouldbecontrolledsincestabilityofthewalldependsonthepassive
pressureinfrontofthewall. Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cantilever sheet pile wall

Cantileversheetpilewall
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Sheetpilestructures
Anchored bulk heads are
held in place by anchors
attached with anchor rods
buried in the backfill at a
considerable distance.
Used for dock and harbor
structures.
structures
Use of an anchor rod tends
to
reduce
the
lateral
deflection,
the
bending
moment and the depth of the
penetration of the pile. Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Anchoredsheetpilewall
Freecantileversheetpilewall
Pp
Pa
b
c
Sheetpile
subjectedto
P
Pa
Pp
=kka D
=kp D
p
Activeandpassive
pressureson
sheetpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
K=kp ka
Netpressure
b
c
Areabcef iscommon
Netpressure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Netpressuresimplified
Depthofembedment,Disdetermined
Depth
of embedment D is determined
fromtwoequilibriumequations
H = 0
1
1
P kD 2 + 2Dk h = 0
2
2
Determineh
M
t about
b t base
b
=0
Moments
D
1
2
P ( H + D) kD +
2
3
1
h
2Dk h = 0
2
3
c
d
f
Substitutehinaboveeqn.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Fourth degree equation in D is
FourthdegreeequationinDis
D 4 + C1 D 2 + C 2 D + C3 = 0
D value obtained is increased by 20 to 40%

Dvalueobtainedisincreasedby20to40%
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bendingmomentismaximumatpointfat
depth x below point a
depthxbelowpointa
P=
1
k x 2 x =
2
2P
k
x
f
1
Maximum Bending moment = P ( H + x) k x 3
6
b
c
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cantileversheetpilewallsinsandysoil
Watertableisatgreatdepth
Pa1
Pp1
Pa2
Pp2
F
Sheetpilewall
Sh
t il
ll
supportingsandy
soil
Activeandpassive
Active
and passive
pressureson
sheetpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Netpressure
AreaGOEFiscommon
pa =ka H
AreaGOEFiscommon
Netpressure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
pp =k
k D0
pp =kkp H+k
H + k D
D
1)Atpoint,OPassivepressure=
Activepressure
Determiney0
Pa
y
J
2) H = 0
Pa areaofFig.BAOJ
1
1
Pa kD0 D0 + p p + p p h = 0
2
2
ExpresshintermsofD0
3) Moment about base of pile = 0
D
1
Pa ( y + D0 ) kD0 D0 0 +
2
3
1
h
(pp + pp) h = 0
2
3
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Substitutehobtainedinstep2instep3.DetermineD0,depthofembedment,D=D0 +y0
g
p
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
g
p
Equationissolvedbytrailand
error.Obtaineddepth,Dmaybe
increasedby20to40%.
MaximumBendingMoment
MaxB.Moccursatapointof
zeroshearatdepthx,below
point o
point
o.
1
Pa = kx 2 x =
2
2 Pa
k
Maximumbendingmoment=Mmax
1 3
Pa ( y + x) kx
6
M max
SectionModulus,Zs =fb =allowableflexuralstressofsheetpile
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
fb
g
p
Fourthorderdegreeequation
isquitelaborious.
Passiveearthpressure,is
replacedbyconcentratedforce
R.
Actualpressurediagram
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Assumedsimplified
g
p
Takingmomentofforcesabout
baseofsheetpilewall,
p
,
where
substituteandresultingeqn.is
SolveforDandincreaseby20%
Assumedsimplified
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Watertableisatshallowdepth
p1 = k a h1
p a = k a h1 + k a b h2
y0 isdepthbelowdredge
l l h
levelwherenetpressure=0
t
0
p p = k p D0
p p = k p (h1 + b h2 ) + kD
Pa areaofFig.BAJO
y PointofapplicationofPa
Take H = 0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Watertableisatshallowdepth
p
Passivepressureatpointo
Depthofembedmentcanbedeterminedbysolvingaboveequationandmaximum
Depth
of embedment can be determined by solving above equation and maximum
bendingmomentiscalculated.
DepthDcomputedshouldbeincreasedby20to40percent.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FreeStandingCantileverSheetPileWall
g y
PenetratingClay
p = 4c = 2 q u
p = 4c = 2qu
qu unconfinedcompressivestrength
H = 0
1
P 2qu D + 4q u h = 0
2
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
P
= Depth to po int of zero shear
2q u
FreeStandingCantileverSheetPileWall
PenetratingClay
g y
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cantileverwallsincohesivesoil
Activeearthpressure,
p
,
pa atadepthzis
p a = k a z 2c k a
=0
=0
Passivepressure,pp at
adepthyis
p p = k p z + 2c k a
Activeearthpressure,p
p
, pa
actingtoleftatdepthHis
p a = k a H 2c k a
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
= 0, p a = H 2c
p a = H qu
qu =Unconfined
compressivestrength
Passivepressureacting
P
i
i
towardsrightsideatdredge
level
p p = 2c = qu
Netpressuretowardsright
Net
pressure towards right
atdredgelevel
q n = qu (H qu ) = 2qu H
Netpressuretowardsrightat
dredgelevelatdepthy
q n = p p p a = y + 2c ( ( H + y ) 2c)
q n = 2qu H
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pressureremainsconstant
atalldepth
Passivepressuredeveloped
Passive
pressure developed
onbackfillsidetowardsright
Atbottomofwall
p p = H + D + 2c
p a = D 2c
p n = H + 4c = H + 2qu
H = 0
1
4q u h = 0
2
(2qu H ) D Pa
h=
2qu
Pa (2qu H ) D +
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FForequilibrium,moments
ilib i
aboutbaseshouldbezero
Pa ( y + D) (2qu H ) D
D
+
2
h
1
4q u h = 0
2
3
Substitutinghinabove
equation
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Dobtainedfromabove
D
obtained from above
equationisincreasedby20
to40%
Maximumbendingmoment
occurswithinthedepthDh
below dredge level.
belowdredgelevel.
Letbethedepthbelow
dredgelevelwhereshearforce
iszero
Pa
Pa y 0 p = 0 y 0 =
p
M max = Pa ( y + y 0 ) p y 0
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Furthersectionmodulus
isdetermined.
y0
2
BackfillisSandwithWaterTableatGreatDepth
p
p a = k a H
actingtowardsleftatH/3from
acting
towards left at H/3 from
dredgelevel
Netpressureatbaseofwall
actingtowardsright
d
h
p = p p p a = 2c (H 2c)
= 2qu H
Thisremainsconstantalong
depth D
depthD
Netpressureatbaseofwallacting
towardsleft
p = p p p a = ( H + D) + 2c (D 2c)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
= H + 2qu
Backfill is Sand with Water Table above dredge line
BackfillisSandwithWaterTableabovedredgeline
p1 = k a h1
p a = k a h1 + k a b h2
p = 2c (H 2c) = 2qu H
p = (H + D + 2c) (D 2c)
= 2qu + H
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Thefigure4belowshowsacantileverwall
penetrating a clayey soil Here L1 =3m,L
penetratingaclayeysoil.HereL
= 3m L2 =5m,
= 5m
=16kN/m3,sat =18kN/m3 andC=35kN/m2 and
=30
30.Drawthepressuredistributionforsheet
Draw the pressure distribution for sheet
pilewall(Nov/Dec2012).
Theheightofacantileversheetpilefromthetop
The height of a cantilever sheet pile from the top
ofthedredgelevelis9m.Thewaterlevelinthe
p
p
backfillisat2mfromtop.Findthedepthof
penetrationrequiredforafactorofsafetyequal
to1.Assumethatabovethewatertable,thesoil
isdry.Theotherpropertiesofsoilare:
f
sat =20
kN/m3,Ka =0.33,Kp =3.0,Gs=2.6.(June2010,Set
4)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Figure4
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Acantileversheetpileistobeconstructedto
retain sandy soil to a depth of 6m The dry unit
retainsandysoiltoadepthof6m.Thedryunit
weightofsandis16kN/m3 andthesaturated
unit weight is 20 kN/m3.Theangleofshearing
unitweightis20kN/m
. The angle of shearing
resistanceofsandis32.Thewaterlevelis3m
abovethedredgelinecomputethedepthof
g
p
p
embedmentofthesheetpile(June2010Set3).
ComputetheembedmentlengthDofthesheet
p
g
pilewallinagranularsoiltoretaingranularsoil
of6mhighononesidewithunitweightof
20kN/m
k / 33 andangleofshearingresistanceof30
d
l f h
f 0.
Watertableisatadepthof3mfromthetopof
sheet pile (NOV/DEC 2009)
sheetpile(NOV/DEC2009).
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
7 a) Fig.7 shows a cantilever sheet pile wall penetrating a granular

soil. What is the theoretical depth
p of embedment?
b) What should be the minimum section modulus of the sheet piles
for the Fig.7 shown below. Assume all = 172 MN/m2.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
AnchoredSheetpilewall
Th
Thesesheetpilesarestableduetopassiveforce
h t il
t bl d t
i f
andanchorforce.
Depthofembedmentisless.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Anchoredsheetpile
Deflectioncurve
Deflection
curve
changesitscurvatureat
point,I
Freeend
Fixedend
Fixedearthsupportmethod
Freeearthsupportmethod
pp
Soil into which sheet pile is driven
Lower end B is simply supported and
exerts a large restraint on lower part of
soil into which sheet pile is driven
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
sheet pile causes change of curvature
does not produce effective restraint
Cohesionlesssoil
1) p1 =ka h
2) Atpoint0pn =0
ka (h+a) kp a=0
ka h
a=
k p ka
3)AtpointA,pn =kp (a+b) Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ka (h+a+b) pn =k b
Cohesionlesssoil
4)H=0,P1 P2 T=0 P2 =
1
kb 2
2
5) Momentaboutanchorrod=0
x
P1(h+aeZ1) P2 (h+ae+2b/3)=0
Fromstep4and5determinedepthof
embedment d and force in anchor rod
embedment,dandforceinanchorrod
6)Maximumbendingmomentoccursbetweenpoint
)
Manddredgelevel,whereshearforceiszero
1
k a x 2 T = 0,wherexisdistanceofpointfromtopof
2
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
backfillwhereshearforceiszero
Cohesivesoil
Atdredgelevel,infrontofsheetpile
pn =pp pa =2c ( h 2c)=4c h
AtpointA
p
pn =pp pa =(2c+ d)
( h+
h + d
d 2c)=4c
2c) = 4c h
H=0 P1 P2 T=0
Momentaboutanchorrod=0
P1 xf P2 x(h+d/2e)=0
SolvefordandT
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Determine
the
depth
of
embedment of
the
anchored
sheet
pile
shown in Figure.
D
Determine
i force
f
in anchor per
meter of wall.
Assume
free
earth support
condition
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
pp
h
h
Deflectioncurve
changesits
g
curvatureatpoint,I
d
Fixedend
NetPressurediagram
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
pp
h
NetPressurediagram
SimplifiednetPressure
Simplified
net Pressure
diagram
Equivalent
beam
beam
method
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Lowerportionofpressurediagramisreplacedbyconcentratedforce,R
k atpointk
Bending
moment
moment
Diagram
pp
Exactanalysisofanchoredsheetpilebyfixedearth
method is complicated
methodiscomplicated.
Equivalentbeammethodisused Sheetpileissimply
supported at anchor point, M and fixed at lower end, K.
supportedatanchorpoint,Mandfixedatlowerend,K.
Depthofpointofinflexion,i isdeterminedfromfollowing
chart.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
pp
UpperBeamBI
Determinepressurep
p
p1 atdredge
g
level
Determineifromchart
Determineapointofzeronet
pressure
pn =k
= kp a
a ka (h+a)=0,
(h+a)=0
determinea
Determinepressureatpointof
inflexionfromrelation
ForbeamIBtakemomentsabout
point M (anchor) to determine
pointM(anchor)todetermine
reactionRI
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
pp
Beam IK
Determine pressure p2 from
relation
p2 = (kp ka) (da)
Reaction RI on lower beam,

beam IK is
equal and opposite to that acting
on beam BI.
Consider
d
moment off forces
f
acting on beam IK about k and
determine da and d.
Determine tension T in anchor

by considering equilibrium of
beam IB.
T + RI = P1
P1 total force due to pressure on IBDr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tutorial
Determine
the
h
depth
of
embedment for
the anchored
sheet
p
pile
shown
in
Figure.
Also
determine
force per meter
run
run.
Assume
fixed
end
support
conditions.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Anchoragesforbulkheads
Short
Shortconcreteblocksorcontinuousconcretebeams
concrete blocks or continuous concrete beams
knownasdeadmen oranchorsaretiedtosheetpile.
Anchorsofferpassiveresistance.
p
Waleisabeamplacedatfrontorback
sideofsheetpileattachedtothe
anchoredbeamorblockwithanchor
rod.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Anchorblocksmaybesupportedbybatteredpiles.
Theseareemployedwhenthesoilbelowisfirmat
great depth
greatdepth.
Shortsheetpilesaredriventoformacontinuous
wall which derives its resistance from passive earth
wallwhichderivesitsresistancefrompassiveearth
pressure
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Sheetpileistiedtoalargestructure
L ti
Locationofanchor
f
h
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Noresistancefromanchor
Locationofanchor
Two sliding wedges interfere with each other.

Efficiency of anchor decreases
Full capacity of anchor will be available

if the active wedge of backfill do not interfere
with passive sliding wedge of anchor.
Deadman
D d
i located
is
l t d below
b l
li ae making
line
ki an
angle with the horizontal.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Capacityofanchor
Anchornear
ground surface
groundsurface
B>5h,Long
aanchor
c o
Sandy
soil
Clay
soil
Anchoratlarge
depth
B<5h,Short
anchor
Sandy
soil
B>5h,Long
anchor
Clay
Sandy
soil
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
soil
B<5h,Short
anchor
Clay Sandy
soil
soil
Clay
soil
Capacityofanchor
Tengg ((1962)gavethefollowingequationsforcalculatingultimate
)g
g q
g
resistanceofanchorlocatedatorneargroundsurface.
Assumedthatanchorextendstogroundsurface
B=Lengthofanchor,h=heightofanchor,H=depthofbottomof
anchorfromground
ContinuousplatesorbeamswithB
Continuous plates or beams with B 5h
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Capacityofanchor
Pl
PlatesorbeamswithB<5hatornearground
t
b
ith B < 5h t
d
surface.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Capacityofanchor
Ultimate
Ultimatecapacityofdeadman
capacity of deadman atgreatdepthbelowground
at great depth below ground
h
surfaceisequaltobearingcapacityoffootingatdepth
h+
2
Ultimatehorizontalresistanceofanchoris
CA =5.5forrectangularplate,5.4forlongplate,3.3forsquareplate
= 5 5 for rectangular plate 5 4 for long plate 3 3 for square plate
=Unitweightofsand
A=Areaofanchorplate=bh,h=heightofplate,b=widthofplate
H=Depthfromgroundsurfacetobottom
=Angleoffrictionofsoil ,
=0.31forrectangularplate,0.28forlongplate,0.39forsquare
= 0 31 for rectangular plate 0 28 for long plate 0 39 for square
plate
Horizontaldisplacement,uatanyloadlevelTis
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
BracedCuts
FForconstructionexcavationsare
t ti
ti
necessary.Theseexcavations
shallbeconstructedatsafe
h ll b
t t d t f
slopeangleifsufficientspaceis Wale
available.
il bl
Fordeepexcavationsinbuiltup
areasadequatespacemaynot
beavailableandthecostof
earthworkwillbehuge.
Excavationslaterallysupported
arecalledbracedcuts.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Sheeting
Struts
Typesofsheetingandbracingsystems
Verticaltimbersheeting
Vertical
timber
sheeting consisting of
timber planks of about 8
to 10 cm thick are
driven
around
the
boundary of excavation
to some depth below
excavation.
Soil between the sheeting is excavated. Sheeting is held in place by a system of

wales and struts.
Wales are horizontal beams running parallel to the excavation wall. Wales are
supported by horizontal struts extended from side to side of excavation.
If excavations are wide it becomes economical to support wales by inclined struts
known as rakers.
If soil can stand unsupported to a limited depth, sheeting can be installed in open
or partially completed excation.
excation
Vertical timber sheeting are economical to a depth of 4 to 6m.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steelsheetpiles
Inthismethodsteelsheet
pilesaredrivenalongthe
sides of proposed
sidesofproposed
excavation.
Asthesoilisexcavated
inside the enclosure wales
insidetheenclosurewales
andstrutsareinserted.
Walesaremadeofsteel
Strutsmaybesteelor
timber
Asexcavationproceedsanothersetofwales
A
ti
d
th
t f l andstrutsareinserted.
d t t
i
t d
Processiscontinuedtillexcavationiscompleted.
Topreventlocalheavessheetpilesaredrivenseveralmetersbelowthe
excavation
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
SoldierBeams
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
SoldiersbeamsareH
pilesdrivenata
spacingof1.5mto
2.5maroundthe
boundary of
boundaryof
excavation.
Asexcavation
proceedshorizontal
d h i
l
timberplankscalled
laggingsareplaced
betweensoldier
SoldierBeams
beams.
Asexcavationadvanceswales
A
ti
d
l andstrutsareplaced.
d t t
l d
Laggingisproperlywedgedbetweenpileflanges
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Steps involved in construction of tieback

a) Inclined Holes are drilled into soil or rock
b) Tensile reinforcement cable, Bar or tendon is inserted in the hole
c) Concrete poured for anchor
d) wall connection made
This method does not have struts or inclined rakers and no hindrance to
construction activity inside excavation
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Tieback
Slurrywall
Slurrywall/trench
Slurry trench or wall is

Trench surrounding an open
excavation filled with viscous slurry
of bentonite and water
They are useful in areas where
soft
f soilil is
i existing
i i
at ground
d
surface with high water table.
Slurryy p
produces a p
pressure that
counteracts the hydraulic pressure
from surrounding soil that would
try to collapse the trench resulting
inconvenience to construction
process.
Concretewallsareconstructedaroundtheexcavationbyplacing
reinforcementinbentonite andconcreting.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Lateralearthpressureonsheeting
Rankine andcoulombtheory
cannot be used to calculate the
cannotbeusedtocalculatethe
lateralpressureonsheetpileas
they are applicable for rigid
theyareapplicableforrigid
retainingwallsrotatingabout
base.
base.
Sheetingandbracingsystemis
flexible and rotates about top
flexibleandrotatesabouttop
ofwall.
Rotation about top
Rotationabouttop
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FFollowingapparentearthpressurediagramson
ll i
t
th
di
sheetingbasedonfieldstudiesispresentedby
Peck 1969
Peck,1969.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Homogenoussoil
Peck,1943
Peck
1943
Equivalentcohesionofsandandclaylayers
ce
[
=
2
k
H
s tan s + ( H H s ) n' q u
s s
2H
Ks lateralearthpressurecoefficient
qu unconfinedcompressivestrength
fi d
i
h
ncoefficientofprogressivefailure
Equivalentunitweight,e
e
[
s H s + ( H H s ) c ]
=
H
Anyofthediagramshownaboveisusedtodetermineearthpressure
on bracing
onbracing
Nonuniformsoil
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bracedcutpassesthrough
y y
anumberofclaylayers
Equivalentvaluesare
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Designofstruts
SStrutsshouldhaveminimumverticalspacingof2.5m.Depthof
h ld h
i i
i l
i
f25 D h f
firststrutinclaysoilshouldbebelowthedepthoftensioncrack.
Loadcarryingcapacityofstrutisdeterminedbyassumingthat
Load carrying capacity of strut is determined by assuming that
sheetpilesarehingedatstrutlevelexceptattopandbottom.
Spanad
Md =0,DetermineR1
H=0,DetermineR2
Spandf
Mf =0,DetermineR2
H=0,DetermineR3
R2 =R
= R2 +R
+ R2
Strutload,P1 =R1 xS,P2 =R2 xSwhereSishorizontalspacing
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
SuitablesectionsofstrutsaredesignedtocarryloadP
1, P2 .
Designofwales
Walesarehorizontalbeamspinnedatstrutlevel.
Maximumbendingmomentwilldependonstrut
loadandspan,S.
R1 S 2
For top wale M max =
Fortopwale
8
R1 S 2
Forsecondwale M max =
8
Sectionmodulus,z=
M max
all
Sheetpiledesign: Anappropriatesectionis
identifiedforthesheetpilebasedonthe
p
maximumbendingmomet andallowable
bendingstress.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Otheraspectsofdesignofbracedcuts
Incaseofclaythebottomofthecutmayheave
yp
g p yp
andisatypeofbearingcapacityproblem.
Insandheavingfailuremaynotoccur.Butthereis
upward seepage of water into the cut if water
upwardseepageofwaterintothecutifwater
levelssurroundingarelarger.
Bracedcutmayyieldlaterallyandcauseground
Braced cut may yield laterally and cause ground
settlementinthesurroundingarea.Thisshould
be carefully assessed and suitable measures
becarefullyassessedandsuitablemeasures
adopted.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ASSIGNMENTQUESTIONS
1. How do yyou design
g the bulkheads byy free earth support
pp
method?
yp of sheetings
g and bracingg
2. What are the different types
systems for braced cuts and describe them?
3. The height of a cantilever sheet pile from the top of the
dredge level is 9m. The water level in the backfill is at
2m from top. Find the depth of penetration required for
a factor
f t off safety
f t equall to
t 1.
1 Assume
A
th t above
that
b
th
the
water table, the soil is dry. The other properties of soil
are: sat = 20 kN/m3,
kN/m3 Ka =0.33,
=0 33 Kp = 3.0,
3 0 Gs = 2.6.
26
4. Discuss the procedure for checking the stability of a
cantilever sheet pile wall.
5. Discuss various methods
for providing anchors for a
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
sheet pile wall.
UnitVII
Caissons
WellFoundations
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
Caissonsandwellfoundations:
Types of caissons
Typesofcaissons
Wellfoundations
Differentshapesofwellfoundation
Componentsofwellfoundations
Functionsanddesign
Design criteria
Designcriteria
Sinkingofwells
LateralstabilitybyTerzaghi analysis
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Caissonsorwellfoundations
Pier
Well
foundation
Cofferdam
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Caissonsorwellfoundations
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Bridge
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Bridge
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Bridge
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Bridge
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Bridge
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Bridge
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Bridge
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Cofferdam
cofferdamisdefinedasatemporarystructurewhichisconstructedsoas
toremovewaterand/orsoilfromenclosedareaandmakeitpossibleto
d/
il f
l d
d
k i
ibl
carryontheconstructionworkunderreasonablydrycondition.
Typesofcofferdam
yp
Earthembankmentcofferdam
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Singlesheetpilewallcofferdam
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Embankmenttype
cofferdamforconstruction
ofearthdam
Cofferdam
Water
body
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Cofferdam
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CellularCofferdam
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Caisson
C
CaissonisderivedfromaFrenchword,Caisse,
i
i d i df
F
h
d C i
meaningahollowbox.
Atypeoffoundationforbridgepiersand
abutments,concretedamorforrepairofships.
Itisbuiltabovethegroundlevelandsunkinto
thehardstratatotherequireddepthasasingle
unit.
Constructioncostislargeandrestrictedtomajor
Co st uct o cost s a ge a d est cted to ajo
foundationworks
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Caissons
Caissonsareadvantageouscomparedwithpile
g
foundationsunderfollowingconditions
Soilcontainslargeboulderswhichobstructthe
penetrationofpiles.
Massivesubstructurerequiredtoextendbelowriver
bedtoresistdestructiveforcesduetoscourand
floatingobjects.
Largemagnitudesoflateralforcesareexpected.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
TypesofCaisson
B
Basedonmaterial:Timber,steelandconcrete
d
t i l Ti b
t l d
t
arematerialsusedforconstructionofcaisson.
Timberhaslimitedusecomparedwithsteeland
Ti b h li it d
d ith t l d
reinforcedConcrete.
Opencaisson(Wellfoundation) Openattopand
bottom
Pneumaticcaisson Closedattopandopenat
bottom
FloatingcaissonorBoxcaissons Openattopbut
closed at bottom
closedatbottom
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Bedofriver
OpenCaissonorwellfoundation
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ConstructionofwellfoundationoropenCaisson
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Bed
Bed
OpenCaisson
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Opencaisson
Bedofriver
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Opencaisson
Caisson penetration is done

in dry or from dewatered
construction area or by
forming a sand Island.
Island should be sufficient to
provide adequate working
space
p
around the caisson
Open caisson is a hollow
chamber open at top and
b tt
bottom
Bottom of the caisson has a
steel cuttingg edge
g to assist in
Clamshellexcavatorconnectedto
sinking.
crane
Sinking into place by
removing
i
soilil from
f
i id
inside
the shaft until a bearing
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
stratum is reached.
Caissonsinking
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Opencaisson
Incaseitisnotpossibletosinkthecaissonindry,itis
constructedinslipwaysorshipsandfloatedtoitsfinal
t t d i li
hi
d fl t d t it fi l
position.
Incaseofsoftclaysandgrounddoesnotcontainlarge
In case of soft cla s and gro nd does not contain large
obstructionscaissonsaresunkbyitsownweight whenthe
soil is excavated by grab buckets fromdredgingwell.
soilisexcavatedbygrabbuckets
from dredging well
Assinkingprogresses,additionallifts ofcaissonsteining are
constructed.
Whenhardmaterialisencounteredchiselingorunder
waterblastingg isnecessary.
y
Sinkingoperationisstoppedduringtheperiodof
concretingforthecastingliftandcuring.
Tofacilitatesinking,theexteriorsurfaceofcaissonis
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appliedwithafilmofgrease
orwaterjets used.
Opencaisson
Diameterofcuttingshoeis
iameter of cutting shoe is
generallywiderthancaisson
toreducethefriction.
Whenthecaissonreaches
When the caisson reaches
finaldepth,bottomisplugged
withconcretesealbytremie
pipe (concrete is placed below
pipe(concreteisplacedbelow
waterwithapipe).
Thicknessofconcreteseal
mayrangefrom1.5to4.5m
f
15t 45
Caissonissinkvertically.
Incaseitisinclined,corrective
Incase it is inclined, corrective
measuresareadopted.
Feasibletoextendtolarge
depths and cost of
depthsandcostof
constructionisless
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DisadvantagesofOpenCaissons
Bottomofcaissoncannotbe
Bottom of caisson can not be
Pipeisalways
belowtheconcrete inspectedandthoroughly
cleaned.
Concretesealisplacedinwater
andmaynotbesatisfactory.
Diversareusedforexcavation.
Di
df
ti
Tremie pipe
Obstructions of boulders and

Obstructionsofbouldersand
logsslowdownthework
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pneumaticcaisson
If the soil enclosed in an open caisson
can not be excavated satisfactorily
through its shaft pneumatic caisson is
required. It is also necessary when
there
h
i great influx
is
i fl off water.
It is an inverted box with bottom
open.
Similar to open caisson with few
exceptions below:
Working Chamber
Ithasaairtightsteelworking
chamberof3mheightatbottom.
AirpressureintheChamberisraised
p
aboveatmosphericandiskeptata
certainspecifiedvaluetoprevent
entryofwaterandsoilintoit.
Thepressureofcompressedairvaries
withthedepthatwhichexcavationis
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proceedingatanytime.
Pneumaticcaisson
Walls of the chamber should be
thick and leaf proof.
Outside surface is made smooth
to reduce friction.
Cutting edge is provided at
bottom
to
facilitate
penetration/sinking process.
The compressed air pressure
should be sufficient to balance full
hydrostatic
y
pressure outside so
p
that the excavation is done in dry.
This air pressure is limited to 400
kN/
kN/sq.m
i the
i.e.
th maximum
i
d th
depth
of water through which pnuematic
caission is sunk is 40m. If pressure
exceeds 40m it causes Caisson
Sickness.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pneumaticcaisson
AirShaft:
SteelVerticalpassagewhich
l
l
h h
connectsworkingchamberandair
lockattop.Itisusedfortransport
ofexcavatedmaterialtoground
surfaceandaccessforworkmento
thechamber.
Inlargecaissonstwoseparate
shaftsareprovidedformenand
material.
Shaftsaremadeofsteelwithjoints
oftubemadeofleakproofwith
rubber gaskets
rubbergaskets.
Airshaftisextendedtokeeptheair
lockabovewaterlevelasthe
caissonsinksandduringsinking
k
dd
k
processworkingchamberisclosed
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
byagateatlowerendofshaft.
Pneumaticcaisson
Airlock:
Itisasteelchamberprovidinganair
locktopermittheworkmanand
materialstogoinortocomeoutof
caissonwithoutreleasingtheair
pressureincaisson.
Providedabovewaterlevel.
P id d b
l l
Airlockhastwodoorsoneintothe
shaft and other to the outside
shaftandothertotheoutside
atmosphere.
Whenaworkmanenterstheairlock
throughtheoutsidedoorthepressure
inthechamberiskeptatatmospheric
value.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pneumaticcaisson
Pressureinairlockisgraduallyraisedtill
g
y
itbecomesequaltothatintheworking
chamber,andtheworkmanallowedto
enter the airshaft through the door to it,
entertheairshaftthroughthedoortoit,
andtodescendintotheworking
chamber.
Procedureisreversedwhenworkmen
P
d
i
d h
k
hastocomeout.
p
However,thepressureisdecreased
muchslowlytopreventcaissondisease.
Minimumhalfanhourisnecessaryfor
the pressure to be reduced from 300
thepressuretobereducedfrom300
kN/m2 toatmosphericpressure.
Topreventtheairintheworking
chambertobecomestale,freshairis
circulatedbyopeningvalveinairlock.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pneumaticcaisson
Workers should not be kept
more than two hours in
working chamber.
Pressure
P
i the
in
th working
ki
chamber is applied by
compressed
air
by
attaching
tt hi
pipe
i
t
to
th
the
compressor.
The valve in the blow out
pipe is opened for blowing
of soil in granular soils.
After reaching the designed
depth steel chamber is
filled with concrete and the
shaft with lean mix.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Compressor
Material
Shaft
Ladderfor
Labour
Working
Chamber
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PneumaticCaisson
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PneumaticCaisson
AdvantagesofPneumaticcaisson
Better
Bettercontrolonworksinceallworkisdoneindry
control on work since all work is done in dry
condition.
Visualinspectionofbottomofcaissonhelpstoremove
p
p
bouldersorlogs.
Concreteplacedinthedryconditionattainsbetter
quality.
quality
Pneumaticcaissonisconstructedtoplumbthanthe
other types of caisson.
othertypesofcaisson.
Soilisinspected,samplestakenandbearingcapacityis
determinedreliably.
Watertableisnotloweredandhencenosettlementof
adjoiningstructures.
Largedepthoffoundationisfeasiblethroughdifficult
Large depth of foundation is feasible through difficult
strata.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DisadvantagesofPneumaticcaisson
Pneumatic
PneumaticCaissonsishighlyexpensiveusedonly
Caissons is highly expensive used only
whenothertypesofcaissonsarenotfeasible.
Depthofpenetrationislimitedto30mto40m
Depth of penetration is limited to 30 m to 40 m
belowwatertable.
Laborworkingundercompressedairpressure
L b
ki
d
d i
willhaveinconvenienceandsubjectedtocaisson
sickness.
i k
Extremecareisrequiredandanyslackness
resultsinaccident.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FloatingcaissonorBoxCaisson
Prefabricated box (has sides
and bottom) constructed on
land and transported to the
site and floated to the place
where they are to be installed.
Preferred if the bearing
capacity at bed level is high.
They are sunk at the site by
filling them with sand,
sand ballast,
ballast
water or concrete to a levelled
bearing surface to become a
partt off permanentt works,
k such
h
as foundation for bridge pier.
Caisson are installed with
pinpoint
accuracy
with
anchoring system and GPSDr.PVSNPavanKumar
survey
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ConstructionandsinkingofboxorfloatingCaisson
Floatingorboxcaisson
Unlike
UnlikeopenandPneumatic
open and Pneumatic
Caissons,afloatingcaisson
doesnotpenetratethesoil.
Theyrestonhardandlevel
Th
h d dl l
surface.
Load
Loadcarrying
carryingcapacity
capacity
dependssolelyonthe
resistanceatthebaseas
th
thereisnofrictional
i
f i ti
l
resistanceatthesides.
Aconcretecapiscastonits
A concrete cap is cast on its
toptoreceivetheloads
fromthesuperstructure.
Topreventscour,riprapis
placedaroundthebase.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Floating caisson or Box Caisson

FloatingcaissonorBoxCaisson
Floating
FloatingcaissonscanbeRCCorsteelof
caissons can be RCC or steel of
circular,square,rectangularorellipticalshape.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Stabilityaspectoffloatingcaisson
W=Weightofcaissonactsthroughcenterofgravity,G
U=Buoyancyforceactsthroughcenterofgravityofdisplacedwater,B
Forequilibriumweightofcaissonmustbeequaltobuoyancyforce.
Ifthecaissonistiltedthroughasmallangle,thecentreofgravityof
If
the caisson is tilted through a small angle the centre of gravity of
thebody,G,remainsatthesamelocation.whilethecentreof
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buoyancy,B,changesitsposition
StabilityoffloatingCaisson
P
Pointofintersectionoftheverticallinepassing
i t fi t
ti
f th
ti l li
i
throughBandthecentrelineofthecaissonis
k
knownasthemetacentre,M.
th
t
t M
Caissonwouldbestableifthemetacentre Mis
aboveG.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Advantagesoffloatingcaisson
Floatingcaissonsareprecaststructuresandgood
qualityismaintained.
Installationisquickandconvenient.
Lessexpensivethanothertypes;theyarealso
transportedatalowcostbyfloating.
Di d t
Disadvantgaes
Foundationbedistobelevelled beforeinstallingthe
caisson.
Baseofthecaissonmustbeprotectedagainstscour.
Loadcarryingcapacityissmallerthanthatofother
typesofcomparablesize.
suitableonlyifagoodsupportingstratumisavailableat
shallowelevation
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Designaspectsofcaisson Shape
Caissons are constructed straight with vertical
sides. Following are different shapes of caisson
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Designaspectsofcaisson Loads
Permanentloads:Caissonssunkwillbesubjected
Permanent
loads: Caissons sunk will be subjected
verticalandhorizontalloads.
Verticalloadsareduetoloadsfromsuper
V ti l l d
d t l d f
structure,selfweightofcaissonminusbuoyancy
f
forceatlowwaterlevel.
tl
t l l
Caissonwillbesubjectedtohorizontalloaddueto
earthpressure,waterpressure,andwindpressure,
earthquakeforces,wavePressure,Tractive forces
fromtraffic,icepressureandforcesofwaterflow.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Designaspectsofcaisson Allowablebearing
pressure
Netallowablebearingpressure,qna,foraCaissonin
cohesionless soilisobtainedas
qna =0.22N2BR +0.67(100+N2)Df Rq
B=SmallerdimensionoftheCaisson,m
Df =DepthofFoundationbelowscourlevel,m
N=Standardpenetrationnumber(corrected)
R andRq =CorrectionFactorsforWaterTable
y, qult=cNc
Inclay,q
AllowablebearingpressureofCaissonsrestingonRock
shouldnotexceedcompressivestrengthofconcreteseal
andlimitedto3,500kN/m2.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DesignaspectsofCaisson Skinfrictionandsinking
effort
SkinFrictionistheshearingresistancebetween
thesoilandtheexteriorsurfaceoftheCaisson.
Tofacilitatethesinkingcaissonsisdesignedto
g
havesufficientweightineachlifttoovercome
skinfriction.
Ifselfweightisnotadequate,additionalballast,
If self weight is not adequate additional ballast
knownasSinkingEffortisnecessarytosinkthe
Caisson Use of water jets on the sides and
Caisson.Useofwaterjetsonthesidesand
injectionofbentonite solutionontotheexterior
of the well reduces skin friction
ofthewellreducesskinfriction.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DesignaspectsofCaisson Skinfrictionand
sinkingeffort
Selfweightofwell=Forceduetoskinfriction
(
D
4
2
e
Di D c = fDe D
2
WhereDe andDi =Externalandinternaldiameter

D=Depthofpenetration,
c =Unitweightofcaissonmaterial
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
f=Unitskinfriction
DesignaspectsofCaisson ConcreteSeal
Thickconcretelayerisplacedatbottomtoplug.
Concretesealservestosealofftheinflowofwater.It
formsapermanentbase.
Sealisdesignedasathickplatesubjectedtouniform
pressure.
Thicknessoftheconcreteseal,t
Circular
Rectangular
Di =Internaldiameter
Li,Bi =Internallengthandbreadthofcaisson,=Bi/Li
q=netupwardpressureontheseal=(wH ct)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
c =allowableflexuralstressforconcrete (3,500kN/m2)
Stability against buoyancy

Stabilityagainstbuoyancy
Totaldownwardforce
Total
downward force BuoyancyForce
Buoyancy Force
Totaldownwardforce=Weightofcaisson+
Weight of seal Skinfrictionforce
Weightofseal
Skin friction force
Forceofbuoyancy=wH xsubmergedareaof
caisson
i
Ifnecessarythicknessofconcretesealistobe
increased.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
DesignofaspectsCaisson Cuttingedge
Lowerendsofthecaissonare
provided with cutting edge with
providedwithcuttingedgewith
bevelinside.Thicknessreduces
from1000mmto450mmatthe
bottom.
Insidebevelisusuallymadetwo
vertical to one horizontal
verticaltoonehorizontal.
Cuttingedgeprotectsthewallsof
thecaissonagainstimpactand
obstaclesencounteredduring
penetration.
Cuttingedgeisusuallymadeof
Cutting edge is usually made of
anglesandplatesofstructuralsteel
orreinforcedconcreteandsteel.
Sharpedgesareeasilydamaged,
bluntedgesaremorecommonly
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
used.
Tutorial
Determinethecrosssectionaldimensionsofa
cylindricalopencaissontobesunkthrough33m
ofsandandwatertobedrockiftheallowable
bearingpressureis1800kN/m2.Thecaissonhas
tosupportaloadof55MNfromthe
superstructure.Testthefeasibilityofsinkingifthe
skinfrictionis30kN/m2.Alsocalculatethe
necessarythicknessoftheseal.(AssumeDi =
De/2)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Well Foundations
WellFoundations
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Deep foundation originated in India used from
hundreds of years below water level for monuments,
bridges.
Taj Mahal at Agra has got well foundation.
p
is similar to open
p caisson.
Construction and operation
They are monolithic and massive foundations.
Well foundations are constructed on dry bed or on
artificial island.
When depth of water is greater than 5m to 6m and
velocity
l it off flow
fl
i large,
is
l
wellll foundations
f
d ti
are
fabricated on river bank and floated to the final
position and grounded.
grounded
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Advantagesofwellfoundation
Followingareadvantagesoverpilefoundation
wellfoundationcanbetterwithstandlargelateral
loadsandmoments.
nodangerofdamagetoadjacentstructuressince
sinkingofawelldoesnotcauseanyvibrations.
i ki
f
ll d
ib i
depthcanbedecidedassinkingprogressessincethe
natureofthestratacanbeinspected.
t
f th t t
b i
t d
effectofscourcanbebetterwithstoodbyawell
foundation because of its large cross sectional area
foundationbecauseofitslargecrosssectionalarea
andrigidity.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Partsofwellfoundations
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Angleiron withsharpandstrongcuttingedge
facilitatessinkingofwell
Wallsofwellareknownassteining. Constructed
of brick or stone masonary, PCC or RCC and it
ofbrickorstonemasonary,PCCorRCCandit
formsapartofthestructuredesignedtocarry
imposed loads and also heavy enough to resist
imposedloadsandalsoheavyenoughtoresist
frictionalresistanceduringsinking.Thickness
e a s sa e t oug out t e dept
remainssamethroughoutthedepth.
TaperedportionmadeofRCCabovethecutting
edge and below steining iswellcurb.Designedto
edgeandbelowsteining
is well curb Designed to
carrystressesduringsinking.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Afterthewellreachesfinalposition(firm
stratum)athicklayerofconcreteisprovidedat
bottomknownasbottomplug. Thisserveasbase
ofwellfoundation.Meanttodistributeloadover
largearea.Omittedwhenwellrestsonhard
strata.
Afterreachingdesireddepthwellispartlyor
completelyfilledwithsand.This
co
p ete y ed t sa d. s sa
sandfilling
d
g
servestodistributetheloadmoreuniformlyto
,
thebaseofthewell,toreducethestressesinthe
steining.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Sandfilling increasestressatbottomofwell
foundation.
Attopofwell,topplug ofPCCisformed.
Wellcap
Well cap transferstheloadfrompier/abutment
transfers the load from pier /abutment
tothesteining ofwell.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Shapesofwells
Each shape
p has merits
and demerits depending
their structural strength,
ease of sinking,
sinking tilting and
accommodating long pier
etc.
Circular section is most
ideal from sinking and skin
friction is lowest as it has
least surface area for a
given cross section. It
offers least resistance
against tilting.
Square and rectangular
sections
offer
better
lateral stability.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellswithmultipledredgeholes
Shapesofwells
4B
4B
Directionofflowofwater
Large diameter of circular well is required to accommodate full

length of pier which makes circular well uneconomical and the
large diameter circular wells increase the obstruction to flow of
water.
water
In such case rectangular, twin circular, twinhexagonal, twin
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
octogonal, or doubleD section is used to advantage.
Shapesofwells
Si
Singlecircularwellsaremostcommonlyusedas
l i l
ll
t
l
d
theyhavehighstructuralstrengthandconvenientin
sinking.Forlongpierstheyareuneconomicaland
i ki F l
i th
i l d
maximumdiameterlimitedto9m.
DoubleDwells areusedtoaccommodatelong
piersandabutmentswhicharetoolongto
accommodateoncircularwellsof9mdia.The
bendingstressesdevelopedarelarge,square
cornersoffergreaterresistancetosinking.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Designaspectsofwellfoundation
Griplengthisthedepthofbottomofwellbelow
scourlevel.Sufficientdepthbelowthescour
levelisrequiredsuchthatthepassiveresistance
fromthebedsoilresiststhelateralforcesacting
on the well
onthewell.
Depthoffoundationshouldbechosen
considering grip length and the bearing capacity
consideringgriplengthandthebearingcapacity
ofthesoil.
Maximumandminimumbasepressuresunder
Maximum and minimum base pressures under
worstloadingconditionsshouldbewithin
permissible limits
permissiblelimits.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Scourdepth
Actualscourdepthisascertainedbyfollowing
twomethods
Actualsoundingatorneartheproposedsite
immediatelyafteraflood
Theoreticalmethodsdependingonthecharacteristics
offlowlikethedirection,depthandvelocityofflow,
andthesizeofriverbedmaterial.
d h i
f i
b d
i l
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Griplength
Normal scour depth below high flood level in alluvial
soils, (Laceys formula), d (m) = 0.473 (Q/f)
Q = Design discharge (m3/s)
f = Silt factor = 1.76 dm
dm = mean size of particle (mm)
Regime width, W = 4.75 Q
If actual waterway (L) < regime width (W)
Actual scour depth, (d) = d(W/L) 0.61
Maximum scour level is obtained to account for flow
direction, proximity of piers and increase of velocity
d the
due
h obstruction
b
i off flow.
fl
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Siltfactor
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Maximum scour depth (asperIRC6)

Maximumscourdepth
(as per IRC 6)
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Griplength
Grip
Griplengthforwellsonrailwaybridgesistaken
length for wells on railway bridges is taken
as50%ofmaximumscourdepth.
Forroadbridges,agriplengthof30%ofthe
F
d b id
i l th f 30% f th
maximumscourdepthprovided.
Depthofthebasebelowmaximumscourlevelis
p
p
keptmorethan2mforpiersandabutmentswith
archesand1.2mforpiersandabutments
suppo t g ot e types o st uctu es
supportingothertypesofstructures.
Ifinerodible stratumlikerockisavailableata
shallow elevation the foundation is taken into it
shallowelevation,thefoundationistakenintoit
andsecurelyanchoredtoitifnecessary.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Forcesactingonwellfoundation
Dead
Deadloads
loads Weightofsuperstructureandselfweight
Weight of super structure and self weight
Liveloads ForrailwaybridgesaccordingtoIndianRailway
bridge rules RDSO and for Highway as per IRC
bridgerules,RDSOandforHighwayasperIRC
Impactloads Impactduetoliveloads
Windloads
Wind loads Actslaterallyonliveload,superstructureand
Acts laterall on li e load s per str ct re and
partofsubstructureabovewaterlevelaccordingtoIS875.
Wind acts laterally on exposed area
Windactslaterallyonexposedarea.
Waterpressure Actsfromsurfaceofwatertothe
maximum scour depth depends on velocity of flow.
maximumscourdepthdependsonvelocityofflow.
Intensityofwaterpressure,p=kv2,kconstantdependson
shapeofwell,v=velocityofwater
p
,
y
LongitudinalForces Duetotractive andbrakingforces.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Forcesactingonwellfoundation
Centrifugal
Centrifugalforces
forces Actsonbridgesincurvedplan
Acts on bridges in curved plan
Buoyantforces Duetosubmergenceinwater
Earthpressure Duetosoilfillintowhichthewell
issink.
Seismicforce Consideredinseismiczone.Force
istakenisW.Wistheweightofthecomponent,
andistheseismiccoefficientgiveninIS:1893
1975.
Temperaturestresses Forcesareinduceddueto
change of temperature.
changeoftemperature.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Resultantforcesonwellfoundation
Allowablepressure,qa =54N2B+160(100+N2)Dinsandysoil
(
)
N=StandardPenetrationValueoftheCohesionless soil(correctedvalue).
B=Smallerdimensionofthecrosssectionofthewellinmetres
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
D=Depthoffoundationbelowscourlevelinmetres
Allowable bearing capacity in clay soil is obtained

from bearing capacity of deep foundation in clay
from undisturbed soil samples, qu = c Nc
Settlement in clay soil is obtained from
If well foundation rests on rock bearing capacity is

obtained from crushing strength of rock.
rock
Effect of structural defects like faults, fissures, joints,
and other discontinuities are considered by adopting
f.s of 10.
Allowable strength of concrete placed under water is
Allowablestrengthofconcreteplacedunderwateris
usuallytakenas3.5MN/m2.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
1. Laying of well curb
If river bed is dry 15 cm
of river bed is excavated
and cutting edge, well
curb are built at the
required position.
position
Whendepthofwaterisabout5masandIslandor
cofferdam is made before placing the curb
cofferdamismadebeforeplacingthecurb.
Sizeoftheislandshouldbelargeenoughtoaccommodate
thewellwithadequateworkingspaceallround.
q
g p
Centerpointofwellisaccuratelylocated.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Well sinking
Wellsinking
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
1. Layingofwellcurb
Incasedepthofwaterismorethan5m,itiseconomical
tobuildthecurbonthegroundatriverbankandfloatit
t th it
tothesite.
Woodensleepersareinsertedbelowthecuttingedgeto
distribute the load uniformly
distributetheloaduniformly.
Steelorwoodshutteringisprovidedonexternalface.
Inner face is built of brick masonry to a proper profile
Innerfaceisbuiltofbrickmasonrytoaproperprofile
withplasteringabovewellcurb.
Reinforcementbarsproject2mabovewellcurb.
p j
Concretingofwellcurbisdoneinsingleoperationand
allowedtosetforoneweek.
Afterthisshutteringisstrippedoffandsleepersare
removed.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
2.WellSteining:
Wellsteining isconstructedfollowedbysinkingofwell
curb.
Steining israisedbyabout1.5matatimeandsinkingis
doneafterallowing24hoursofsetting.
Steining isconstructedverticallytoalinefrombottomto
topbystraightedgesofanglesectionsbuttedwithsteining
of earlier stages
ofearlierstages.
Afterattainingagripofabout6.0minground,steining is
raised by about 3m at a time
raisedbyabout3matatime.
Heightofanyliftisrestrictedsuchthatthewelldoesnot
lose stability
losestability.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
3.Sinkingprocess:
gp
Sinking begins after casting curb and a lift of steining.
Following methods are adopted for sinking
Excavation of material in well curb is done manually
if the water column is limited to 1m.
1m
A spade tied to a rope moving over a pulley is used
for excavation of soil if water column is more than
1m.
With further
f th increase
i
off depth
d th automatic
t
ti grab
b
buckets operated by diesel or steam winches is used.
To break hard material chisels are used explosives
are used for sinking through rock.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Wellsinking
frictional resistance
To overcome
and buoyancy sand bag loading
known as Kentledge is applied. To
further reduce the frictional
resistance jets of water are applied
on outer face., oil, bentonite,
smoothen
h the
h surface
f
In some cases sinking is carried out
by dewatering or pumping.
pumping This
results in sand blowing and
increases time and labor in
removing the sand. Applicable if
the well passes below clay stratum.
Tocontrolsandblowgunnybagsandgrassbundlesareplaced
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
aroundwell
Measurestorectifytiltsandshifts
Wellshouldsinkverticallyandincorrectposition.
Thisisnoteasyandfollowingprecautionsshouldbe
adopted.
Outersurfaceofwellcurbandsteining shouldbe
regularandsmooth.
Outerdiameterofcurbshouldbe4to8cmlarger
g
thansteining.
Cutting
Cuttingedgeshouldbeuniformthicknessand
edge should be uniform thickness and
sharpness.
Dredging should be uniformly carried out on all
Dredgingshouldbeuniformlycarriedoutonall
sidesofwellandinbothpocketsoftwinwells.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
TiltsandShifts
Tiltsandshiftsshouldbecarefullyrecorded.
IS3955:1967recommendsthattiltshould
IS 3955: 1967 recommends that tilt should
generallybelimitedto1in60.
Shiftshouldberestrictedto1%ofdepthsunk.
Shift should be restricted to 1% of depth sunk
Iftheaboveconditionsarenotsatisfieda
combinationofmethodsdiscussedbeloware
bi ti
f
th d di
db l
usedforrectification
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Measuresforrectificationoftiltsandshifts
Regulationof
Excavation
Highersideis
excavatedmore.
t d
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Eccentricloading
Kentledge isplaced
eccentriconaplatform
onhigherside.
h h
d
Forlargertiltlarger
k tl d and
kentledge
d
eccentricityisrequired.
Water jet onouterface
Waterjet
on outer face
decreasesfrictionand
rectifies tilt.
rectifiestilt.
Excavation under
cuttingedgeifwell
g g
sinkingisstoppedby
hardclay.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Inserting
a
wooden sleeper or
a hook under
cutting edge on
lower side to
prevent
further
tilting.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pullwelltowardshighersidebysteelropearoundthewell
g
y
p
withverticalsleepers
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Well strutted on its tilted side to prevent further tilt

Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pushing the well with a suitable arrangement through

mechanical or hydraulic jacks resting against vertically sunk
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
well
Lateral stability well foundation

Lateralstabilitywellfoundation
Terzaghi solutionforfreerigidbulkheadcanbe
solution for free rigid bulk head can be
usedforapproximateanalysisofwellfoundation.
Arigidbulkheaddeflects,sandinfronttransforms
A rigid bulk head deflects sand in front transforms
topassivestateandsandinbacksidetoactive
state.
state
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Lightwell Bulkheadrotatesabout
thepointoabovethebaseB
h
b
h b
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bulkheadrotatesaboutthepointo
abovethebaseB
b
h b
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Heavywell Bulkheadrotatesabout
thepointB
h
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Heavywell Bulkheadrotatesabout
thepointB
h
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Problem
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ASSIGNMENTQUESTIONS
1. Discuss the p
problems associated with well sinking.
g
2. Describe the component parts of a Pneumatic
Caisson with a neat sketch.
3. Explain the methods you would adopt for
correcting Tilting and Shifting of wells.
wells
4. What are different types of caisson?
5. Explain briefly the method of assessing the load
carrying capacity of a well foundation in different
soils?
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
UnitVIII
Expansivesoils
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Syllabus
FoundationsinExpansivesoils
Foundations
in Expansive soils
ProblemsinExpansivesoils
Mechanism of swelling
Mechanismofswelling
SwellPressureandSwellingpotential
H
Heave
Foundationpractices
S d
Sandcushion
hi
CNStechnique
Under
d
reamedpileFoundations
d il
d i
Granularpileanchortechnique,
Stabilizationofexpansivesoils.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
Expansivesoilscause$9billiondamageinUSper
year to buildings roads airports pipelines and
yeartobuildings,roads,airports,pipelines,and
otherfacilitiesmorethantwicethecombined
damage from the disasters such as earthquakes
damagefromthedisasterssuchasearthquakes,
floods,tornados(violentwind)andcyclones.
Mostofothercountriessufferduetoexpansive
Most of other countries suffer due to expansive
soils.
InIndiaBlackcottonsoilsarefoundabundant
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Introduction
The damage is sometimes limited to minor
maintenance and aesthetic concerns, but often they
are much worse. Even causing major structural distress,
as illustrated in Figures
Expansive soils are not as dramatic as earthquakes or
cyclones and they cause only property damage, not
loss of life. In addition, they act more slowly and the
damage
da
age iss sp
spread
ead o
over
e wide
de aareas
eas rather
at e tthan
a be
beingg
concentrated in a small locality.
Nevertheless, the economic loss is large and much of it
could
ld be
b avoided
id d by
b proper recognition
i i off the
h problem
bl
and incorporating appropriate preventive measures
g , construction and maintenance of new
into the design,
facilities.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Identification
or
Characteristics of Expansive
soils
Many plastic clays swell
considerably when water is
added to them and then
shrink with the loss of water.
Foundations
F
d i
constructed
d on
such clays are subjected to
large uplifting forces caused
by the swelling. These forces
induce heaving, and cracking.
Shrink greatly with cracks of
2mm and more develop on
surface
Possess
P
a high
hi h plasticity
l ti it
index.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Failureofbuildingwalls
Roadsandcanalliningonexpansivesoilfails
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Identification
or
Characteristics of Expansive
soils
Their color varies from dark
grey to black.
black
Alumpofdryblackcotton
soilrequiresahammerto
b k
break.
Duringrainyseasons,these
soilsbecomeverystickyand
verydifficulttotraverse.
Formsduetoweatheringof
basaltic rocks in Maharashtra
basalticrocksinMaharashtra,
Gujarat,A.P
Occursinregionswithwell
d fi d lt
defined,alternatewetand
t
t d
dryseasonsexist
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Activezone
The depth
p
in a soil to
which periodic changes of
moisture occur.
The
Th upper soils
il respond
d
more
rapidly
for
Summer
precipitation and evapo
transpiration.
The depth of active zone
can be as high as 16 m.
m
Structuresbuiltwithinthis
activezonearelikelyto
moveupanddown
accordingtoseasonsand
hence suffer damage if
hencesufferdamageif
differentialmovementsare
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
considerable.
Rainy
season
BCsoilsarea
BC
soils are a
majordepositin
Indiacovering3.0
L kh sq.km.
Lakh
k
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
CompositionofExpansivesoils
Expansive
Expansivesoilarecomposedofclaysorsedimentaryrocksderived
soil are composed of clays or sedimentary rocks derived
fromclayswhichundergoachangeinthevolume duetochangein
watercontent.
Gravels,sands,siltsarerelativelyinertbulkyparticles andtheir
engineeringpropertiesdependprimarilyonthesize,shape,and
textureoftheseparticles.Incontrastclaysoilismadeupofveryfine
p
y
p
y
particlesthatareusuallyofplateshape.Engineeringpropertiesof
claysoilareinfluencedbytheirsmallsizeandlargesurfaceareaof
clay particles and their inherent electrical charges
clayparticlesandtheirinherentelectricalcharges.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
CompositionofExpansivesoils
Differentclaymineralsoccurinnature,the
differences being defined by their chemical make up
differencesbeingdefinedbytheirchemicalmakeup
andstructuralconfiguration.Threeofmost
common clay minerals are kaolinite, illite, and
commonclaymineralsarekaolinite,illite,and
montmorillonite (partofthesmectite group).
Chemicalcompositionandcrystallinestructureof
Chemical composition and crystalline structure of
thesemineralsgivetheirsusceptibilitytoswelling.
Swellingoccurswhenwaterinfiltratesbetweenand
S lli
h
t i filt t b t
d
withintheclayparticlescausingthemtoseparate.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Clayminerals
Stronghydrogen
bonds
Kaolinite is a 1:1
clay mineral which
do not shrink by
drying or swell
under
wet
condition.
Thus
kaolinite clayy is
wellsuited for use
in construction of
roads
and
b ildi
buildings.
Xray diffraction analysis has shown that sheets of kaolinite are arranged like pages
in a book.
book This affects the amount of surface area available for holding water or
cations like Ca2+ or K+. Imagine a closed book with many pages; each page has
surface area on the front and back, which might be a lot of surface area. But if the
book is closed the pages are so tightly packed (due to strong hydrogen bonds
between units) such that only a limited surface area is available. Water or cat ions
can attach (or "adsorb") to the edges of the book, plus front and back covers.
Because of this arrangement, kaolinite has less external surface area than other
clay minerals, no internal surface area, and less capacity for holding water and cat
ions.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Clayminerals
Montmorillonite
Weakerpotassiumbonds
allowlimitedexpansion.
Weakly
linked
Figure
g
shows the differences in spacing
p
g between the 2:1 sheets. The larger
g interlayer
y
spaces have the capacity to hold water molecules and a variety of cat ions. With larger
spacing between units there is a greater tendency of shrink/swell behavior.
Water can easily flow into montmorillonite clays and separate the units. Field
observations have confirmed that the greatest problems occur in soils with a high
montmorillonite content. These soils are unsuitable for building and highway projects
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Swellpotential
IIntheswelltestalaterally
h
ll
l
ll
confinedcylindricalsample
compactedtomaximumdry
densityatoptimum
moisturecontentis
subjected to a surcharge
subjectedtoasurcharge
pressureof7kPa and
soaked.
Sample swells vertically and
the ratio of swelling of
sample to the initial height
of sample is known as swell
potential and expressed as a
percentage.
percentage
Test is performed on
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
consolidometer.
Consolidation
Dr. PVSN Pavan Kumar
Consolidation test set up
ClayMinerals
Susceptibilitytoswelling
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FactorscontrollingSwellpotential
Initialwatercontent:Foramoistsoilswell
I
iti l t
t t F
i t il
ll
potentialislesscomparedwithdrysoil.
S h
Surchargepressure:Existenceofsurcharge
E it
f
h
pressuredecreasestheswellpotential(although
large loads are required to completely restrain the
largeloadsarerequiredtocompletelyrestrainthe
soil).
Remolding aclaysoilwillmakeitmoreexpansive
a clay soil will make it more expansive
duetobreakupofcementation.
Compacting soil wet of optimum reducesswell
Compactingsoilwetofoptimum
reduces swell
potential.
Compacting soil to a low dry density decreases
Compactingsoiltoalowdrydensity
decreases
swellpotential.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Effectofwatercontentanddrydensityonswellpotential
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
FactorscontrollingSwellpotential
I fl
Influence
off climate:
li t
Most of the problems with expansive soils occur in arid,
semiarid
semi
arid, and monsoonal areas because of seasonal
distribution
of
precipitation
and
evaporation/transpiration. This causes wide a
variation of soil moisture content.
content
Most of the precipitation in arid and semiarid areas
occurs during the rainy and winter seasons when
evaporation and transpiration rates are low. Thus, the
moisture content of the soil increases.
D i
During
the
h summer, precipitation
i i i
i minimum
is
i i
and
d
evaporation/transpiration is greatest. Soil dries and
Shrinks. Soil expands
p
in the rainyy season,, winter and
shrinks in the summer.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
SwellPotentialfromindextests
Swellpotentialincreaseswithincreaseof%ofcolloids(sizeless
Swell
potential increases with increase of % of colloids (size less
than0.002mm),increaseofplasticityindex,smallershrinkagelimit,
largerliquidlimit.
Activity = Plasticity Index/% clay finer than 0 002 mm
Activity=PlasticityIndex/%clayfinerthan0.002mm
Swellpotentialincreaseswithactivityofclay
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Atterberg Limits
Pl ti it Index
Plasticity
I d = LL - PL
Volume Change
Solid
State
Semi Solid
State
SL
Liquid State
Plastic
State
PL
Moisture
C t t
Content
L
L
Liquid
q
Limit
(Casagrande Method)
Liquid
q
Limit
(Casagrande Method)
M o istur e C o nte nt (%
%)
Plasticity Chart
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
1
10
100
No of Blows
1000
Plastic Limit
SwellPotentialfromindextests
<75
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Swellpotential
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Swellpotential
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Swellpressure
If a structure
t t
i built
is
b ilt during
d i
th dry
the
d season with
ith the
th
foundation lying within the unstable zone, the base of the
foundation experiences
p
a swellingg p
pressure as the p
partiallyy
saturated soil starts taking water during the wet season.
Swell pressure is due to constraints offered by the
foundation against free swelling.
swelling
Maximum swelling pressure may be as high as 2 MPa. If the
imposed bearing pressure on the foundation by the structure
is less than the swelling pressure, the structure is likely to be
lifted up at least locally which would lead to cracks in the
structure.
structure
If the imposed bearing pressure is greater than the swelling
pressure,, there will not be anyy p
p
problem for the structure.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Swellpressure
Swellpressureisdefinedasthepressure
required for preventing volume expansion of soil
requiredforpreventingvolumeexpansionofsoil
incontactwithwater.
Swellpressuremeasuredinalaboratory
S ell press re meas red in a laborator
consolidationtestbyoedometer isdifferentfrom
that in the field
thatinthefield.
Actualfieldswellingpressureisalwayslessthan
theonemeasuredinthelaboratory.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Freeswellindex
Take
Taketwosamplesof10govendry
two samples of 10 g oven dry
soilpassingthrough425micronIS
Sieve.
Eachsoilspecimenispouredintotwo
h l
d
graduatedglasscylindersof100ml
capacity.
Onecylindershallbefilledwith
keroseneandtheotherwithdistilled
wateruptothe100mlmark.
p
Afterremovalofentrappedairby
gentleshakingorstirringwithaglass
rod soil in both the cylinders shall be
rod,soilinboththecylindersshallbe
allowedtosettle.
Sufficienttime(notlessthan24h)
shallbeallowedforthesoilsample
h ll b ll
d f th
il
l
toattainequilibriumstatewithout
anychangeofvolumesoil. Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Freeswellindex
Finalvolumeofsoilineachcylinderisreadout.
Levelofthesoilinthekerosenegraduatedcylindershallbe
readastheoriginalvolumeofthesoilsamples,V
d th
i i l l
f th
il
l Vk as
kerosenebeinganonpolarliquiddoesnotcauseswelling
ofsoil.
Levelofthesoilinthedistilledwatercylindershallberead
asthefreeswelllevel,Vw.
Freeswellindexofthesoiliscalculatedas(Vw Vk)x100/V
/ k
Bentonite claycanhaveFSIof1200to2000%
FSIaslowas100%cancauseconsiderabledamageto
FSI l
100%
id bl d
t
lightlyloadedstructures.
FSI below 50 % rarely exhibits appreciable volume change
FSIbelow50%rarelyexhibitsappreciablevolumechange
evenunderlightloadings.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Typicalstructuraldistresspatterns
Edgeliftduetoprecipitation(after
rainfall)
Localizedheaveduetodrainage
problem
CenterliftduetoEvapo transpiration
(summer)
Localizedshrinkageduetoaggressive
treeroots
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PREVENTIVEDESIGNAND
CONSTRUCTIONMEASURES
Thefollowingrecommendationsreducetherisk
The
following recommendations reduce the risk
ofdamage,keepingtheconstructioncoststoa
minimum.
minimum
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
PreventativeMeasures Drainage
Installrainwater
collectionpipefromthe
roofofbuildingto
discharge the water away
dischargethewateraway
fromthefoundation.
Undesirable,groundslopetowardsthebuilding
Slopeofgroundwithin3
mofthestructureshould
beat10%grade.
g
Vegetatedgroundshould
have at least 5% slope
haveatleast5%slope
(steeper).
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Desirable GroundsurfaceslopesawayfromBuilding
Pavedareasshouldhave
d
h ld h
2%slope
Preventative measures Drainage

Preventativemeasures
Basement
Basementbackfills
backfills Backfillaroundbasement
Backfill around basement
shouldbenonexpansiveandwellcompacted
soil Drain pipe captures water and is let out
soil.Drainpipecaptureswaterandisletout.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Preventative Measures
PreventativeMeasures
Avoid
Avoidplacinglargeplants,irrigationsystems
placing large plants, irrigation systems
andpipesnearbuildings
Undergroundutilities
Under ground utilities Utilitylinessuchas
Utility lines such as
water,sewerorstormdrainpipesdistortdue
todifferentialswellingofsoil.Thisdistortion
causesleakofwaterandexpansionofsoil.
UseofflexiblepipematerialssuchasPVC
insteadofclayorconcretepipeswithflexible
jointsreducestheriskofdamage.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Additional preventative measures

Additionalpreventativemeasures
o Modifytheexpansiveclaytoreduceor
Modify the expansive clay to reduce or
eliminateitsswellingpotential.
o Bypasstheexpansiveclaybyisolatingthe
Bypass the expansive clay by isolating the
foundationfromitseffect.
o Mitigatethemovementsinthesuperstructure.
Mi i
h
i h
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Alteringtheexpansiveclay
Sandcushionmethod:
Replaceexpansivesoilwithnonexpansivesoilor
loosesandcushionpartlyorfully.
p y
y
Costlybutveryeffective.
Weightofcushioncounterstheheaveofexpansive
Weight of cushion counters the heave of expansive
soil.
Disadvantageofthismethodissand(highly
Disadvantage of this method is sand (highly
permeablesoil)providesanavenueforthenatural
expansive soil and may lead to heaving
expansivesoilandmayleadtoheaving.
Sand
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Foundationisolatedfromswellingsoil
Expansive soil
Expansivesoil
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Expansivesoil
Alteringexpansivesoil
Replacement
l
b CNS layer
by
l
method
h d
CNS stands for cohesive non swelling a relatively
impervious
p
material will ggreatlyy offset the disadvantages
g of
sand cushion method.
Katti (1978) has developed a technique where by removal
of about 1m of expansive soil and replacement by cohesive
nonswelling soils (CNS) layer beneath foundations has
yielded satisfactory results.
Katti
K tti has
h successfully
f ll adopted
d t d it for
f prevention
ti off heave
h
and resultant cracking of canal beds and linings and
recommends it for use in foundations of residential
b ildi
buildings
also.
l
According to Katti, cohesive forces of significant magnitude
p
with depth
p in an expansive
p
soil system
y
are developed
during saturation which is responsible for reducing heave
and counteracting swelling
pressure.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Whenhydratedlimeismixedwithanexpansiveclay,chemicalreactions
y
p
y,
occurbetweenlimeandclay.Followingimprovementsoccur
Swellingpotentialisreduced.
Shear strength is increased
Shearstrengthisincreased.
Moisturecontentdecreases(helpfulwhenworkingduringthewet
seasonbecauseitincreasestheworkabilityofthesoil).
About2to8%oflimeismechanicallymixedwithsoil.
Thisprocessislimitedtoadepthof300mm.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Pressure injected lime:
Lime slurry is forced into the soil under high
pressure using equipment shown in Fig.
Capable of treating soils to depths of up to
about 2.5 m.
Most effective in highly fissured soils
because the fissures provide pathways for the
slurry to disperse.
In addition to the chemical effects the filling
of the fissures with lime also retards moisture
migration in the soil.
9 Lime
i
treatment is
i most commonly
l used
d on
canals, highways, and other projects that
have no foundation. The pressure injected
li
lime
t h i
technique
i also
is
l useful
f l when
h
making
ki
repairs to an existing structure that has
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
suffered damage from expansive soils.
Prewetting orPonding orPresaturation orPresoaking:
Coveringthesitewithwaterbeforetheconstructionand
increaseofmoisturecontentofsoilresultsinpreswelling
ofexpansivesoil.
Moisturecontentismaintainedatthesitebyconstructinga
d
h
b
slabongradeandprovidingmoisturebarriersaroundthe
site.
site
Disadvantageofthemethodislargetimeisrequiredfor
saturation of entire depth of clay layer Time required for
saturationofentiredepthofclaylayer.Timerequiredfor
saturationisdecreasedbymakingagridofverticalsand
drains(boringsfilledwithsand)tohelpthewaterto
(
g
)
p
percolateintothesoil.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Moisturebarrier:
Horizontal or vertical barriers are effective means of
stabilizing the moisture content below the
structure.
structure
This is achieved by polyethylene or asphalt
membranes.
membranes
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bypassing expansive clay

Bypassingexpansiveclay
Deepeningfootings
Deepening footings
Increaseofdepthoffootingdecreasestheheave
of footing
offooting.
Applicableformildlyexpansivesoils
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Bypassingclaylayer
Drilledshafts
Forhighlyexpansivesoildeepenedfootingscannot
g y p
p
g
beused.Instead,drilledshafts/pilesarepreferable.
Theyshouldbeextendedbelowtheactivezone.
They should be extended below the active zone
Individualshaftsareconnectedwithgradebeams
that are cast on top of compressible materials such
thatarecastontopofcompressiblematerialssuch
ascardboardorfoams.
Compressiblematerialspermitthesoiltofreely
C
ibl
i l
i h
il f l
expandwithoutpressingagainstthegradebeam.
Expansivesoilexertsupliftforcesontheshaft.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Drilledshaftsandgradebeams
Resistanceisgeneratedbyastraightshaftortheonewitha
b ll
bell.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Drilledshaftsandgradebeams
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Straight shaft
Straightshaft
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Belled shaft
Belledshaft
Bypassingclay
Underreamedpile:
InIndia,soilmovementsarenegligiblebeyonda
depthof3.5m.
Foundationsanchoredbelowthisdepthremain
stable.
Underreamedpileswithbulbsprovidedinstable
zoneprovidesufficientanchorage.
IS2911:PartIII1980givesfollowing
recommendations
Diameter
Diameterofstem
of stem 20to50cms
20 to 50 cms
Diameterofbulb=2.5timesdiameterofstem
Spacingofbulbs=1.5timesbulbdiameter
Disadvantageofunderreamedpilesistheircost.
Granularpile anchorfoundation(GPAF)systemis
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
moreeconomical
Sb
db
ds
Bypassingclay
Granularpile
Granular pile anchorfoundation(GPAF)
anchor foundation (GPAF)
In this technique the foundation is anchored at
the bottom with a ggranular p
pile to a mild steel
anchor plate with the help of a mild steel
anchor rod.
Expansive soil
Expansivesoil
Granularpile
Anchorrod
Model tests conducted in the laboratory

revealed that heave and swell potential are
enormously reduced by the installation of
granular pile anchors. The % reduction was
about 90 to 95.
MSAnchorPlate
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
Foundation
Bypassingclay
Raisedfloorissupported
bydrilledshaftextending
y
g
belowactivezone.
Floorisnotindirect
Floor
is not in direct
contactwithheavingsoil.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar
ASSIGNMENTQUESTIONS
1.Discussthevariouslaboratorymethodsof
d
determiningtheswellingpressureandswelling
i i
h
lli
d
lli
potentialofexpansivesoils.
2.Explainbrieflyvariousmethodsthataretobeusedto
l b fl
h d h
b
d
improvetheexpansivesoilsforfoundations.
3.DiscussthepropertiesofCNSlayermaterial.
4.Explainhowexpansivesoilsareformedinnatureand
discussthestructureofmontmorillonite claymineral.
5.Discussthevariousfoundationpracticesusedin
expansivesoils.
Dr.PVSNPavanKumar

Advanced Foundation Engineering (57011)

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Advanced Foundation Engineering (57011)

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AdvancedFoundationEngineering

Bearing capacity theories

Nq = tan2 45+ e tan

Hansen theory extends the bearing capacity equation for a footing

Nq = tan2 45+ e tan

qult =5.14su (1+sc+dc ic bc gc)+q

Nq = tan2 45+ e tan

Eccentricity about x axis

Additional stress due to the footing produces a time

Depth of influence, H is taken as

Problems in settlement analysis

Elastic settlement of foundations

Correction curves for elastic

Dial gauge reading

wherecc =compression index from the e versus

A square footing 1.2m1.2m rests at a depth of 1m

End bearing and frictional piles

End bearing and frictional piles

Castinsitu piles are concrete piles.

Driven cast in situ pile

Netultimateloadcapacityofpile, Qu = q0 N q Ab + i=1 q0 k s tan As

Vertical movement of the pile is required to mobilize

Drop hammer Drop hammer is lifted up by rope

Vibratory hammer In this

Dynamicpileformulas Hiley Formula

Dynamicpileformulas Hiley Formula

Dynamicpileformulas Hiley Formula

Dynamicpileformulas Hiley Formula

In case of group of piles closely

Fg = Group settlement factor

Piles are point bearing

Soil modulus at a depth x below the surface Es =

Fixed head pile

Free head pile

SStems off cantilever

Wall under construction

Wall after construction

Mechanically Stabilized walls

Classical earth pressure theories

Rankine theory(1857) Activeearthpressure

Rankine theory Activeearthpressure

Rankine theory Activeearthpressure

Rankine theory Activeearthpressure

Resisting force decreases the earth pressure acting on the wall

Rankine theory Passiveearthpressure

Rankine theory Passiveearthpressure

Rankine theory Passiveearthpressure

weight of soil above element

v OC cos i + OC 2 sin 2 OC 2 sin 2 i

cos i cos 2 i cos 2

cos i cos 2 i cos 2

weight of soil above element

OC cos i + OC 2 sin 2 OC 2 sin 2 i

cos i + cos 2 i cos 2

cos i + cos 2 i cos 2

Rankine theory Cohesivesoil

Rankine theory Cohesivesoil

Rankine theory Cohesivesoil

Rankine theory Passivepressureincohesivesoil

Rankine theory Passivepressureincohesivesoil

AC is not the actual rupture

Failure wedge ABC is in equilibrium under W, Ca, C, P1, R

Top width of stem > 0.3m for

weep holes are usually made by