Week 9

Environmental Effects and Hormones

11 October 2015

Read pp. 46-50 from your Course Companion eText.

Read the following from the Pamoja Supplementary eText, The

Biological Level of Analysis:
o

pp. 12-13 - Section 2. Physiology and Behaviour,

A. Localization of brain function and brain
plasticity (neuroplasticity)

pp. 20-24 - Section 2. Physiology and Behaviour,

E. Cognition, physiology and behaviour

pp. 17-20 - Physiology and Behaviour, C.

Hormones and human behaviour.

2.1 Biological level of analysis: physiology and behaviour 46

How the environment affects the brain

experience changes brain

brain determines and changes behaviour

behaviour and environment can change the brain

brain plasticity
o

Hubel and Wiesel (1965) demonstrated that the brain could change as a
response to environmental input

brains ability to rearrange the connections between its neurons

dendritic branching: dendrites of the neurons grow in numbers and

connect with other neurons

Every time we learn something new, the neurons connect to

create a new trace in the brain

effect of either enrichment or deprivation on the development of

neurons in the cerebral cortex

stimulating environment had an increased thickness in the cortex

human brains differ in terms of genetic make-up and the environmental

inputs

The effect of cognition on physiology

o

Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)

Richard Davidson (2004)

eight Buddhist monks who were highly experienced in meditation,

and 10 volunteers who had been trained in meditation for one
week

stopped meditating, the volunteers gammawave production

returned to normal

meditation could have significant long-term effects on the brain

and the way it processes emotions

Mirror neurons
o

a neuron that fires when an animal (or a person) performs an action or

when the animal observes somebody else perform the same action

Gallese et al. (1996)

just by watching someone else reach for the peanut, the monkeys
brain acted as though the monkey were carrying out the behaviour

Marco Iacoboni (2004)

looking at the emotion expressed on someones face would cause

the brain of the observer to be stimulated

observing a happy face activated pleasure centres in the brain

(limbic system)

Functions of hormones in human behaviour

o

chemicals that affect behaviour

produced by the glands that make up the endocrine system

enter directly into the bloodstream, so they take longer to produce

changes in behaviour than neurotransmitters

(Rosenthal 1987) that higher levels of melatonin contribute to seasonal

affective disorder (SAD)

BLOA

pg 12-13: Section 2. Physiology and Behaviour, A. Localization of brain function and brain
plasticity (neuroplasticity)

if one part of the brain is damaged, depending on the extent of the damage, the
area of the brain and (often) the age of the person affected, other parts of the
brain can to a greater or lesser extent take over the function of the damaged part

Kolb et al. (2000)

Jednorg et al. (2012)

association between poverty (socio-economic status [SES]) and brain

anatomy

MRI scans on a group of 23 healthy 10-year-old children with a wide

range of parental SES

a lower SES is associated with smaller volumes of grey matter in the

hippocampus, and gyrus fusiform area of the brain, and also with a slower
development in the frontal brain region

Tierney et al. (2001)

o

a lesion in the left part of his brain

his right hemisphere had probably taken over speech production when
the left hemisphere was damaged.

Pg 20-24: Section 2. Physiology and Behaviour, E. Cognition, physiology and behaviour

Suomi (2005) studied wild rhesus monkeys, and found that approximately 5-10%
of rhesus monkeys growing up in the wild consistently exhibited impulsive and/or
inappropriately aggressive responses to mildly stressful situations throughout
development; those same individuals also showed a low level of metabolism of
serotonin

Altena and van der Werf (2010) insomnia patients had a smaller volume of grey
matter in the left orbitofrontal cortex

interaction between cognition, physiology and behaviour is another way of saying

that there is a relationship between how and what we think, what our brain is
doing and what we do

mirror neurons

Pg 17-20: Physiology and Behaviour, C. Hormones and human behaviour.

slow behavioural reaction from hormones

Testosterone
o

secreted in the gonads (in the testes of males and the ovaries of females)

small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands

main male sex hormone

plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as

the testes and prostate

promoting secondary sexual characteristics

increased muscle and bone mass and hair growth

adult human male produces about ten times more testosterone than an
adult human female

connection with aggression

Archer (1995)

low positive correlation between testosterone levels and

aggression in males, but a much higher positive correlation
between testosterone levels and measures of dominance

Carrier and Kabbaj (2012)

discovered that a specific pathway in the hippocampus, a brain

region involved in memory formation and control of stress
responses, plays a major role in how testosterone, the main male
sex hormone, affects men

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

Schachter and Singer (1962)

09.02 Environmental Effects on Physiological Processes

Discussing the Role of Mirror Neurons
To what extent is appreciation of the arts feeling - as seen in the mirror neuron response - and
to what extent is it a learned cognitive response?

mirror neurons have evolved to make us capable of understanding and interacting with fellow
human beings

As we have learned previously in week 8, mirror neurons are neurons transmitted both when an
animal performs an act and observes another animal performing the same act. The observers
neurons imitate the actors as if they were actually the ones performing. These mirror neurons
also play a role in the appreciation of art, according to a study conducted by Freedberg and
Gallese in 2007. They allow us to connect with art through feelings. When looking at Berninis
David, for example, mirror neurons express the feeling of anger because of the grimacing face of
the sculpture. Because we have this ability to identify with the piece, we see that it hold more of a
meaning, thus it has more of an aesthetic pleasure or value in our eyes.
Our cognitive response also plays a role in our individual appreciation of art because it is the
thought process that occurs while taking in information. While looking at the angry sculpture, we
may think about the reasoning behind it and in return, also feel anger inside of us. However, the
cognitive behavior and empathetic feelings related to the art appreciation really do depend on the
type of art, audience, and the message relayed by the artist.

09.03 Cognition and Physiology

theory that meditation can change the brain
studies by Davidson (2004) and Brefczynski-Lewis et al. (2007) used modern brain-imaging
technologies to understand 'neuroplasticity'

Review p. 47 from the Course Companion etext on Davidson (2004) and p. 3 of the
Pamoja Supplementary eText on Brefczynski-Lewis et al. (2007).

http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma8/monkstudy.html

Dharamsala, India

compared brain activity in volunteers who were novice meditators to

that of Buddhist monks who had spent more than 10,000 hours in
meditation

task was to practice "compassion" meditation, generating a feeling of

loving kindness toward all beings

latter showed a dramatic increase in high-frequency brain activity

called gamma waves during compassion meditation

gamma waves underlie higher mental activity such as consciousness

novice meditators "showed a slight increase in gamma activity, but

most monks showed extremely large increases of a sort that has never
been reported before in the neuroscience literature

suggesting that mental training can bring the brain to a greater level
of consciousness

functional magnetic resonance imaging

scientists pinpointed regions that were active during compassion

meditation

enhanced activity was greater in the monks' brains than the novices'

Activity in the left prefrontal cortex (the seat of positive emotions such
as happiness) swamped activity in the right prefrontal (site of negative
emotions and anxiety), something never before seen from purely
mental activity

A sprawling circuit that switches on at the sight of suffering also

showed greater activity in the monks. So did regions responsible for
planned movement, as if the monks' brains were itching to go to the
aid of those in distress.

monks with the most hours of meditation showed the greatest brain
changes gives us confidence that the changes are actually produced by
mental training

altered intentionally

eight long-term Buddhist practitioners (mean age, 49 15 years) and

10 healthy student volunteers (mean age, 21 1.5 years)

Name: Natalie Cassello

November 2015
Teacher: Helen Loughran

IB Psychology

17

Learning Outcome
Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology. Evaluate
two studies.

Is the
theory
plausible?
What
assumption
s are being
made?

Is the
empirical
evidence
convincing
?

Meditatio
Meditatio
n
n and
and
changes
changes
in
Brain
in Brain
Activity
Activity

Activity
Review p. 47 from the Course Companion eText on Davidson (2004) and
p. 2 of the Pamoja Supplementary eText on Brefczynski-Lewis et al.
(2007).
EITHER read this article about Davidson, Scans of Monks Brain Show
Meditation Alters Structure, Functioning OR you can read the original
study, Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony
during mental practice. (The original study is a very challenging article but
you can focus on the introduction, methods and discussion sections.)
Complete the tables below.
Level of Analysis

Investigator/s

Date

BLOA

Davidson

2004

Description (Aim, Type of study, Participants, Procedures, Findings,

Conclusions):
This study in Dharamsala, India was an overt natural experiment,
which used functioning magnetic resonance imaging to map the
brains activity before and after meditation. The aim of the study was
to investigate the effects of meditation on gamma activity in the brain.
Participants included 8 long-term Buddhist practitioners with an
average age of 49 (15 years) and 10 healthy novice volunteers with
an average age of 21 (1.5 years). The participants were asked to
practice compassion meditation in order to generate a loving
kindness feeling for all beings. The findings were an increase of highfrequency brain activity, called gamma waves. The students had a
slight increase of activity, but the monks had an extremely large
increase, which was something science had never seen before, proving
the theory of plasticity. The activity in the prefrontal cortex overflowed
into the right prefrontal showing the brain went to new levels of
consciousness. Monks with the most hours of meditation also seemed
to have the largest difference of gamma activity before and after
meditation. This study proved that the brain can intentionally alter
itself though mental training.

Evaluation
Methodological
Considerations

Ethical Considerations

Gender/Cultural
Considerations

Davidson should have

considered gathering
a more diverse group
of volunteers with
varying ages. It may
have been that the
young students simply
had differently
working and
undeveloped brains
compared to those of
the middle ages
Buddhist monks. They
also should have
meditated for the
same duration of
time. To make it more
natural, they also
should be in their
usual meditating
place, rather than an
fMRI machine.

I believe this study

followed all rules of
ethics because there
was informed consent
from all volunteering
participants, they
were debriefed, their
identities were kept
confidential, they
were they opposite of
distressed, there was
no deception of any
kind, and everyone
had the option to
withdraw if need be.

There should also

have been a variety of
both males and
females to establish if
there is a difference in
meditation between
the two sexes, as well
as meditators from all
over the world to see
if just Buddhist
meditation, or all
positive meditation
has the same effects
on gamma waves in
the brain.

Level of Analysis

Investigator/s
Date
2007
Brefczynski-Lewis et al.
Description (Aim, Type of study, Participants, Procedures, Findings,
Conclusions):
BLOA

Similarly to the study of Richard Davidson, Brefczynski-Lewis also

investigated the relationship between the training of meditating and
activity in certain regions of the brain with a field experiment. He
compared the fMRI scans while resting and during meditation of highly
experienced Tibetan monks and novice meditators. In addition, he
tested how distraction the participants were while meditating by
presenting sounds. It was found that regions of the brain that control
attention were activated while meditating. More experienced
meditators showed more activity in these regions, but after about half
a minute, monks with over 40,000 hours of meditation had an activity
drop to show they were in a state of tranquil, but alert awareness. They
also showed the least distraction, as they kept concentrated on
meditating. In conclusion, this study proves that attention can be
trained through concentration meditation.

Evaluation
Methodological
Considerations

Ethical Considerations

Gender/Cultural
Considerations

The same sounds,

with the same
volumes, should have
been presented to
each of the
meditators at the
same times of the
duration of
meditating, which also
should have been
timed the same. To
make it more of a field
experiment, they also
should have been in a
natural setting rather
than the fMRI
machine.

All rules of ethics were

considered as there
was no physical or
mental harm done to
the participants, who
all gave their
informed consent
after being debriefed
and had the ability to
withdraw. Their
information was kept
confidential and there
was no form of
deception, as this was
a simple field
experiment
investigating the
distractibility of
meditators.

The scientist should

have used a variety of
volunteers in this
study including males
and females, as well
as people form all
over the world with
different levels of
meditating
experience. It would
also be interesting to
see if all of their
meditating was
towards positivity and
peace to generate
feelings like love and
kindness, like the
Buddhist monks.

BLOA

secreted in the gonads (in the testes of males and the ovaries of females)

small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands

main male sex hormone

plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as

the testes and prostate

promoting secondary sexual characteristics

increased muscle and bone mass and hair growth

adult human male produces about ten times more testosterone than an
adult human female

connection with aggression

http://www.webmd.com/men/testosterone-15738

Testosterone is a hormone produced by the testicles and is responsible for the

proper development of male sexual characteristics. Testosterone is also
important for maintaining muscle bulk, adequate levels of red blood cells, bone
growth, a sense of well-being, and sexual function.

https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007581.htm
https://storify.com/johncandrews986/functions-of-testosterone
Presentation:
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1Vrp66kGsP4ngSOX6tfOSzT_ZrJJuHxK
9UKL5isPek54/edit#slide=id.gd8b64cb6c_0_144
Notes:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1mxHMBxRvqQcheVfmzXvIMWEoOr5_lF-fYpkKE_WiEI/edit