Chloe Lewis 1

A Study on Resource Partitioning Amongst

African Lions (Panthera leo), African Leopards (Panthera pardus), and Cheetahs (Acinonyx
jubatus) and Interspecific Competition Due to Habitat Infringement
Background
Problem
One of the greatest contributors to the diminishing status of African lions, cheetahs, and leopards
throughout their habitat is human influenced habitat loss. This particular form of human activity
has long since had negative impacts on the populations of these three species; particularly in
terms of habitat selection. African lions are classified as being a vulnerable species. African
lions have been reduced to ranging in only the sub-Saharan region of Africa. Of the some 30,000
remaining African lions in the wild, a small number of them live beyond the safety of national
parks (IUCN Red List 2014). For these lions, life is uncertain with increased habitat loss and
dwindling populations of their prey species. African leopard populations range in the subSaharan and northeastern parts of the continent. There currently are no reliable population size
estimates for Africa, however a commonly cited estimate is 200,000 (IUCN Red List 2014). One
of the primary reasons for population decline in leopards is habitat loss. Cheetahs are also
classified as being vulnerable species. Cheetahs have wide yet sparse ranges and require large
areas of wild land with sufficient prey to survive. Currently, less than 15,000 cheetahs survive in
mere patches particularly in southern and eastern Africa (IUCN Red List 2014).
The increased rates of habitat loss may result in adverse overlapping in resource partitioning
causing lions, cheetahs, and leopards to compete for more of the resources they share; this drives
intense interspecific competition between the three species hence resulting a further decrease in
already struggling population sizes. One study found that cheetahs and leopards have the most
preferred prey overlap, thus potentially encountering one another in face-offs the most. This

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same study found that lions exhibited preferred prey overlap equally between leopards and
cheetahs (Hayward and Slotow 2009).
Lions typically situate themselves at the center of habitats with a high concentration of prey
species; these being wildebeest, zebra, elephants, giraffes, antelope, buffalo, warthogs, etc.
Cheetahs typically hunt relatively smaller prey such as: antelope, gazelles, impala, zebras,
wildebeests, etc. Cheetahs too are vulnerable to being prey to lions; 90% of all cheetah cubs are
killed by lions (Wildlife Conservation Society 2015). Leopards have a wide variety of prey from
fish to reptiles to mammals; of the mammals on the savannah they favor antelopes, warthogs,
baboons, hares, rodents, etc.
A handful of ungulates that make up the more common prey items that are shared between these
African wildcats include: zebras, antelope, wildebeest, and warthogs. Lions scavenge and so they
often displace other predators: cheetahs, leopards, etc. It is evident that with increased habitat
loss, these wild cats will cross paths on the hunt, thus resulting in more occurrences of
interspecific competition; which in itself is bound to be detrimental to the losing individual at the
time.

Supporting Research
Increased extinction risks within ecological guilds are related to lower dietary niche breadth
(Hayward and Kerley 2008). Research has clearly shown that most ecosystems consist of
multiple predator species that not only compete for shared prey, but also pose direct threats to
one another. The intensity of the interspecific competition is complex due to spatial and
behavioral avoidance tactics that vary based on resources and threat (Vanak et al. 2103).
Cheetahs exhibit the greatest dietary overlap with the smallest niche breadth, lions exhibit the

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least dietary overlap and, leopards exhibit the broadest dietary niche breadth (Hayward and
Kerley 2008). Under typical conditions, cheetahs and leopards overlap with lion home ranges the
most and avoid competition through certain avoidance behaviors and restricted resource
acquisition tactics (Vanak et al. 2013); through these methods competition avoidance are negated
in the face of human activity. These methods include some of the following: broad spatial
segregation, aggression, alternative habitat selection, and avoidance.
Cheetahs are thought to be subordinate to lions, yet their movement toward recent lion ranges in
the wet season indicates otherwise (Vanak et al. 2013). They are also thought to be subordinate to
leopards since they tend to move away from recent leopard territories despite a lack of direct
encounters. Leopards encounter interspecific competition mostly during the dry season, in which
they avoid territories of lions and conspecifics. Lions are the most dominant of the three African
wild cats, having an unrestricted range relative to their feline carnivore counterparts and choose
to anchor themselves in preferred prey-rich areas; including areas rich in main prey items for
other wild cats, particularly during dry seasons when resources are limited (Vanak et al. 2103).
Of these three African wild cats, cheetahs pay the highest fitness cost being the biggest loser in
interspecific competition. During wet season they avoid their preferred energy-rich prey (such as
wildebeests) when they overlapped in areas where lions ranged (Vanak et al. 2013). Moreover,
wild cats are forced to choose the lesser of two evils: either risk their life by battling another
competitor for the same prey or opt to avoid competition by fleeing thus risking starvation.
Relevance
All of these factors add to a major conservation issue for our African wildcats; that human
influenced habitat infringement negatively affects resource partitioning between these three
species and is likely to increase the rate at which their populations decline. We could potentially

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lose African leopards, cheetahs, and lions sooner than we think if we allow this trend to persist
without research backing enforcement of conservation policies and practices to protect them. Not
only would we potentially lose these animals, but the abrupt removal of these top predators
would have various adverse effects on the ecology of the ecosystems in which they belong.
Hypothesis
It is hypothesized that African lions, cheetahs, and leopards exploit the same resources
differently under typical conditions, but in the wake of habitat infringement they overlap when
faced with diminishing home ranges; this would adversely cause the three wildcat species to
atypically compete more often for the shared prey items. Ultimately this would then result in one
top predator outcompeting and displacing the others (possibly driving them toward starvation).
An alternative hypothesis would be that multiple top predators will deplete the shared prey item
populations at a higher rate than the prey item populations are able to replenish themselves, thus
driving them toward extinction and adversely increasing predation pressure on the other shared
and unshared prey items.
Methods
Project Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows: 1.) Clearly identify unprotected areas where
populations of cheetahs, leopards, and lions currently coexist that are estimated to have potential
areas of dietary overlap (Hayward et al. 2006). 2.) Examine the current intensity levels of human
habitat infringement around these populations. 3.) Outline areas in which these wild cats have
overlapping ranges consisting of zebra, antelope, wildebeest, and warthogs populations using
ArcMap. 4.) Record observations of interspecific competition encounters in the following
combinations: lions vs. cheetahs, lions vs. leopards, leopards vs. cheetahs and their end results.

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Experimental Design
We will use ArcMap software to identify and map out the unprotected areas in which lions,
cheetahs, and leopards inhabit. Next we will use the same software to identify and map out the
ranges of the four shared prey species populations within the above mentioned unprotected areas.
Then we will highlight the areas within this region where populations of these cats are suspected
engage in interspecific competition as a result of dietary overlap.
In order to measure the intensity with which human diminish the wildcat species habitat in
unprotected areas, we will: make direct contact with these human to find out how often they
invade wild habitats, the rates at which their own populations are growing, and to get an idea of
how often they themselves encounter these wildcats on the stolen wild lands. In addition to
gaining information directly from the people, we will be examining records of up to the last 100
years of wildcat population trends in unprotected areas and compare this data to records of
human population trends in the very same areas. This data will be extrapolated into up to date
trend lines.
Data is to be collected for at least one wet season and one dry season using sample sizes of at
least 3 representatives of each wildcat species; this is to ensure higher precision. Data collection
will occur within the territory range of these wildcat populations and borderlines of these ranges
that suffer from habitat loss. Some additional data that is to be collected include the following:
approximate sizes of home range overlap of each of the three wild cat species, current population
status and size estimates of the three wild cat species throughout these unprotected areas, current
population sizes and status of the four shared prey species of the three wild cats.
The experimental groups of this study are: individuals belonging to African populations of lions,

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leopards, and cheetahs that co-inhabit unprotected areas throughout the areas they occupy. The
control group consists of the four prey species shared between these wildcats. These animals are:
zebras, wildebeest, warthogs, and antelope. Another control is the boundaries of these
unprotected lands that suffer from human influenced habitat loss.
Activities
Data on predator population range overlap, prey species population ranges, ranges of unstable
predator populations outside of protected areas, and areas exhibiting habitat loss will be
extrapolated and analyzed using ArcMap software and Microsoft Excel software. Data on the
results of interspecific competitive face-offs will be directly observed and recorded when
possible, otherwise tracking collars will be used on at least three randomly selected individuals
of each of the predator species; these collars will also be used to assess the movement of the
sample individuals as a result of human influenced habitat infringement. These collars are to be
removed after exactly one wet season and one dry season and the recorded data will be analyzed.

Expected Outcomes
It is expected that the results of this experiment will support the hypothesis that in the face of
human influenced habitat infringement both limiting and causing home ranges to overlap will
inevitably result in not only an increase in interspecific competition occurrences amongst lions,
leopards, and cheetahs at variable extents, but also exhibit a decrease in already struggling
population sizes of the loser species of the three (due to displacement, starvation, and death).
Interpretation of Results
All three of the predator species are expected to respond to the presence of anthropogenic
features in their environment; all except leopards are expected to exhibit movement toward

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human active areas in both wet and dry season (Vanak et al. 2013). This is strong evidence that
would ultimately explain the underlying cause of increased interspecific competition between the
three wildcats. Competition for prey species and changes in prey population dynamics have
begun to negatively affect the conservation status of the most highly specialized predator species;
those with the narrowest preferred dietary niche have the fewest and most threatened remaining
members (Hayward and Kerley 2008). This too is strong evidence that would also ultimately
explain the diminishing population sizes of the losing competing predator species as a result of
increased interspecific competition between the three wildcats.
As these predators continue to encounter humans, we can expect these encounters to end badly;
thus ultimately resulting in further increase in deaths of unprotected wildcats.
It is expected that cheetahs and leopards will exhibit the highest degree of overlap followed by
leopards and lions, and lastly lions and cheetahs (Hayward and Kerley 2008).This contributes to
the proximate explanation for increased encounters between the these wildcats . We can
intuitively surmise that as prey population sizes may crack beneath the pressure of predation
pressure from multiple angles.
Another possible outcome of this study would be that in the face of habitat infringement, shared
prey population sizes will significantly diminish as a result of an increased level of predation
pressure. Yet another possible outcome of this study would be that as a result of interspecific
competition, individuals of the loser species will opt to fight to maintain their established
territories despite human activity, thus increasing number of encounters between wildcats and
humans in areas that are currently being infringed upon.
References
Hayward, M.W and Kerley, G.I.H. (2008). Prey preferences and dietary overlap amongst Africas

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largest predators. South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 38(2):93-108.

Hayward, M.W and Slotow, R. (2009) Temporal partitioning of activity in large African
carnivores: tests of multiple hypotheses. South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 39(2):109125.
Hayward, M.W., Henschel, P., O'brien, J., Hofmeyr, M., Balme, G & Kerley, G.I.H. 2006a. Prey
preferences of the leopard (Panthera pardus). Journal of Zoology. 270: 298313.

Hayward, M.W., J., Hofmeyr, P., O'brien, J., & Kerley, G.I.H. 2006b. Prey preferences of the
cheetah Acinonyx jubatus: morphological limitations or the need to capture rapidly consumable
prey before kleptoparasites arrive? Journal of Zoology. 270: 615-627.

Hunter, Luke. (2006). Cats of Africa: behavior, ecology, and conservation. United Kingdom.
John Hopkins University Press.

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. (2014). Red List.
Retrieved from: http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/15954/0.

Vanak, A.T, Fortin, D., Thaker, M., Ogden, M., Owen, C., Greatwood, S., Slotow, R. (2013).
Moving to stay in place: behavioral mechanisms for coexistence of of African large carnivores.
Ecology. 94(11):2619-2631.

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