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Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

PHI 401.11, NORTH SOUTH UNIVERSITY

SMALL BUSINESS AND


BUSINESS ETHICS
THE NATURE AND PRACTICES
Ahnaf Sadat Ahmed
10/15/2015

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

ABSTRACT
Every firms main purpose is to earn profit; this is especially very true for the small firms. The
paper examines the importance of the ethical practices for the small firms and practices that
hinders the firms from being ethical. Mostly because of the survival needs the small firms are
forced to do some unethical practices. Apart from that, in this paper, some of many factors,
which are responsible for small firms unethical practices, are identified.

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION

04-05

BUSINESS ETHICS AND SMALL FIRMS

05-07

THE DEBATE REGARDING SMALL

07-14

FIRMS UNETHICAL CONDUCT:


-

IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS

12

ETHICS IN SMALL FIRMS


-

VALUE OF TRUST

13

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE

13

LAWS AND POLICIES

13-14

RECOMMENDATIONS

14-15

CONCLUSION

15-16

REFERENCES

17-19

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

INTRODUCTION
Business ethics in recent decades have become important issues in business world (Carroll,
1991).1 A numerous number of researches have done by many academicians. Most of these
researches are based on the large corporations perspective. Business ethics in small firms are
actually not focused.
There has been a lack of quality researches in Business ethics (Crane, 1999)2 . There is a bias in
the concepts of ethics from philosophical and normative perspective. Small business owners are
involved in a lot of ethical activities. Carr (2000) takes what is a radical stance in business ethics,
although a familiar perspective for sociologists.3 It presents ethics as an "ethic", a way of living.
This means that we should not make absolute judgments from a normative moral perspective of
good or bad but that we should develop an appreciation of behavior in context.
Public interest in Business ethics area has also been very high. Due to this, most business firms
now have a set of ethics. But, there is no universal approach to solve the ethical problems. Most
of the business employees solve these ethical issues on a routine basis.
Business ethics has become a topic of notable importance. Every business from large to small,
everyday has to take a lot and lots of decisions. Some of these decisions bring the ethical issues
in front. It creates an ethical dilemma. These dilemmas arise the question whether the ethical
decision may bring a profitable solution to the business. Every businesss mission is to earn
profit, not charity. If decisions made by the business were ethically sound, but in the long run it

Carroll,A .: 1991, 'The Pyramido f CorporateS ocial Responsibility:To ward the Moral Managemento f OrganizationalSt akeholders',Bu siness
Horizons 34(4), 39-48. Carroll,A .: 1991, 'The Pyramido f CorporateS ocial Responsibility:To ward the Moral Managemento f OrganizationalSt
akeholders',Bu siness Horizons 34(4), 39-48.
2
Crrane, A.: 1999, 'Are You Ethical? Please Tick Yes or No. On Researching Ethics in Business Organisations', Journal of Business Ethics 20(3).
3
Carr, P.: 2000, The Age of Enterprise: The Emergence and Evolution of Entrepreneurial Management

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

brings a loss business may have to think in the other way round. This happens very true to the
small firms, because of their small nature.
Many small businesses deny the practice of ethics because they feel that these ethics are for large
firms. But, the claim is not true, because in the long run these businesses become the large firms
and those large firms have a huge impact on the economic activities of a country. So, no matter
what the businesses size is, they have to have a strong ethical code of conduct.

This paper examines the reasons why business ethics dont matter to small firms. Small firms in
order to get succeeded can do whatever they think and go beyond the ethical conducts.
The paper is divided into 3 parts. The first part deals with the Business ethics and Small firm
context, the following part, we examine the debate that Small firms unethical conducts to get
succeeded and the later discusses with the implications of the findings.

BUSINESS ETHICS AND SMALL FIRMS

The concept of Business ethics was developed in the late 70s when the American universities
offered courses on Business ethics.4 Today these courses are pretty common all around the globe.
Once the universities started teaching courses, ethics became a new area of academic studies. In
the United States, that demand emerged during a period of political turmoil and business
scandals and of widespread disillusionment with the nation's political and business elite. The
image of big business, in particular, was tarnished, and its moral legitimacy called into question.
As a result, in the universities and in some business quarters, the need was felt to counteract
immoral or harmful business behavior by inculcating a greater sense of ethical responsibility
among businesspeople.
In simple words, Ethics means moral judgments regarding right and wrong. These ethical
decisions are usually made by the individuals. But, these ethical decisions usually affect the
whole firm. Ethics come from morality. So, its the employees responsibility whether to act
morally or not. Ethical behavior can bring significant importance to a business.

"Fundamental Theory and Contemporary Problems," (Shaw W.H.) sponsored by Jilin University, Changchun, China, and organized by the
Marxist division of its philosophy department

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

For example, they may:

Treatment of customers in a way to the firm's products, which will boost sales and profits

Employees want to stay with the business, reduce labor turnover and which will increase
productivity

Attract more employees wanting to work for the business, reduce recruitment costs and enable
the company to get the most talented employees

Captivate investors and keep the company's share price high, thereby protecting the business
from takeover.
Ethics refers to the moral values and principles that guide action and behaviour (Emerson,
2009).5 Ethics is a conception of conduct as either right or wrong (Post, Lawrence, & Weber,
1999).6 Spence and Van Heekeren (2005) conceive of ethics as a set of prescriptive rules, virtues,
values, and principles that inform and guide conduct.7
Now, Business ethics and CSR concepts lead to numerous confusions. In particular, two
concepts, CSR and business ethics, mainly overlap and tend to be used almost interchangeably in
academic literature.8 The interrelationship between these concepts is also illustrated by the
central role given to ethics in CSR and in the stakeholder concept. The confusion between
concepts related to CSR and business ethics increased when the academic literature spread into
daily business life and the press. Different ways of disseminating the concepts related to business
ethics and CSR added to the inconsistency and confusion. Apart from the academic press, many
other channels diffuse ideas to the industrial and business world.
Now, by the term small, it an easily be understood that, Small business refers to small
organizations. Small Business differs from large organizations in terms of:
-

Financial turnover

Assets

Market share

Numbers ownership

Emerson, R.W. (2009). Barrons Business Law. Hauppauge, New York: Barrons Educational Series, Inc
Post, J.E., Lawrence, A.T., & Weber, J. (1999). Business and Society: Corporate Strategy Public Policy, Ethics, Ninth Edition. Boston, MA:
Irwin-McGraw Hill.
6

Spence, E., & Van Heekeren, B. (2005). Advertising ethics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Cacioppe,R ., N. ForsterandM . Fox: 2008,' A Survey of Managers' Perceptions of Corporate Ethics and Social Responsibility and Actionsm by
Affect Companies' Success', Journal of Business Ethics 82, 681-700.

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

Capital employed

Small businesses are those that have fewer than 50 employees and have a turnover or balance
sheet total that does not exceed 10 million.
Spence9 recommended that Small business should be those with less than 50 employees and that
have owner managed and independent

THE DEBATE REGARDING SMALL FIRMS UNETHICAL CONDUCT


European Unions10 report defined the responsible entrepreneur as follows:
1) treats customers, business partners and competitors with fairness and honesty
2) cares about the health, safety and general well being of employees and customers
3) motivates his workforce by offering training and development opportunities
4) acts as a good citizen in local community
5) is respectful to natural resources and environment.
So, from the definition it can be clearly identified that Responsible entrepreneur means ethical
entrepreneur. Small business is basically an owner dependent business so an ethical entrepreneur
means an ethical business. His decisions will be ethical and it will not bring any harm in the
society. Due to that, responsible entrepreneurs mean a lot to ethical business.
There are basically 4 factors which determine the ethical issues of a firm:
1) Personal characteristics: The judgments, integrity and values of owner-manager,
2) Organizational characteristics: The organizations structure,
3) Context characteristics: The social, political, economical and institutional factors which
are external to the firm,
4) Issue characteristics: Situation that matters ethical behavior.

Now, Personal characteristics have a direct impact towards the ethics of the business. Solymossy
and Masters11 postulated, "the similarities between the predictors of entrepreneurship and of

Spence, L. J.: 1999, 'Does Size Matter? The State of the Art in Small Business Ethics', Business Ethics: A European Review 8(3), 163-174.

10
European Commission: 2003b, Responsible Entrepreneurship. A Collection of Good Practice Cases Among Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises across Europe (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
11
Solymossy, E. and J. K. Masters: 2002, 'Ethics Through an Entrepreneurial Lens: Theory and Observation', Journal of Business Ethics 38, 227241

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

ethical behavior are striking, their analysis and that of Longenecker12 also indicate that
entrepreneurial traits are not necessarily always associated with more ethical behavior. While
entrepreneurship may yield new jobs, innovations and economic growth, the entrepreneurial act
may also be allocated to such activities as rent seeking or even crime or may results in
innovations that pose ethical problems to the society.
Entrepreneurs are said to have an internal locus of control, a high sense of control over the events
in their environment. Many find positive relationship between internal locus of control and
ethical behavior. At the same time, a high need for achievement leads to positive ethical decision
making.
Machiavellism, the act of influencing others to achieve a personal goal has only been found to
have a negative influence on ethical decision-making aspect13. Finally, some evidence exists that
the Cognitive Moral Development 14 which refers to the level of cognitive skills that influence
moral decision-making, is a pretty higher among entrepreneurs than among other.15
Now, entrepreneurs can be of 2 types:
1) Opportunistic entrepreneur: Those with high education and training, high social
awareness and involvement. They have the ability to deal with the social challenges.
2) Craftsman entrepreneur: Completely reverse of the first one. They are not highly
educated and have low social awareness. They dont usually have the ability to deal with
the social issues.
Dreeks16 found that only maybe one out often small businesses owner-managers may be an
entrepreneur of the former type. In reality, most owner-managers will show features that position
them somewhere in between those two ends of the spectrum.

12

Longenecker, J. G, C. W. Moore, J. W. Petty, L. E. Palich and J. A. McKinney: 2006, 'Ethical Attitudes in Small Businesses and Large
Corporations: Theory and
Empirical Findings From a Tracking Study Spanning Three Decades',
13
Yurtsever, G.: 2003, 'Measuring the Moral Entrepreneurial Personality', Social Behavior and Personality 31(1), 1-12.
14
Kohlberg, L.: 1969, 'Stage and Sequence: The cognitive developmental approach to socialization', in D. A. Goslin (eds.), Handbook of
Socialization Theory and Research (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA), pp. 347-380.
15
Teal, E. J. and A. B. Carroll: 1999, 'Moral Reasoning Skills: Are Entrepreneurs Different?', Journal of Business Ethics 19(3), 229-240.
16
Deeks, J.: 1973, 'The Small Firm Asset or Liability', Journal of Management Studies 10(1), 25-47.

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

According to Nooteboom:
"In small firms the entrepreneur often participates intensively in day to day production, on the
shop floor. As a result, his time is extremely scarce. (...). Small firms will in majority have no
specialized staff for finance, personnel or marketing, and certainly for legal affairs.17
So, it can be concluded that, small business managers personal traits have a positive relationship
with the business ethics. In this type of business, lack of time and knowledge plays a crucial role.
If the managers can allow organizational learning and build networking then time and knowledge
constraints will be reduced.
If, the owner-manager practices good ethics in the business definitely his subordinates will never
do any unethical issues. So, the business will be ethical and vice versa.
The Organizations structure determines in internal business activities. In accordance with the
time and knowledge issues small businesses can face some organizational issues which may lead
them to do unethical works.
Lack of financial resources may hamper this type of business. Most of the business managers of
small firms think that always being ethical may result a competitive disadvantage. Besides that,
small businesses have limited opportunities to get the benefits of economies of scale and
learning. Apart from that small businesses often experience immediate cash needs that do not
allow them to build up large financial reserves, with a lack of slack financial resources as a
result. A small business owner-manager may want to invest in employee training, community
development or environmental technologies, but postpone such investments because of other
investments or business needs which pose a more important and immediate need in the strategic
or operational activities of the firm.
Fassin says, Business is not bad- its just difficult and in difficult times, first goal of the
business is to survive18 That is so true for the small firms. Because, in financial crisis time,
owners may have to focus on their survival rather that ethics so for survival business sometimes
are forced to do unethical works.
Porter identified that smaller size often results in lower negotiation power and leverage to modify
environmental forces in the market, with their suppliers and in politics.19 Sometimes just to
maintain the pressures of other competitors for being ethical small firms manager may have to
17

Nooteboom, B.: 1994, 'Innovation and Diffusion in Small Firms: Theory and Evidence', Small Business Economics 6(5), 327-347.
Fassin, Y.: 2005, 'The Reasons Behind Non-Ethical Behavior in Business and Entrepreneurship',60(3), 265-279.
19
Porter, M. E.: 1980, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (Free Press, New York, NY).
18

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

go against the active norms of the society. As these are small firms, these deviations may lead
them to financial crisis. This may lead to increase in production costs. So, in the long run, just to
survive they may be forced to do unethical practices.
There can be situations where there is no sustainable supplier in the industry. Some ethical works
require the whole chain to do (like closing materials loop through waste recycling). This process
involves all the parties in the chain so if the down-stream suppliers are not interested in the
process than the problem cant be solved.
Small firms political influence is limited. The large firms have more leverage, so they can
dedicate more resources in the policy making process. If we bring the CSR concept here, due to
financial shortage, small firms cant allocate resources in the policy decision making process.
They would rather focus on voluntary self regulation. So, they cant follow environmental
guidelines.
There are three contextual factors that are of particular importance: external stakeholder
pressures, the socio-economic context and the institutional environment.
External shareholders can play a vital role in this scenario. Bowen observed that the visibility of
an organization whether it can be seen by its relevant constituents or not is not determined by
organizational size alone. Rather, the size visibility relationship is moderated by the community
in which the business operates and the type of business it is in.20 Smith and Oakley, for example,
found that entrepreneurs in nonurban areas were less accepting ethically questionable behaviors
than those in urban areas. Businesses that were active in smaller communities were therefore
found to develop more responsible behavior. By contrast, businesses that have no such
relationship with the local community may choose to operate in stealth mode and remain
invisible to the general public as a competitive strategy or avoid institutional pressures from the
public.21 In a nutshell, whether smaller size results in diminished organizational visibility greatly
depends on the context the business is operating in. Those small businesses that are characterized
by higher levels of organizational visibility will receive more scrutiny and information from their
stakeholders and will therefore engage more in ethical activities.
Socio-economic context can also play a vital role. Latin American small business practices more
ethical practices than its European counterpart. Lack of financial resource is an essential barrier
20

Bowen, F. E.: 2002, 'Organizational Slack and Corporate Greening: Broadening the Debate', British Journal of Management 13(4), 305-316.
Smith, P. L. and E. F. I. Oakley: 1994, 'A Study of the Ethical Values of Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Small Business Owners', Journal of
Small Business Management, 32(4)
21

10

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

regarding ethical practices. Finland, Norway, Iceland and Denmark practices the most ethical
manners. In Europe Spain and Greece practices the lowest ethical works.
Industrial and branch organizations, by providing the information channels and meeting for that
small business trust and by creating a shared responsibility among peers, will be more important
drivers for socially responsible action among small business than they will be among larger
business.
Jones (1991) proposed a model that explains moral action on the basis of six dimensions of issue
moral intensity. The higher the moral intensity of these dimensions, the more likely
a person will (1) recognize the moral issue; (2) use sophisticated moral reasoning; (3) develop an
intention to behave morally; and ultimately (4) behave ethically.
Small business owner-managers are particularly sensitive to activities related to their immediate
internal stakeholders (employees, customers and suppliers), involving loyalty in their (often
close) relationship with customers and employees; openness, honesty and fairness in contracts,
agreements, payments and (marketing) information; pricing issues among competitors and origin
of resources.
On the other hand, such unethical actions as padding expense accounts, often resulting in a
higher income for the owner-manager, are experienced as less problematic (Murphy et al.).22
The type of ethical managerial thought processed in solving ethical problems and challenges is
one of the first factors that create unethical practices in small businesses. Owners-managers of
small businesses like their larger counterparts can take 3 paths to ethics. These include taking the
approaches of being a moral manager, an amoral manager, or an immoral manager or owner in
making decisions (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn & Uhl-Bien, 2010).23
A moral manager will understand the values and essentials of doing the appropriate thing as
expected by all stakeholders. Because of this he takes all ethical considerations into perspective
when making decisions or establishing practices and policies for the business. As he thinks and
does the right thing, he is an ethical manager. While taking decisions, the amoral manager takes
a business-centered approach and values these decisions according to their business sense and
financial consequences. Ethics does not become a fact because business is for profit, not for
charity. So, the amoral manager is not unethical, but simply does not take ethics into
22
Murphy, P. R., J. A. Smith and J. M. Daley: 1992, 'Executive Attitudes, Organizational Size and Ethical Issues: Perspectives on a Service
Industry', Journal of Business Ethics.
23
Schermerhorn, J., Hunt, J., Osborn, R., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2010). Organizational Behaviour (11th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

11

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consideration because it is not a part of the equation of doing business. The immoral manager is
the biggest challenge for small businesses because he understands the value and importance of
ethics and understands when a decision or policy is unethical, but makes the decision to pursue
such course of action anyways because profit is more important than ethics. Once there is a profit
to be gained, the immoral manager could care less about the negative ethical consequences of a
behaviour or action (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, & Uhl-Bien)

IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS ETHICS IN SMALL FIRMS

Despite of the situation, small firms owners have to understand that, being ethical is the best
possible thing. Recently, ethics issues have emerged again, because stakeholders want this. Also,
due to environmentalism, now firms are forced by the stakeholders to conduct more ethics
practices. Thus, it is important for small venture owners and managers to get onboard the new
call for ethical responsibility by engaging in ethical reasoning when they make decisions about
products and services, customers, business partners, processes and operations, and all aspects of
conducting business. Ethical reasoning is the process whereby a decision maker systematically
analyzes an ethical issue and applies it to one more ethical standard in resolving problems
(Murphy & Laczniak, 2006).24 This usually requires three simple steps: (1) defining the ethical
problem, (2) selecting an ethical standard, and (3) applying this ethical standard (Murphy,
Laczniak, Bowie & Klein, 2005)25. This must also involve assessing consequences or results and
revisiting the process to take corrective actions where necessary. This is where public relations
have become an important aspect of ethical practices within organizations as it is sometimes
necessary to have a spokesperson that is capable of representing the organization where ethical
challenges persist and reach the mass media. There are four areas in which ethics and being
highly ethical become important to small firms.

24

Murphy, P., Laczniak, G., Bowie, N., & Klein, T. (2005). Ethical marketing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Brown, D. & J. King (1982). Small business ethics: Influences and perceptions. Journal of Small Business Management, Volume 20, Issue 1,
pp. 11-18.
25

12

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

VALUE OF TRUST
According to Twomey and Jennings (2011), Capitalism succeeds because of trust.26
Investors will provide capital because of the belief or trust that the business will create a return
on investment; and customers purchase products and services from businesses because they
believe that those businesses will honour their commitments to deliver safe, good quality
products, and will also stand behind what they sell or provide. The small business owner must
therefore see business investment, growth, and sales as stemming from a circle of trust.

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE

Several findings to verify the relationship of links between financial performance and business
ethics, from a study of companies in the United Kingdom (UK) included the following:
-

Companies with a code of ethics generated significantly more Economic Value Added
(EVA) and Market Value Added (MVA) in the years 1997 - 2000, than those without
codes,

Companies with a code of ethics experienced far less P/E ratio volatility over a four year
period, than those without them,

Data also shows that in the years 19972001, those with an explicit commitment to doing
business ethically have produced profit/turnover ratios at 18% higher than those without a
similar commitment. (Webley & More, 2013)27

LAWS AND POLICIES

Understanding and following the laws, implemented by the governments, at all levels will
certainly lead to ethical and legal compliance and a good business reputation. Business
behaviours have created tremendous social and economic costs for communities and government
and when this happens, laws or regulations must be the source or standard for business conduct.
26

Twomey, D.P., & Jennings, M.M. (2011). Andersons Business Law and the Legal Environment, 21st Edition. Mason, OH: South-Western
Cengage Learning.
27
Webley, S., & More, E. (2013). Does Business Ethics Pay? Ethics and Financial Performance. Institute of Business Ethics. Greencoat Place,
London: IBE, pp. 4-10.

13

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

In todays society, where local and central government agencies must set standards and codify
them as legal requirements for businesses to follow in the interests of consumers and society.
Without these legal guidelines and regulation and monitoring by administrative agencies far
more unethical behaviours would be seen than what the people have seen in the past two
decades. Intelligent and wise firms will follow these guidelines as acting voluntarily on the basis
of value choices will help them to avoid the costs and arbitrariness of regulation and legislation.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Practising Business ethics is now a days, very essential for achieving Business success. As at the
end of the day, Business is people dependent, training people is the most essential. Apart from
that, there are some other techniques to improve ethics as well.
Small business owners and their employees need to become more educated and more aware of
the need for ethics in business. They must understand the ethics definitions and application of the
stakeholder model in making ethical decisions; which is, stakeholder analysis by considering
some essential questions: Who are our stakeholders? How does this decision affect our
stakeholders? Are there any negative or undesirable consequences? and What is the best
approach to meeting the ethical expectations of everyone affected by this business decision?
These are some of the key questions that can guide small business owners and their employees in
choosing among alternatives for growth, development, and reputation building in the industries
and communities where they operate. Business owners and their employees have to training in
business ethics and morality (study of right and wrong and applying judgement in the appropriate
situation) by formal and informal learning methods such as educational enrolment or seminar
enrolment in ethics and business law courses, reading and learning in depth about business ethics
and laws from the local library, Internet search, or other sources. Doing and arranging business
ethics training can be a good way for small business owners to create ethical awareness and
consciousness in their employees.
Small business firms have to develop a unique code of conduct. Most of the small firms dont
have a professional code of ethics. They have to develop it. Developing and following a standard
code of ethics will create a positive image in the stakeholders mind. But only having a code of
conduct will not work. Firms have to practice it. The code of conduct has to reflect the
14

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

organizational goals, transparent actions and have to show the stakeholders that the Business is
practicing values, being honest, working with integrity and respecting the shareholders.
Small business owners have to make good faith practice in the foundation of business
engagement with stakeholders. Good faith asks for a business to act honestly and in a trustworthy
manner to endeavour to behave in accord with firms own agreements, ethical standards in the
industry, and the law itself. Small businesses have to make policies so that they can practice and
appreciate that doing business requires exercising good manners and honouring what they are
asked to do and keeping their commitment toward customers and stakeholders with goodwill and
good intention. When it comes to contracts and other agreements business owners are expected
to correctly represent their products and services, be honest in transactions, and deliver what they
promise (Emerson, 2009).28

CONCLUSION

Learning ethics helps the small firms to solve the ethical problems and ethical situations. This
helps business to make decisions correctly and help firms to create a positive image. Practicing
good ethics will result in firms good performance. Small firms owners can follow some of the
suggestions that have suggested below:
-

Follow good ethics and work accordingly,

Create goodwill for the firms,

Do the ethically correct things, dont bother about the profits and losses,

Do more research and innovations, continuous improvements, so that they can find the
best possible manners in practicing good ethics.

Owner-managers should be more active in the firms. They should check personally, the ethical
conducts of their business. Being ethical, will not only benefit them but also will help the entire
country. They cant blame the Government bodies for these issues. They have to have a
guideline and follow those guideline.

28

Emerson, R.W. (2009). Barrons Business Law. Hauppauge, New York: Barrons Educational Series, Inc.

15

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

Although sometimes being ethical costs a lot, despite that firm, no matter whatever the size is,
must focus on do the honest things and maintain their commitments. Undoubtedly in the long run
this will create a positive value for the firm.

16

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

REFFERENCES

Carroll,A .: 1991, 'The Pyramido f CorporateS ocial Responsibility: Toward the Moral
Management of Organizational S akeholders',Business Horizons 34(4), 39-48.

Carroll,A .: 1991, 'The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral
Management of Organizational Stakeholders,Business Horizons 34(4), 39-48.

Crrane, A.: 1999, 'Are You Ethical? Please Tick Yes or No. On Researching Ethics in
Business Organisations', Journal of Business Ethics 20(3).

Carr, P.: 2000, The Age of Enterprise: The Emergence and Evolution of Entrepreneurial
Management

"Fundamental Theory and Contemporary Problems," (Shaw W.H.) sponsored by Jilin


University, Changchun, China, and organized by the Marxist division of its philosophy
department

Emerson, R.W. (2009). Barrons Business Law. Hauppauge, New York: Barrons
Educational Series, Inc

Post, J.E., Lawrence, A.T., & Weber, J. (1999). Business and Society: Corporate Strategy
Public Policy, Ethics, Ninth Edition. Boston, MA: Irwin-McGraw Hill.

Spence, E., & Van Heekeren, B. (2005). Advertising ethics. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education, Inc.

Cacioppe,R ., N. ForsterandM . Fox: 2008,' A Survey of Managers' Perceptions of


Corporate Ethics and Social Responsibility and Actionsm by Affect Companies' Success',
Journal of Business Ethics 82, 681-700.

Spence, L. J.: 1999, 'Does Size Matter? The State of the Art in Small Business Ethics',
Business Ethics: A European Review 8(3), 163-174.

European Commission: 2003b, Responsible Entrepreneurship. A Collection of Good


Practice Cases Among Small and Medium-sized Enterprises across Europe (Office for
Official Publications of the European Communities,

Solymossy, E. and J. K. Masters: 2002, 'Ethics Through an Entrepreneurial Lens: Theory


and Observation', Journal of Business Ethics 38, 227-241

17

Small Business and Business Ethics (1220047030)

Longenecker, J. G, C. W. Moore, J. W. Petty, L. E. Palich and J. A. McKinney: 2006,


'Ethical Attitudes in Small Businesses and Large Corporations: Theory and Empirical
Findings From a Tracking Study Spanning Three Decades',

Yurtsever, G.: 2003, 'Measuring the Moral Entrepreneurial Personality', Social Behavior
and Personality 31(1), 1-12.

Kohlberg, L.: 1969, 'Stage and Sequence: The cognitive developmental approach to
socialization', in D. A. Goslin (eds.), Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research
(Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA), pp. 347-380.

Teal, E. J. and A. B. Carroll: 1999, 'Moral Reasoning Skills: Are Entrepreneurs


Different?', Journal of Business Ethics 19(3), 229-240.

Deeks, J.: 1973, 'The Small Firm Asset or Liability', Journal of Management Studies
10(1), 25-47.

Nooteboom, B.: 1994, 'Innovation and Diffusion in Small Firms: Theory and Evidence',
Small Business Economics 6(5), 327-347.

Fassin, Y.: 2005, 'The Reasons Behind Non-Ethical Behavior in Business and
Entrepreneurship',60(3), 265-279.

Porter, M. E.: 1980, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and
Competitors (Free Press, New York, NY).

Bowen, F. E.: 2002, 'Organizational Slack and Corporate Greening: Broadening the
Debate', British Journal of Management 13(4), 305-316.

Smith, P. L. and E. F. I. Oakley: 1994, 'A Study of the Ethical Values of Metropolitan
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