An Introduction to Argument

Writing an effective argument is a task that requires a variety of skills. A student who is
able to write arguments well has the ability to research properly, utilize evidence, synthesize
ideas, address counterarguments, communicate clearly, and showcase many other skills. Due to
the fact that argumentative writing challenges students in a multitude of ways, schools have
recently put an emphasis on argument writing in the classroom. The 2009 document College
and Career Ready: Standards for Reading, Writing, and Communication, which was assembled
by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State
School Officers, says this about argument writing: The ability to frame and defend an
argument is particularly important to students readiness for college and careers. The goal of
making an argument is to convince an audience of the rightness of the claims being made using
logical reasoning and relevant evidence (Hillocks 25). Clearly, argument writing is a complex
task and is viewed as an ability vital for college and career readiness.

Argument and the Common Core

Argument writing was further cemented into the classroom when the Common Core State
Standards were published in 2010. The importance of argumentative writing is clear in the
Common Core, as one of the anchor standards for writing focuses specifically on argument. The
following is listed under the College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Writing:
Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid
reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence (English Language Arts Standards). As the
Common Core State Standards continue to grow in popularity, teachers and students will be

asked to further develop their understandings and practice behind argument in the years to
come.

The Lack of Research to Support Argument Writing

Unfortunately, the research to support the instruction of argument writing is lacking. In
their article Teaching and Learning Argumentative Reading and Writing: A Review of
Research, Newell, Beach, Smith, and VanDerHeide review the literature and research that has
been completed in the field of argument writing. Their conclusion is that in spite of its
significance both in and out of school, at present, argumentation remains poorly defined or
perhaps overly defined by specific sets of assumptions related to research, theoretical work, and
teaching and learning (Newell et. al. 274). Understandably, the research to support
argumentation has not been able to keep up with its rapid rise in importance among educational
leaders. While many teachers are being asked to teach argument writing (and have been asked
to do so for years), the research to support this implementation is still lagging behind the
practice itself. As more teachers are being asked to implement argument writing into their
classrooms, an increase in research and evidence-based teaching strategies must be explored.

An Overview of Argument Writing

While many definitions can and have been applied to argument in writing, Newell,
Beach, Smith, and VanDerHeide subscribe to Toulmins model as the most widely accepted
definition of argument writing. The components of Toulmins model, according to Newell et.
al., include: identification of a thesis (also called a claim), supportive evidence (empirical or

experiential), and assessment of warrants connecting the thesis, evidence, and situation
constituting and argument (Newell et. al. 274). Richard Fulkerson also discusses the Toulmin
model at length in his book Teaching the Argument in Writing, and he offers the following
example as an argument that utilizes the main components of the Toulmin model:
WARRANT: All men are mortal.
DATA: Jean is a mortal
BACKING: Throughout history, all known men have died.
QUALIFIER: It absolutely follows that,
REBUTTAL: Unless the laws of nature change,
CLAIM: Jean is a man (20).
Using the argument above as a standard, it is clear that Toulmins model utilizes a variety of
logical warrants, evidence, data, qualifiers, and rebuttals to make a claim. Before moving
forward, a distinction must be made between argument writing and persuasive writing.
Argument writing differs from persuasive writing in that it employs reason and evidence from
multiple perspectives to support a claim. While persuasive writing can utilize evidence, the
method of persuasion is often one sided and does not address the opposing viewpoint (rebuttal).
Persuasion also frequently leaves out qualifiers, and instead blindly argues points with no
acknowledgment of how or when the discussion at hand might vary. Pieces of persuasive
writing tend to rely on propaganda instead of evidence to convince readers. Conversely,
argument writing is evidence-based.
Another common component of argument writing that often supplements Toulmins
model is Aristotles rhetorical appeals. Aristotles rhetorical triangle consists of ethos, pathos,

and logos. Ethos establishes credibility for the writer through reasonable support, evidence, and
research. Pathos allows writers to draw on emotion in an argument, appealing to the shared
values of society without manipulating readers with excessive or unfair emotional references.
Logos implements logic into an argument by developing ideas in a clear and effective way. If a
writer uses logos effectively, he/she will have created a syllogism. In his article Teaching
Argument for Critical Thinking and Writing: An Introduction, George Hillocks Jr. states: the
syllogism derives a conclusion from a set of statements called premises, which are thought to be
true and which have a common or middle term in each (25). Hillocks Jr. goes on to provide the
following syllogism as an example: (1) all men are mortal, (2) Socrates is a man, therefore (3)
Socrates is mortal. The connection between Aristotles three rhetorical appeals (ethos, pathos,
and logos) and Toulmins model of argument (warrant, data, qualifier, rebuttal and claim) is
clear, and both concepts contribute to the widely understood definition of argument writing.

Teaching Argument Writing: A Process

Like many forms of writing, argument writing is a recursive process. Due to its complex
nature, the completion of an effective piece of argument writing requires multiple steps. George
Hillocks Jr. labels this process as inquiry:
For that reason, my students and I have approached the teaching of argument from the
examination of data as a first step. We have tried to find data sets that require some
interpretation and give rise to questions. When the data are curious, do not fit
preconceptions, they give rise to questions and genuine thinking. Attempts to answer these
questions become hypotheses, possible future thesis statements that we may eventually write

about after further investigation. That is to say, the process of working through an argument
is the process of inquiry (Hillocks Jr. 26)
Because argument writing is, first and foremost, inquiry based, teachers ought to teach it as
such. While this process requires more diligence and, at times, a slower pace, than other forms
of writing instruction, the products that are created showcase deep, analytical, evidence-based
thinking. It is important to understand that Toulims model and Aristotles appeals fall within
the scope of inquiry that Hillocks Jr. describes above. Ultimately, the process of argument
writing is rigorous and recursive and needs to be taught as such.

Why Argument?
Argumentative writing is a process of inquiry that requires research, hypotheses,
evidence, analysis, rhetoric, and structure. The Toulmin model of argument and Aristotles
rhetorical appeals are the basis of what is commonly understood as argument writing. The
effective implementation of these devices requires much instruction, practice, and revision.
Recently, the writers of the Common Core State Standards have made it clear that writing an
effective argument is a skill vital for all students to master. With these understandings in mind,
the question that educators must ask themselves is this: why is teaching argument so important
in the ELA classroom? Due to the fact that argument writing utilizes a variety of skills and
challenges students to tackle content that is transferrable to real world situations, its merit in the
classroom is clear. Regardless of which benefit most clearly supports argument writing in the
classroom, it is vital that educators remember what George Hillocks Jr. states in his article
Teaching Argument for Critical Thinking and Writing: An Introduction: teaching argument is

well worth the time and effort (31). Now, research must be performed to explore how
argument is best taught in the classroom and how this instruction benefits students. The
vignettes in this article showcase three different cases of argument writing in the classroom. In
each vignette, the author has implemented techniques of evidence based reflective practice to
best understand how the teaching of argument writing is affecting student learning in his/her
classroom.

Works Cited
"English Language Arts Standards." Common Core State Standards Initiative. Web.
Fulkerson, Richard. Teaching the Argument in Writing. Urbana, Ill.: National Council of
Teachers of English, 1996. Print.
Hillocks Jr., George. "Teaching Argument for Critical Inking and Writing: An Introduction."
English Journal 99.6 (2010): 24-32. Print.
Newell, George E. et al.. Teaching and Learning Argumentative Reading and Writing: A
Review of Research. Reading Research Quarterly 46.3 (2011): 273304. Web.