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Introduction............................................................................................13
Evaporation ............................................................................................15
Falling Film Evaporators ................................................................................17
Vapour Recompression TVR ................................................................................. 23
Mechanical Vapour Recompression MVR............................................................. 29
Comparison of Energy Consumption in Different Evaporators.............................. 33
Design of Industrial Evaporators ........................................................................... 35

Auxiliary Equipment for the Evaporator.........................................................37

Separators .............................................................................................................. 39

Separators with Tangential Vapour Inlet............................................................... 39

Wrap-Around Separator ........................................................................................ 39

Product Distribution System .................................................................................. 39

Dynamic Distribution System ............................................................................... 39

Static Distribution System..................................................................................... 41

Preheaters .............................................................................................................. 41

Spiral-Tube Preheaters .......................................................................................... 41

Straight-Tube Preheaters ....................................................................................... 43

Pasteurization/Holding Equipment ........................................................................ 43

Bacteriological Requirements ............................................................................... 43

Heat Classified Skim Milk Powder ....................................................................... 45
Keeping Quality of Whole Milk............................................................................ 45
High-Heat Heat-Stable Milk Powder..................................................................... 45
Instant Whole Milk Powder .................................................................................. 45

Preheating Equipment to prevent Thermophile Bacteria Growth........................... 49

Mid-run cleaning................................................................................................... 51
UHT treatment ...................................................................................................... 51
Duplex preheating system ..................................................................................... 51
Contact preheating by direct steam injection ........................................................ 51
Direct contact regenerative preheating.................................................................. 53

Condensation Equipment ....................................................................................... 53

Mixing Condenser ................................................................................................. 55

Surface Condenser ................................................................................................ 55

Vacuum Equipment ............................................................................................... 55

Vacuum Pump ....................................................................................................... 57

Steam Jet Vacuum Unit......................................................................................... 57

Cooling Towers ..................................................................................................... 57

High-Concentrators................................................................................................ 57
Flash Coolers ......................................................................................................... 59
Sealing Water Equipment ...................................................................................... 59
Instrumentation and Automation............................................................................ 59

Feed Flow.............................................................................................................. 61

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The factor deciding if there will be any wetting at all is the interfacial tension between
the particle surface and the water. Skim milk powder particles will usually be wetted
easily (provided there is less than 0.03% fat on the surface), as the powder material is
mainly lactose being in an amorphous phase and protein, both absorbing water readily.
However, whole milk powder particles are always covered by a layer of fat, making
them water repellent. The amount of this surface free fat varies between 0.5 and 3% of
the powder.
This water repellence of the particles caused by their fat coating may be overcome,
and an interfacial tension facilitating the wetting may be achieved by adding a surface
active agent to the surface free fat. It has been known for years that phospholipids
such as lecithin are well suited for this purpose. Lecithin has the advantage of being a
natural product and even a natural component of milk, and being both lipophilic and
hydrophilic it is able to absorb water. See page 249.
When the particles have been wetted, the individual components of the milk powder
start dissolving and dispersing, thus forming a concentrated solution of milk around
the particles. At the same time the particles start sinking to the bottom, but it should
be mentioned that, in order to make the particles sink, the density of the particles has
to be greater than that of the water.
The density of a particle depends on its composition and amount of occluded air. During the first stages of reconstitution the density of the particles decreases, mainly because the lactose and the minerals, which are the heaviest milk components, start dissolving faster than the other components. At the same time, the density of the solution
being formed is increased because of the dissolving lactose, so that the difference between the densities of the particles and of the surrounding liquid is reduced. The particle density may even become the same or lower than that of the liquid, so that, after
the initial sinking, the particles start to rise again. Thus to prevent this, the particle
density should be high, i.e. the content of occluded air should be low. See page 211.
The reconstitution of a mass of powder is more complicated. As already mentioned,
powder is a composite surface with a greatly ramified system of capillaries of various
dimensions and a complicated geometrical pattern thus having different capillary attraction effects.
Under these conditions there will be wetting not only on the surface of the water, but
also of particles lying above the surface, as the water is drawn toward them by capillary attraction. This replacement of interstitial air by water through capillary penetration is very often incomplete, as the amount of penetrating water is insufficient, thus
leaving air bubbles between the wetted particles. In this way we have all three phases
going on simultaneously, resulting in the coexistence of their products of varying concentrations. This coexistence is very dangerous, because after a short time the space
between the particles will be filled with milk of different, including high, concentrations. This results in a sticky jelly with islands of unwetted powder and residual air.
Furthermore, lumps, that are wet and swollen outside and dry inside, are created. As
- 211 -

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Temp.
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C

Solubility in %

Solubility in 100 ml H2 O

(expressed as anhydride)

(expressed as anhydride)

Total
Lactose

Total
Lactose


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The curve to-n is therefore the interesting one, and under normal conditions the viscosity does not present any problems, provided the heat treatment is controlled. The
CRYSTALLIZED LACTOSE
25 C. SEEDED WITH 2

/oo LACTOSE

40 C. SEEDED WITH 1 o /oo LACTOSE

HOURS

Fig. 132

Fig. 133

Lactose crystallization as a function of time

Evaporator, two flash coolers with crystallization tanks, and a

compact dryer for continuous production of semi-crystallized
whey powder

- 256 -

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NIRO A/S

Crystallization
Drying at a temperature of 150C
Moisture content ex chamber 12-15%

In order to avoid condensation in the cyclones, due to a low outlet temperature (approx. 55C), hot air may be introduced into the cyclones thus reducing the relative
humidity.
Bag filters - standard or CIP-able - are not recommended due to the high moisture/relative humidity in the exhaust air. Wet scrubbers are therefore recommended.
The high moisture content in the powder means that the crystallization will continue
in the powder to an even greater extent than in the process featuring fluid beds only,
as discussed on page 261. This crystallization is improved, if the wet powder is kept
at the high moisture content for 5-10 min. This is done on a belt conveyor or a rotating disc between the chamber outlet and the Vibro-Fluidizer, where the final drying
takes place, see Fig. 136. The powder will consist of big agglomerates which will
have a low bulk density and extremely good instant and non-caking properties. The
bulk density may be increased by a hammer mill treatment.
Spray Drying of High Concentrated Whey Concentrate
In an attempt to improve drying economy, the solids content in the concentrate has
been experimentally increased up to 70-75% TS. To avoid crystallization in the last
effect, as the lactose becomes supersaturated, the evaporator is equipped with a specially designed high concentrator operating with recycling and at a higher boiling
temperature. Further, the higher temperature is necessary to lower the viscosity of the
concentrate to avoid blocked tubes.
When the concentrate has reached its final solids content, it is flash cooled, and the
crystallization takes place instantaneously. Normal crystallization tanks are not necessary, only an intermediate tank with agitation. However, the high temperature during
the long recycling time in the evaporator has its price. The whey proteins are denatured, and valuable nutritional values are lost. Further, the Maillard reaction will start
resulting in a pronounced discolouring and bad flavour in the final powder. Therefore,
even though the economy is attractive the end result - the final powder - does not meet
international standards.

Production of Acid Whey Powder

Not all whey originates from traditional cheese production giving sweet whey with a
pH of min. 6.3. Cottage cheese, quark, Fromage Frais, Queso Fresco, Mozzarella, or
similar products give whey with a pH of 4.6 due to the precipitation of the milk.

- 263 -

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Commercially, whey proteins are available with three different protein contents: 35%
WPC, 60% WPC, and 80% WPC.
If 100 kg of normal sweet whey with 6% solids is used, then approx. 20 kg of 35%
WPC is discharged from the ultrafiltration module with a solids content of about 10%,
which is increased by evaporation to 45% before the spray drying. Approx. 8 kg of
60% WPC is discharged with a solids content of about 15%, evaporated to 42% before the spray drying. High protein concentration results in high viscosity, and it is
necessary to add water (diafiltration) during the final filtration, if 80% WPC is produced. 3 kg of 80% WPC is discharged with a solids content of about 28-30%. Due to
the high protein content it is dried directly.
Whey protein concentrates can be used direct, together with ordinary milk concentrates, in formulas for baby food thus obtaining a product with a composition similar
to mothers milk.
The whey protein concentrates can also be used in the production of cream cheese or
other soft type cheeses or as filler (water binder) in sausages replacing the meat.
The drying of whey protein concentrates is easy, but to maintain a good solubility of
the product, it is essential to use low outlet air temperatures to avoid denaturation, see
Fig. 139. Two-stage drying is therefore recommended.
As the solids content of the concentrate is low due to the high protein content, the
spray drying plants are always equipped with bag filters after the cyclones. However,
as the filter fraction may not always have the same quality as the main product, the
Tall-Form Dryer is often selected, as the special air outlet minimizes the cyclone fraction and consequently also the filter fraction. See page 75 and Fig. 140.
The tendency today is to produce agglomerated instant whey proteins. Due to the lack
of lactose as binder, especially in 80% WPC, the agglomeration is difficult. However,
by selecting the Multi-Stage Dryer, see page 203, Fig. 85, it is possible to obtain a sufficient agglomeration. As the proteins are very hydrophilic, they will absorb water instantaneously at their first contact with water, which makes the dispersion difficult.
By agglomeration and lecithination the water absorption is delayed just sufficiently to
allow the powder to be dispersed in the water before the final dissolution.
The powder has the same applications as the concentrates, but does have the supreme
advantage of an almost infinite keeping quality.

Permeate
The other product from the ultrafiltration is the permeate, usually containing about
4.5% lactose. The permeate can be used for fermenting, production of glucosegalactose or lactylurea, or concentrated, crystallized and then dried.
- 271 -




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NIRO A/S

As a certain amount of aroma is lost during the drying it is recommended to use aged
cheese. In order to avoid problems with the odour form the exhaust air this may be filtered through activated carbon filters.

Cocoa-Milk-Sugar Mixtures
This type of powder is used extensively in vending machines for preparation of hot
chocolate drinks, but the powder is also sold in ordinary retail packages and used in
households.
The powder will usually have the following composition:
Cocoa:
Skim milk solids:
Sugar:

15-35%
40-60%
20-40%

If the amount of cocoa and sugar is not higher than 15% and 20%, respectively, the
single components may be spray dried as a mixture (which is homogenized) from a
feed with 45% solids and a drying temperature of 170-180C. In order to obtain a
free-flowing powder suitable for vending machines the cyclone fraction is recycled to
the atomizing device for agglomeration. The powder is after-dried and cooled in a Vibro-Fluidizer similar to the spray drying agglomeration process, as described in page
153.
If the amount of cocoa and sugar is higher, it is recommended to add the exceeding
amount in dry form. This is done via the fines return system by means of an additional
blow-through valve and a powder dosing equipment for the pre-mixed cocoa and
sugar which is stored in a silo. It should be observed that the sugar should be fine
ground to obtain an optimum agglomeration.

Coffee-Whitener
Coffee-whitener - artificial cream with vegetable oil - is another big group of recombined products that are spray dried.
The typical composition of a coffee-whitener is as follows:
Glucose syrup or maltodextrine with a DE of 25-30:

60-65%

Hydrogenated vegetable fat with melting point 35-40C:

30-32%

Na-caseinate:

3-5%

Artificial cream flavour, colour and emulsifiers:

1-3%

Phosphates:

1-3%
- 321 -

NIRO A/S

The above ingredients are recombined at 60-70C in large tanks to solids contents at
65-70%. The mixture is homogenized in two stages and then spray dried.
Both rotary and nozzle atomizers can be used, however nozzles are usually preferred,
as they give a more free-flowing powder. The powder must be instantly soluble in hot
beverages such as coffee or tea, and an agglomerated powder is therefore necessary.
In conventional dryers equipped with Vibro-Fluidizers and fines return system a drying temperature of 165-170C is used. The powder is discharged from the drying
chamber at max. 3.5% moisture to avoid powder deposits due to the high content of
glucose syrup being thermoplastic and tending to adhere to the drying chamber, if the
powder is too moist.
The final drying and cooling is done in a Vibro-Fluidizer. If a Multi-Stage Dryer is
used, it is possible to use higher drying temperatures (180-200C) without getting
problems with powder deposits.

Cappuccino Powder
In principle Cappuccino powder is used like coffee-whitener to "whiten" coffee, however, with the main purpose of getting a thick stable foam layer on the surface of the
coffee after reconstitution. A lot of Cappuccino powder is sold already mixed with instant soluble coffee and sugar - ready to use.
The foaming ability is achieved when the powder releases the gasses entrained in the
powder

Occluded gas in form of air and CO2; the latter has by purpose been injected into
the concentrate prior to drying

Interstitial air, due to the agglomeration of the product.

The composition of the concentrate is slightly different from that of coffee-whitener to

enhance the ability to form a thick layer of stable foam. The typical composition is as
follows:
Glucose syrup or maltodextrine with a DE of 25-30:

40-45%

Vegetable fat with melting point 35-40C:

20-25%

Low-Heat skim milk powder:

30-35%

Artificial cream flavour, colour and emulsifier:

1-3%

Phosphates:

1-3%

- 323 -

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