Alcoholism, Addiction and the Minds Development

Christopher Eaton
Psychology 1000-009
Professor John Seaman, Ph.D.
December 3, 2015

Abstract
First we will look at what addiction, and alcoholism are, and what they do to
the human mind. I will discuss the effects of alcohol, and addiction on development
from adolescence to adult hood. How they affect the brain, involving changes in the
structure and the differences in adults and adolescence. Looking at the outcome
from studies done on animals and the changes to their brains, and the correlation to
humans. Then I will discuss how addiction effects developmental theories, including
the way it works with classical, and operant conditioning as we learn.
For the second part of the paper I will talk about my personal experience with
alcoholism, and the effect it has had on my life. The changes it has made, and my
understanding of how these have affected my life. I will finish with the changes I
have made in my life, and how they tie into my development now.

Alcoholism Addiction and the Minds Development

Addiction
What is addiction, how is it defined? It can mean many different things to
people, from the addict to those it affects. Addiction is the repeated involvement
with a substance or activity, despite the substantial harm it now causes, because
that involvement was (and may continue to be) pleasurable and/or valuable.
Epner, Horvath, Misra, and Zupanick).

(Cooper,

This is a broad statement, the addict is the person

that faces this problem, but what is the substantial harm? Not only is it the damage
to the addict, but it is also involves those around the addicted, and the affect this
has on them. Addiction changes the life of all those it touches, from the addicts
personal relationships, to work, and their health. The pleasure, or value is the
effect on the addict that keeps them going back for more, regardless of the
outcome that follows.
Alcoholism is an addiction to alcohol, and it is also classified as a disease by
some. But what makes addiction a disease, can it really be classified as a disease?
Disease is something you have or dont have, Its a little like being pregnant. You
either are, or you are not. You cant be a little bit pregnant.

(Cooper et al.).

Addiction

fits into this by how addicted you are, you cross a line with the use of a substance,
whether it be drugs or alcohol that you cannot go back from. It is the loss of control
over substance use that is caused by an underlying disease, a physical change in
the brain. It is a complicated subject to decide when addiction becomes disease in
a person, and may be better explained in other ways. Psychologists often use BioPsycho-Social-Spiritual (BPSS) model of addiction

(Cooper et al.),

to describe addiction,

and its ranges from severe to none. This model of capturing the way we use is

more complicated than just calling addiction, or alcoholism a disease. BPSS is

better at accurately seeing the human diversity in the problem, and finding more
reliable treatments for the addicted. It breaks down the disease to multiple levels,
trying to understand addiction on a more personal level.
The Brain
There have been studies using rats to see the effects of substance abuse on
the brain, and the changes that happen. The adolescent brain is in a constant state
of growth and change, the process of the brains maturation.
During adolescence, the prefrontal cortex, a region thought to be
involved in various goaldirected behaviors (e.g., rule learning, working
memory, and spatial learning) and in emotional processing (particularly
of unpleasant stimuli) undergoes substantial remodeling.

(Spear)

There is growth of new connections as well as the pruning of other

connections between the neurons, changing how the brain communicates. One
change is in the dopamine system, and effects how messages move through the
brain. Dopamine levels peak during adolescence, and are responsible for creating
the pleasure drive in the brain. With these changes it may predispose them to
putting themselves into situations that leave them at risk of trying drugs or alcohol.
Dopamine is also used in areas of the brain that control learned motor skill, and
areas that control things like motivation, and reasoning. This in part accounts for
the fact that people perceive the effects of drinking alcohol or taking other drugs as
pleasurable.

(Sturmhfel, Swartzwelder).

Other neurotransmitters, glutamate, an excitatory transmitter, and gammaaminobutyric acid, an inhibitor, change as well. When a substance like alcohol is

added, it binds to the receptors of the neurons blocking the neurotransmitters from
being received. Because the adolescent brain has fewer of these connection in the
developing brain some of the effect of alcohol are not as strong as in adults.
Adolescents do not see the same effects on coordination, and sedation that adults
do. This leaves them at risk to drinking at higher volumes, and a higher blood
alcohol levels more often. This over time can lead to person building a higher
tolerance at a much younger age, leading to possible addiction.
Another effect is the decrease in the ability to form new memories, from the
neurotransmitter, glutamate, being replaced by another substance at the receptors
of neurons. This happens in different areas throughout the brain, which is more
strongly affected in the adolescent brain, than an adults. As we grow older and the
brain reaches maturation, many of the pathways become set. Certain receptors
have grown, while others have seen pruning. The adult brain will be affected
differently by substance use, because of how the neurons change with growth.
Although links to early substance use have shown less change over time from
adolescence to adulthood as these pathways are already built.
Here are a few changes in the brain from different substances:

Cocaine and methamphetamine cause changes to the dopamine system.

Opiates (heroin, codeine, Oxycontin, Vicodin, hydrocodone) cause

changes in the dopamine, opiate (endorphin), and GABA systems.

Alcohol alters dopamine, glutamate, and GABA systems.

Marijuana activates dopamine and the brains own cannabinoid system.

Nicotine (cigarettes) causes changes in the acetylcholine system.

Ecstasy affects both dopamine and serotonin systems.

(AMHC)

With the pathways being set for adulthood we see the increased sensitivity to
substances have been laid, and now we have more potential to become addicts.
The adding of substance abuse through adolescence compounds to adulthood.
Heavy alcohol involvement during adolescence is associated with cognitive deficits
that worsen as drinking continues into late adolescence and young adulthood
(Butler).

In all a path has been set that changes the way our brain develops and the

effects are lifelong.

Developmental Learning Theories
Cognitive theory, in the formal operational stage starting in adolescence, is
when we start to use abstract thought, helping form beliefs and expectations.
Over time, our life experiences form the basis for a well-organized and
relatively stable set of beliefs and expectations. These may include
beliefs about ourselves and the world around us. These beliefs and
expectations operate to influence our behavior. This happens without
our full knowledge and awareness of them. In fact, these beliefs are
powerful enough to distort how we perceive ourselves and other
people.

(Cooper et al.)

We are often unaware of how our beliefs and expectations affect us, many times
thinking that outside influences create the cause of our feelings. This can lead to
feelings of helplessness, when mixed with substance dependency, and lead to
feelings of no control over our addictions. This spiraling effect can leave us with a
growing problem and stronger addiction. This in an adolescent mind, with their
changing brain can compound this problem, leading to distorted thought process in
adulthood.

Classical conditioning has a part in addiction as well, part of being an addict

has to do with learned behaviors, with use being the reward. As an addict we tie
many outside influences to our substance abuse. Like the bell for Pavlovs dogs, we
may have certain cues in our life we associate with our use. For example the
association with clocking out of work at the end of the day tied to having a drink, for
the more severe drinker who drinks at lunch time. Just knowing these times of day
are coming up can cause strong cravings to use. We wait for the lunch tone, and for
making it to that point we reward ourselves with that drink. With these associations
building over time, and a growing physical need to use, the conditioning grows
stronger.
Classical conditioning can also be used much the same way in recovery from
substance abuse. One in learning what our cues are to use, and learning to avoid
them. Two in reconditioning ourselves to rewards for positive behaviors in not
using, while unlearning bad behaviors, and reducing the craving to use.
Operant conditioning is another area that plays a role in addiction, with both
reward and punishment taking place. Substance abuse is linked to instant reward
with use, and can become addictive when we crave this reward.
Addiction is a learned behavior because the initial pleasure or
enjoyment was rewarding. According to the principles of operant
conditioning, rewarded behaviors will increase. Of particular concern is
that most addictive substances and activities are immediately
rewarding.

(Cooper et al.)

With this instant reward we tend to learn behaviors faster, which will build stronger
addictions. Punishment, like being caught with controlled substances or DUIs, tend

to work if it is used early on in addiction. Unfortunately for most it comes too late,
we have created strong psychological, and physiological change in our brains that
make it harder to fight addictions. Yet again, like classical conditioning it too can be
used in treatment, one such program is called CRAFT.
CRAFT is a therapy that relies on operant conditioning (Community
Reinforcement and Family Training; Meyers & Wolfe, 2004). The social
portion of the Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual model stresses the
importance of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, addiction
treatment often needs to include family members or other people who
have a close personal relationship with the addict.

(Cooper et al.)

Using family member, or others to reward positive and healthy behaviors, and use
punishment in a timely manner for treatment. One thing to note on both operant,
and classical conditioning for rehabilitation is the addicts desire to stop using, they
must want to stop.
Lastly I will touch on social learning, and that people are social beings. With
this need for social interactions we tend to migrate to people with similar interests,
which starts during childhood. With the addict that means that we start to
associate with other addicts on a more often basis. This in turn helps use build our
addictions, as we seek out the opportunities to use with others with like beliefs, and
expectations. Again we can use social learning in recovery with good success, in
groups like Alcoholics Anonymous, surrounding ourselves with people that are
looking to recover as well.
Nature vs. Nurture

Some research has shown that there may be a genetic side to addiction, with
certain genes linked to alcoholism. Genes are passed on by our parents, and if our
parents are alcoholics, what are our chances of us becoming alcoholics.
Research shows that genes are responsible for about half of the risk for
alcoholism. Therefore, genes alone do not determine whether someone
will become an alcoholic. Environmental factors, as well as gene and
environment interactions account for the remainder of the risk.

(NIAAA).

There have also been links shown through studies with twins as well, showing still
more effects from genes. Once again though that is only half the problem, so the
nurture side of development plays into effect as well. Studies into epigenetics and
their role involved in changing genes are also being done, alongside with identifying
all genes linked to alcohol.
Conclusion
Substance abuse is something we may all have to deal with in one form or
another. Whether you are the addict, or know someone who is, it may in some way
effect our lives. Even our family history, and our genetic makeup plays a roll with
addiction. All helping to show that starting use during adolescence can be linked to
addiction later in life. We also know that it ties into our development, and has a
strong effect on our developing, and mature brains. With this being known we
should worry about todays youth and how we approach substance use, abuse, and
the possibility of an addicted future.
Part Two

Addiction is a very personal subject to me, as I am a recovering alcoholic,

which is why I chose the subject. Having had treatment, trying to understand the
psychology behind addiction has intrigued me. The wanting to know what helped
cause my addiction, and how it has affected my body and mind.
Wanting to understand how addiction could be considered a disease was one
of the challenges that I faced. With the research I did I see that alcohol choosing to
drink the way that I did through life has had changing effects on my body, and
mind. I have heard it compared to asbestos causes lung cancer, so then alcohol
causes addiction. (Anonymous). In the end I still think that it is a thin line we walk,
not all drinkers are alcoholics so there must be something more.
Whether it is genetics, which I have, or the effects of conditioning that I have
experienced, I know more now about the problem I have. I come from an alcoholic
family, and it was always available, and around me as a child. Although my drinking
didnt start to later in life, I did fully dive into the drinking culture. Hang out with
people of like mindedness, who all drink made it easy to learn to be a drinker.
Enjoying the instant reward from the effects of alcohol, that led to me not caring
about the consequences of my drinking. With classical conditioning help lead to the
cravings that eventually became out of control. I see things much clearer now, and
understand more of how I reached this point in my life I now.
I have a good grasp on what is going on, but know there is more out there for
me to learn. As for the information I would like to pursue, I will continue to chase
sobriety, and try to understand the psychology of recovery more. I have made the
most important change already, by stopping drinking, and learning about what I
have done to my body and mind.

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