AVIACIONILP: INTRODUCTION The instrument/commercial pilot must have @ thorough understanding of the factors which affect airplane performance. These include accurate computation of weight and balance information, use of performance information provided by the airplane manufacturer, and aerodynamics. This chapter provides a review of these areas as they relate to performance under various flight conditions. It is important to note ‘that in the future, most airplane manufacturers will present performance data in knots. SECTION A—WEIGHT AND BALANCE CONTROL GROSS WEIGHT The maximum gross weight of an air- craft is determined by the manufacturer after conducting stress analysis, static tests, and flight tests. This procedure insures that the aircraft structure ex- ceeds the strength requirements for safe operation. All civil aircraft in the Unit- ed States are licensed by the FAA to be operated at weights up to the maxi- mum gross weight. Aircraft manufacturers use a large safe- ty factor in these tests, and modern air- craft. are actually capable of carrying loads that are well above those expect- ed during normal operations. The en- gineers provide at least a 50 percent safety factor in the design of their air- craft. This means that an aircraft licens- ed in the utility eategory, which is de- signed for a maximum load factor of 4.4 Gs, is built to withstand a load fac- tor of 6.6 Gs before structural failure of a component occurs. However, the pilot must be cautioned against operat- ing an aircraft at a greater load factor than that for which it is licensed. Al- though structural failure will generally not occur until at least 150 percent of the licensed load factor is exceeded, some structural damage (bending of parts) can occur. In addition, repeated overstressing of the aircraft structure can weaken certain parts with a result- ant failure during a later period of over- stress. ‘The weight of an aircraft at rest is con- sidered to be one G, which is the force that gravity exerts upon an object, As WWAVIACIONILP ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE shown in figure 1-1, an aircraft at rest on the ground, in either a uniform climb/descent, or in level flight will have the same one G load factor. If the same aircraft is subjected to a load fac- tor of two Gs, the additional force in- creases the effective weight to two times the airplane's actual weight. For example, an aircraft that is turning in a 60° bank and maintaining constant altitude is subjected to a load factor of two Gs. This means the wings are lift- ing two times the actual weight of the aircraft. If the aircraft weighs 2,300 pounds, the effective weight in a 60° bank is 4,600 pounds. Normally, the G-force or load factor exerted on an aircraft is dependent up- on the aircraft’s speed and the amount of control pressure that a pilot uses. However, there is another important factor to be considered. Gusty air can subject the aireraft to sudden jolts and, therefore, an increase in load factor. ‘The loads imposed on the aircraft are dependent upon the force of the gust and the speed at which the aircraft penetrates them. It is similar to driving a car over a bumpy street. If a person drives over a bump slowly, the car will 1G UNIFORM CLIMB (OR DESCENT) = 2000 LB. FORCE bounce mildly; but if he drives over it at a higher speed, the car will bounce more violently. Gusts are actually turbulent columns or layers of air that are rising, descending, or moving at different velocities. Flying through turbulent air at high speeds causes the wings to be subjected to sev- ere bumps, which result in high load factors, When flying in gusty conditions, the pi- lot should slow the aircraft to maneu- vering speed. The maneuvering speed of the aircraft is the speed at which ab- rupt control travel will not exceed the design load factor. At or below this speed, gusty conditions will not cause the designed load factor to be exceed- ed. MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT ‘To gain a greater load carrying capacity and therefore greater utilization of the aircraft, some manufacturers will desig- nate a maximum landing weight in ad- dition to the maximum gross weight. This is done to increase the useful load of an aircraft without costly redesign of the landing gear and associated aircraft structure. LEVEL FLIGHT = 2000 LB. FORCE cel ve~7 AT REST = 2000 L8, FORCE {AIRCRAFT WEIGHT 2000 LB.) ¥ RTE tame Fig. 1-1. Aircraft Experiencing One “G” Factor 12AVIACIONILP ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE EMPTY WEIGHT The empty weight of the aircraft is the licensed empty weight. This weight is found on the weight and balance papers supplied by the manufacturer. The empty weight includes the weight of the aircraft, the optional equipment in- stalled on the aircraft, and the unusable amount of fuel. Due to the various combinations of op- tional equipment, several aircraft of the same basic type and model normally will have individual empty weights that vary from one another. The licensed empty weight will be either an actual weight or a computed weight. CHECKING GROSS WEIGHT The actual weight of the aircraft can be checked by adding together the follow- ing weights: 1. Empty weight 2. Usable fuel on board 3. Oil on board 4. Pilot and passengers 5. Baggage or cargo The empty weight of the aircraft should be listed first. This weight is shown on the aircraft Weight & Balance and Installed Equipment form located in the aircraft data file. Since fuel weighs six pounds per gallon, the total fuel weight can be computed by multiplying the number of gallons of usable fuel times six. Figure 1-2 iF lustrates the weight of fuel, oil, and baggage. Oil weighs 7.5 pounds per gallon; thus, the weight of oil can be determined by multiplying 7.5 times the number of gallons of drainable oil in the engine. The pilot must remember that there are four quarts in each galion, and this con- version must be made first. For exam- ple, eight quarts equals two gallons; therefore, the oil weight is equal to two gallons times 7.5 pounds for a total of 15.0 pounds. ‘The pilot and passenger of average stat- ure are considered to weigh 170 pounds. This is the figure chosen by the FAA (because it is an average) to simplify the weight and balance calcula- tions. Children whose ages range from 2 to 12 years are considered to have an average weight of 80 pounds. The act- ual weights of pilot and passengers should be used if the aircraft is being loaded near the forward or aft limits of the moment envelope, or if the actual weights are much different than the average weight. An example of gross weight is computed as follows: Empty weight ...... 1,422 pounds Oil (eight quarts) ..... 15 pounds Pilot and front passenger ...... 340 pounds Rear passengers ...... 280 pounds Fuel (38 gallons) ...., 228 pounds Baggage . 15 pounds Total weight ....... 2,800 pounds If the aircraft has a maximum gross weight of 2,300 pounds, its actual fly- ing weight of 2,300 pounds is equal to, but does not exceed, the maximum gross weight limitations. Therefore, the aircraft is not overloaded. EFFECTS OF OVERLOAD If the pilot overloads the aircraft, the flight characteristics will be changed ad- versely. The flight characteristics and performance of the aircraft will change in proportion to the amount of over- load. TAKEOFF ‘The pilot attempting a takeoff with an aircraft over gross weight will find that the aircraft needs a much longer take- off roll before becoming airborne. The effect of the overload will have a com- pound effect on the takeoff. First, it will take longer to accelerate the air- 13AVIACIONILP ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE 7.8 POUNDS FUEL, WEIGHT OIL GALLON FUEL GALLON ACTUAL, WEIGHT BAGGAGE Seg AND CARGO WEIGHT Fig, 1-2. Standard Weights craft to normal takeoff speed; and se- cond, the aircraft must be accelerated to a greater speed to provide additional lift to support the added weight. CLIMBOUT The rate-of-climb and_angle-of-climb speeds are based upon the gross weight of the aircraft. Therefore, an overload- ed aircraft will not climb as fast as it would under normal loading conditions. ‘The pilot will find that his time to climb is extended considerably. The fuel consumption will also increase due to the longer time period during which climb power is used. In an extreme case, the pilot may be able to take off, but he will not be able to climb out of ground effect. Since ground effect gives additional lift to the aircraft when it is within one wingspan distance of the ground, the takeoff may be possible, but the lift needed for climb may not be obtained. CRUISE FLIGHT An aireraft in cruise flight that is over gross weight must have a higher angle of attack to provide sufficient lift. This greater angle of attack results in in- creased drag; in turn, more power is re- quired and thus more fuel is consumed. Furthermore, the pilot will find that his aircraft has a shorter range and a lower cruise airspeed than normal. 14 STALL Since an overloaded aircraft must have additional lift to support its weight, the pilot will find that the stall speed will also increase. The possibility of an un- intentional stall at an excessive gross weight is one of the most dangerous flight characteristics of an overloaded aircraft. The airplane will have a much greater tendency to stall on takeoff and climbout due to the slow airspeed and the higher angle of attack. ‘As long as a pilot operates his aircraft within the gross weight (and balance) li- mitations, the aircraft characteristics and performance will be within the nor- mal range; on the other hand, an air- craft loaded in excess of the maximum gross weight will have dangerous charac- teristics. Therefore, the pilot must load his aircraft properly to achieve smooth, safe, normal operations and flight char- acteristics. IMPORTANCE OF BALANCE Even though the pilot checks his load to ascertain that his aircraft is under gross weight, he must still check the weight distribution and its effect onthe balance of the aircraft. The longitudinal stability of the aircraft is dependent up- on the location of the center of gravity. ‘An aireraft that has the center of grav-AVIACIONILP ity (CG) within the proper range is said to be balanced. The forward CG limits are based upon the effective use of elevator control in the aircraft. To be safe and stable in all phases of flight, the aircraft must have sufficient elevator control to lift the nose of the aircraft to a pitch attitude which will sustain normal flight at that speed. With the load too far forward, the elev- ator control will be insufficient to hold the nose at the required pitch attitude. The aft limits of the CG range are based on the relationship between the center of gravity and the center of lift (CL). The aircraft with a CG that is too far aft in relationship to the CL be- comes unstable and hard to control. EFFECTS OF LOADING FORWARD OF THE CG LIMIT Longitudinal stability is the resistance of an aircraft to nose-up or nose-down pitching motions. The static longitudi- nal stability of an aircraft increases as the CG moves ahead of the forward li- mit; in this condition, it is possible for the aircraft to become too stable. If it is too stable, the aircraft will be resis- tant to control by the elevators. TAKEOFF A. nose-heavy aircraft will mquire a longer ground run and faster speed be- fore the nose can be raised for takeoff. This is because additional speed is re- quired to provide the downward pres- sure on the tail necessary to “rotate” the aircraft. (See Fig. 1-3.) If the run- way is short, an aircraft loaded ex- tremely forward of the CG limit could fail to become airborne in time to clear obstacles at the end of the runway. CRUISE The additional downward pressure on the tail, which is needed to hold the ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE NOSE HEAVY uP ELEVATOR SS cissin Fig. 1-3, Extreme Forward CG nose up, places an extra load on the aircraft wings. Therefore, more lift is needed to sustain level flight. As shown in figure 1-4, the weight that must be supported by the wings equals the total weight of the aircraft plus the weight that must be exerted downward on the tail. The drag created by the up elevator and the additional lift that must be generated “team up” to reduce aircraft performance. The aircraft loaded for- ward of the limit will have a slower cruise speed and greater fuel consump- tion. LANDING An aircraft which is loaded with the center of gravity ahead of the forward limit may experience a loss of elevator effectiveness during the landing flare. This loss will cause the airplane to land in a nose-low attitude which may result in structural damage to the nosewheel assembly. LIFT 2,400 LB. ‘TAIL DOWN FORCE 10018. WEIGHT 2,300 LB. Fig. 1-4. Total Lift Required 15AVIACIONJLP EFFECTS OF AFT LOADING The further aft the aircraft is loaded, the less longitudinal stability it has. As the CG moves progressively aft of the limit, the aircraft becomes unstable and difficult to control. TAKEOFF The aircraft loaded aft of limits will easily become airborne. This is because the tail-down force necessary to hold the nose up will be reduced or elimi- nated. Also, this reduction in tail-down force reduces the weight the wings must support and thereby reduces the amount of lift necessary for flight. As the aircraft loaded aft of the limits “breaks ground,” it may pitch up and stall. Also, gusty air and crosswinds will have a greater tendency to flip or ground loop the airplane. CRUISE Under cruise conditions, the aircraft loaded aft of the envelope is unstable and hard to control. The use of eleva- tor trim has little effect on the aircraft, and the pilot finds that he is constantly making pitch attitude adjustments to maintain level flight. LANDING Unlike the normally loaded or forward loaded aircraft (which tends to recover from a nose-up pitch attitude), the air- craft loaded aft of the limit will remain in, or further aggravate, the pitch-up tendency. The aft CG tends to raise the nose of the aircraft during landing; at slower speeds, the aft CG tends to pro- duce a stall. Due to the pitch-up tend- eney, the aircraft is more prone to stall and possibly enter a spin. Recovery from a spin with a CG aft of limits is difficult, and sometimes impossible. 16 ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE ADVANTAGES OF PROPER LOADING When the CG is within limits, the pilot will find that the aircraft flight charac- teristics and performance will be at the optimum. The aircraft will rotate easily on takeoff (with little pitch change), and it will tend to be stable during the transition from ground control to flight control. During cruise, the aircraft load- ed within CG limits will achieve the best cruise speed and will be stable and easy to trim in level flight. The air- craft's landing performance is character- ized by a smooth, easy flare with a rate of descent that is gentle and easy to control. Furthermore, throughout the full speed range of the aircraft, the con- trols will have the proper effectiveness. It should be mentioned that an air- craft loaded near, but within, the aft limits will have the fastest cruise speed. This is due to the reduced. tail-down force needed to balance the aircraft in level flight; therefore, the total load the wings must carry is less. (See Fig. 1-4.) WEIGHT AND BALANCE COMPUTATIONS ‘The balanced condition of’an aircraft, can be determined by’ locating the cen- ter of gravity, which is the imaginary point where all the aircraft weight is considered to be concentrated. To pro- vide the proper balance between longi- tudinal stability and elevator control, the center of gravity normally is lo- cated slightly forward of the center of lift. This is of great value if the aircraft is slowed near the stall speed. As the air- craft decelerates, the elevator becomes less effective and the CG, being located forward of the center of lift, lowers the nose and consequently, the angle of at- tack. Thus, the aircraft will tend to re- sist stalling.{safe support zone} GG RANGE eee oe FORWARD, ART CG Limit CG LIMIT Fig. 1-5. Center of Gravity Range ‘The safe support zone, as shown in fig ure 1.5, is called the center of gravity yange, or CG range. The extremities of the CG range are called the forward CG limit and aft CG limit. ‘The center of gravity limits usually are specified in inches from a datum refer ence, The datum is an arbitrarily fixed position somewhere along the longitudi- nal axis of the aircraft. There is no fixed rule to establish the location of the datum for all aircraft. The design engineers determine the dat- um reference location for each aircraft. It is often located on the nose or at some other point on the aircraft, such as the firewall or the wing’s leading edge. It may also be located at a point on the projected longitudinal axis ahead of the nose of the aireraft. The distance from the datum to a com- ponent of the aircraft or any object in the aircraft is called the arm. When the object or component is located aft of the datum, the arm is measured in posi- tive inches. However, when the com- ponent or object is located forward of the datum reference, the arm is measur- ed and indicated as negative or minus inches. If the weight of an object is multiplied by the arm, the resultant value is known as the moment. The moment is the twisting force applied about the ful- crum by the weight. To understand bal- ance computations, the datum line of ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE 508 MOMENT FULCRUM 100 50 x 100 = 5,000 POUND - INCHES Fig. 1-6. Moment = 5,000 Pound-Inches 100 L8. 50 LB. 5,000 POUND - INCHES Fig. 1-7. Balanced Conditions an aircraft and the fulerum of the tee- ter totter, as shown in figure 1-6. are collocated at the same point. The boy sitting on the teeter totter weighs 50 pounds and is 100 inches from the dat- um line. By multiplying 50 pounds by 100 inches, the moment of 5,000 pound-inches is determined To balance the teeter totter, 5,000 pound-inches must be applied on the other end. As shown in figure 1-7, this moment can be added to the teeter tot- ter by placing a 100-pound boy 50 in- ches from the datum. In this condition, the 5,000 pound-inches on the left of the fulcrum and the 5,000 pound- inches on the right cancel each other and the teeter totter load is balanced at the fulerum. Figure 1-8 illustrates the method used in aircraft weight and balance computa- tions. The fulcrum, which is the bal- ance point, remains in the same loca- 77 0018 4 poy. f 50.18, SOY i 1 i t i bn DATUM 0” 20" 120 @ Fxo womenrs 100 x (-30) = 3,000 © 101A moments @ torAL weicHts 100+ 50=150 @ PWwive MomENT BY WeIGHT 3000 _ 55, 180 Fig. 1-8. Comparison: Airplane and Teeter Totter tion. The only difference is the datum reference is now moved to a convenient place (any convenient place) to the left. The 100-pound boy on the left can be compared to the engine of the aircratt. ‘The 50-pound boy on the far right can be visualized as the long, but light- weight, empennage of the aircraft, The datum reference is the aircraft’s fire- wall, To make this computation, proceed as follows: 1. Find the moments by multiplying the weight of each boy by his dis- tance from the datum (100 x -30 = -3,000; 50 x 120 = 6,000). 2. Add the moments (-8,000 + 6,000 = +3,000). 3. Add the weights (50 + 100 = 150). 4, Divide total weight (3,00 moment by total 150 = 20). 5. Therefore, the balance point is 20 inches aft of the datum reference. 18 ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE The only difference between the two computations is the location of the dat- um lines and the methods by which the moments cancel each other. Because the fulcrum (CG) of the aircraft is not fixed, but varies with different loads, this method is the one that is normally used on most aircraft. COMPUTATIONS Understanding the theory used in weight and balance calculations provid- es a basis for understanding the three most common methods of weight and balance computations. These three meth- ods are known as the computation method, the graph method, and the table method. COMPUTATION METHOD The weight and balance worksheet, il- lustrated in figure 1-9, shows the air- craft weight, moment, and CG, as cal- culated using the computation method. ‘The steps involved in these com- putations are as follows: 1. List the aircraft empty weight and the weight of pilot, passengers, bag- gage, and fuel. 2, Add the weights to get the loaded weight of the aircraft. If the total weight exceeds the allowable weight, adjust the amount of weight before determining the moments. This can possibly save steps later if the weight is over the maximum gross weight. 3. Multiply the weights and arms to obtain the moments of each item. 4, Add the moments to get the total moment of the aircraft. 5. Divide the total, moment by the total weight to obtain the CG arm of the loaded aircraft. 6. Compare the CG arm to the ap- proved limits shown in figure 1-10,AVIACIONILP WEIHT ond BALANCE FORM iBeveaa [_ wnhen foaundnchey Teor sea uaa || 303 Ul ss.oey 2 on (aan) 15 =200 3 fuse 58 oa) nae | wo | ase 4 Fact Partnane 340 || 370 | 12,580 5 Rena aesinatas 280 | 130 [ze4do 16 Baconae nes = 4g INCHES Fig. 1-9. Weight and Balance Worksheet 5 2200 5 2200 ENTER OF GRAVITY] 2 AMUTS = 200 biti + it TANOPLANE 5 1200 t 2 1c00 roo Lf lomo TT Monta E cxrecoay [|| earecoev E00 2 soo 1 I e WA ag 38 7 2 yg M0 44 42 49 4 45 48 7 AIRCRAFT €.G. LOCATION — INCHES AFT OF DATUM) 2,300 MAXIMUM. GROSS WEIGHT CENTER OF GRAVITY Fig, 1-10, Weight and Balance Limits While some aircraft use the computa- tion method, many aircraft use either the graph or table methods for figuring weight and balance. However, a thor- ough knowledge of the computation method provides the pilot with an un- derstanding of the other two methods. GRAPH METHOD In this method, the multiplication and division steps are already completed and presented on a graph. The graph method contains separate graphs for de- ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE termining aircraft moments and center of gravity limits. The loading graph contains a separate load line for each item. For example, the graph shown in figure 1-11 has loading lines for pilot and front pas- senger, fuel, rear passengers, and bag- gage or passenger on child seat. SAMPLE PROBLEM USING LOADING GRAPH METHOD To better acquaint the pilot with the graph method, a sample problem will be worked. In this problem, the air- craft will be loaded as follows: OU apszemaseems:se sy 8 quarts Fuel . .38 gallons Pilot teeseeee 170 pounds Front seat passenger .. 170 pounds Reat seat passengers .. 280 pounds Baggage ........ . 15 pounds Aircraft empty weight. 1,422 pounds Moment index ....... +. B59 Using the graph method, the problem is worked as follows: 1. Enter the aircraft load items on a worksheet. (See Fig. 1-12.) 2, Find the moment for the pilot and front passenger, as shown on the graph in figure 1-11, as follows: a. First, locate the load line labeled ‘‘pilot and front passenger” on the load graph (item 1). b. On the left side of the graph, locate 340 pounds, which is the total weight of the pilot and front seat passenger (item 2). ¢c. Proceed horizontally to the right to the “pilot and front seat passenger” load line inter- section, which is marked as item 3. d. From the intersection point on the load line, proceed ver- tically downward to the hori- 19AVIACIONILP LOADING LOAD WEIGHT (POUNDS) 10 ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE MAXIMUM USABLE FUEL| » STANDARD TANKS ++ LONG RANGE TANKS: 15 20 25 30 LOAD MOMENT/1000 (POUND-INCHES) NOTES: (1) Line representing adjustable seats shows the pilot or passenger center of gravity on adjustable seats positioned for an average occupant. Refer to the Loading Arrange- ments diagram for forward and aft limits of occupant c.g. range. (2) Engine Oil 8 Qts. = 15 Lbs. at -0.2 Moment/1000. Fig. 1-11. Loading Graph zontal scale at the bottom of the graph represented by item 4. This shows a moment index to be 12.6. e. Enter 340 pounds in the weight column and 12.6 in the moment column on the worksheet. At this point, it is well to mention that the graph method represents the moments with certain specific num- bers. By referring to the load moment reference at the bottom of figure 1-11, the pilot finds the load moment has been divided by 1,000 pound- inches. By doing this, the graph method presents numbers that are small and easy to compute. The small number that represents the load moment is called the moment index number. In this case, the moment is actually 12,600 pound-inches and the moment index, the number that repre- sents this value, is 12.6. The solution 1-10 to the problem is completed with these remaining steps. 3. Find the moment index for the oil, fuel, baggage, and rear passen- gers in the same manner. 4. Add the weight column to obtain the loaded weight of the aircraft and the moment column to obtain the total moment. 5. Using figure 1-13, find the loaded aircraft. weight, proceed horizon- tally to the right until the loaded aircraft weight line intersects the loaded aircraft moment line. Since this point falls within the moment envelope, the aircraft is loaded safely ‘within the center of gravity limits; therefore, no further calcu- lations are required. SHIFTING THE LOAD In another aircraft weight and balance problem illustrated in figure 1-14, theaoe ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE an ET = I rm EBM [thts Tat pes [a iss S roo [MOMENT enveLore 1 Waza 2 LANDPLANE zou (B90) 15 = 2100 2 (38 aan.) 3 2000 é 4 Pasion Z 5 Renn Passenseas 2 an a Bases 1800 > = 1700 5 2 1600 St : S$ = ss00 LL fo 8 1 5 46 °° 55 8 gs 7° 75 80 gs 9 95 100, 96110 <= anes § Loaveo AIRCRAFT MOMENT 1000 (POUND-INCHES) Fig. 1-12, Weight and Balance Worksheet Fig. 1-13. Center of Gravity Moment Envelope pilot finds that the CG location is too far aft. Since the loaded weight of the aircraft is within the maximum gross weight, the pilot needs only to shift part of the load forward to move the CG within the approved limits. This can be done by moving some of the cargo from cargo area C to cargo area B. (CG LOCATION 3,300 LB. IN, In order to decide how much load to move from cargo area C, the pro- cedure listed below should be followed. Fig. 1-14. CG Aft of Limits 1. Determine how far the CG is out of the envelope. To do this, scan CAREC ABER. horizontally to the left from the B c CG position and count the num- ae ber of squares between the CG location and the first vertical line within the CG moment envelope. In the example illustrated in figure 1-14, the CG moment is 3.3 squares aft of the first vertical line within the envelope. Since each square is equal to a moment of 1,000 pound-inches, the CG is Las. cI ce Ld ays eae 3,300 pound-inches too far aft. Determine the distance between cargo area C and cargo area B. From the loading data illustrated in figure 1-15, cargo area C is located 99 inches aft of the datum and cargo area B is 70 inches aft. Subtracting 70 from 99 inches, it is found that area B is 29 inches forward of C. Fig. 1-15. Load Shifted to Place CG Within Limits Divide the moment of 3,300 pound-inches (the moment the CG is aft of the envelope) by 29 inches (the distance from cargo area C to cargo area B) to deter- mine the load to be moved (3,300 WwWAVIACIONILP Useful Load Weights and Moments *Moment/100 OIL (2) H-ARM 50 Weight 16 ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE Moment 8 Quarts 8 FUEL (3) HARM 117 Gallons Gallons Weight Moment* Weight Moment* Occupants Front Seat (4) HARM 110 Weight Moment* Rear Seat or Baggage (5) H-ARM 142 Moment* Weight Sample Loading Problem Sample Airplane ‘Your Airplane t loment | Weight | Moment (200) (ibs.) | (100) trated in figure 1-15, the aircraft will be safely loaded. Licensed Empty Weight Oil - 8 Qts.* Fuel Front Seat Occupants . Rear Seat Baggage or Occupant Total Airplane (loaded) Loeate this point on the center of gravity envelope wees [_________tNormalty ful oll may be assumed for all its. | full ofl may be [_________tNormalty ful oll may be assumed for all its. | for all flights. Fig. 1-16. Weights and Moments +29 = 114), To balance the load, at least 114. pounds must be moved from cargo area C to B. Analyzing his load, the pilot finds TABLE METHOD that one of the boxes in cargo area C weighs 120 pounds. If this box is moved to area B, as illus- 112 This method also eliminates both the multiplication and division calculations Instead of graphs, tables which list theAVIACIONILP ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE Center of Gravity Envelope Graph 2300: 2200; 2100! 2030. 2000) 1900 1800} 1700) 1600 2 a Zz 8 e = S a = 5 < = o & < a a g 2 Q a 1500| 16 (17 17.10 18 19 20 21 22 23 23.14 24°25 26 «27 «(28 LOADED AIRCRAFT MOMENT/10,000 Fig. 1-17. Center of Gravity Envelope Graph weights and moments for each type of useful load are provided. However, in- terpolation may be necessary to com- pute some moments. For example, to determine the moment for a 165 pound passenger, the pilot should refer to the table in figure 1-16. He must then locate the moment/100 for 160 pounds, which is 176, and for 170 pounds, which is 187. By interpola- tion, he determines that the moment/100 for the 165 pound passenger is 182. The moment/100 for other passengers, baggage, and fuel should be computed in like fashion. The table method may also provide a center of gravity envelope graph (See Fig. 1-17.) to insure that the total aircraft weight and moment are within acceptable limits, This graph will be used with the following sample pro- blem. Sample Problem Using Table Method Assume the aircraft is loaded with eight quarts of oil, 40 gallons of fuel, pilot and front seat passenger, and baggage weighing a total of 270 pounds. The aircraft empty weight is 1,825 pounds and has a moment/100 of 1434, What are the weight and bal- ance conditions of the aircraft? This problem is calculated as follows: 1. Refer to the occupants front seat portion of the load table. The moment for each of the 170 pound occupants is 187 for a tot- al moment/100 of 374, 2. Add these values to the aircraft weight and balance worksheet. 3. In like manner, find the moments for the oil and fuel and then en- 1-13AVIACIONILP ter the weights and moments on the weight and balance worksheet. After all weights and moments are obtained, add them together to get the aircraft’s gross weight and total moment. The gross weight in this problem is 2,190 pounds and the moment is 248,000 pound-in- ches. Compare the gross weight and the total moment with the approved limits shown on the center of gravity envelope graph in figure 1-17. Since the loaded weight is less than gross weight and the moment of 248,000 falls within ADVANCED AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE the envelope, the aircraft is deter- mined to be within CG limits. In conclusion, it must be pointed out that weight and balance computations are an important part of preflight planning. Each pilot preparing for a flight must determine that his aircraft is safely loaded. If the pilot regularly flies his aircraft in a consistent loading condition (that is, if he flies by him- self or with a business associate and/or the same product samples), he need not compute this each time he flies. However, anytime the pilot loads his aircraft in a condition not previously accounted for, he should make the ap- propriate weight and balance computa- tions.