Day, Mudd, Werstlein

Unit 2: Cellular Chemistry, Structure, and Physiology

Module 2: Cellular Chemistry
NC Essential Standard:
1.2.1 Explain how cells use buffers to regulate cell pH
4.1.1 Compare the structure and functions of the major biological
molecules as related to the survival of living organisms
4.1.3 Explain how enzymes are catalysts for biological reactions

Why do athletes consume protein shakes / powders

after a workout?

PROTEIN DOES NOT GIVE YOU ENERGY!!! This is why it is consumed AFTER

a workout, not before!

I.

Protein is the basic building material for living things that includes muscles.

After a workout, there are tiny microscopic tears in the muscles a meal rich
in protein will help rebuild those muscles!

Where can I find chemicals in my body?

A. A chemical is a substance that is made up of elements/molecules
and used in a chemical reaction. Chemicals made up of more than
one type of element are called compounds.
B. Living things are made of two main types of chemical compounds:
1. Inorganic: compounds that do not contain carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen. Water (made of the elements

Chemical formula of
water:
Inorganic because

hydrogen and oxygen) is the most important inorganic

compound for life:
i.

Water is the most abundant compound in a

cell (and organism). Most organisms are
60% - 90% water by weight.

ii.

Most chemical reactions occur in water

because it provides an optimum environment
Ex. transport of molecules in the cell

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2. Organic: compounds that DO contain carbon, oxygen,

and hydrogen. There are four main types:
The Core Four organic
compounds:

a. Carbohydrates (made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)

1.

b. Lipids (made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)

Ex. Provide energy source for respiration (glucose)

Ex. Insulate and protect organs in the body (fats)

2.

c. Nucleic Acids (made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

3.

nitrogen and phosphorus)

4.

Ex. Allow traits to be passed from parent to child (DNA)

d. Proteins (made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus)
Ex. Provide specifically shaped molecules that can carry
other molecules (hemoglobin carries oxygen)
C. Scientists can test for the presence of the different chemicals, such
as carbohydrates, using indicators. For example, iodine changes
to a blue-black color in the presences of starch.
D. The six essential elements (CHNOPS) are essential to life because
they help maintain homeostasis.
a. The elements make up essential organic and inorganic
compounds. Each type of molecule performs specific
function/job in organisms (see examples above).
b. Hydrogen is also donated or accepted by weak acidHOW does a buffer
help maintain
homeostasis?

base pairs to regulate the pH of a system like cells and

blood. These weak acid-base pairs are called buffers.
i.

When a cells pH drops (becomes more

acidic), the buffers in the cell accept the
hydrogen ions which reverses the pH change

ii.

When a cells pH rises (becomes more basic),

the buffers in the cell donate hydrogen ions

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iii. In a cell, acid is being produced as the cell

respires. To maintain the pH, a cell must use
buffers to counteract the acid.
iv. Different cells or areas of the organism need
different pH levels to perform. Buffers help
keep that pH level constant. Ex: The
stomach of a human maintains a pH of 1.53.5, but the blood of a human must remain
between 6.8 and 7.8. This requires different
buffers in the stomach and blood.
Check Yourself!
1. What are the six essential elements?
2. What is the most important inorganic compound to life?
3. What are the four major organic compounds?

4. How are the six essential elements important to homeostasis (two ways)?
5. What is a buffer?

II.

How does synthesis provide important organic macromolecules using

six essential elements?
A. Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon,

Example of
monosaccharide:

hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. The subunit

(monomer) is called a monosaccharide. Many

Examples of
polysaccarides:

monosaccharides bond together forming a larger

carbohydrate chain called a polysaccharide.
a. In plants the monosaccharide called glucose (C6H12O6)
bonds with other glucose molecules again and again to
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form starch or cellulose. The plant can use starch as

food (like the white of a potato) and cellulose to build
the stem and leaves.
b. In animals excess glucose bonds together to form a
compound (similar to starch) called glycogen which is
used for short-term energy storage. Glycogen is found
in the liver and muscles.
2. Functions of carbohydrates
a. Energy is released when carbohydrates are digested.
This is because glucose is used for cellular respiration.
i.

3 functions of
carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides (simple sugars) provide an

immediate energy source.

ii.

1.

Starch and glycogen are considered short term

energy storages because these chemicals can

2.

be broken down over a period of minutes,

3.

hours or days to provide glucose for the cell.

b. Some carbohydrates are very stable and can be used
for structure and support in the cell and body (cellulose
in the cell wall of plant cells).
c. Carbohydrate chains on the surface of cell membranes
are used as identifiers (like name tags).
B. Lipids

Drawing of lipid
subunit:

1. There are several types of lipids, but all contain subunits of

glycerol and fatty acids made of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. These combine to make a very large molecule
(macromolecule). Unlike a carbohydrate the smaller units
do not link together to form a chemical chain, but combine
in the shape of an E.
a. Fats can be saturated (usually solid at room
temperature) or unsaturated (usually liquid).
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b. Phospholipids also contain a phosphate group and

make up most of the cell membrane.
c. Steroids are lipid rings and help regulate the organism
through cell communication (act as hormones).
2. Functions of lipids
a. Because of the numerous bonds and the way the body
3 functions of lipids:

stores lipids, they can be used as very long-term

1.

(weeks, months) energy sources.

2.

Ex. Bears accumulate a layer of fat before winter

(when food will be less available)

3.

b. Fats stored in the body act as insulation and protection

for internal organs.
c. Some hormones are composed of lipids (steroids).
Check Yourself!
1. What three elements make up both carbohydrates and lipids?

2. What function do both carbohydrates and lipids provide?

3. What is the subunit of both starch and glycogen?

4. What are the two subunits found in all lipids?

C. Nucleic Acids
1. Nucleotides are compounds made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus . Many
nucleotides bond together to make up a long chain called a
nucleic acid. There are two basic types of nucleic acids:
a. DNA is a double chain of nucleotides found in all cells.
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b. RNA is a single chain of nucleotides that provides the

structures needed for the cell to make proteins.
2. Functions of nucleic acids
3 Functions of Nucleic
Acids:

a. DNA makes up genes. Genes determine traits, such as

hair color. Genes are passed from parent to offspring.

1.

b. DNA controls cellular activities by controlling the

production of proteins. Hormones and other cellular

2.

signals determine what genes are used in the cell.

3.

c. RNA is used in the production of proteins.

D. Proteins
1. All six essential elements may be used in the production of
small subunits called amino acids. There are 20 different
What happens when a
protein denatures?

amino acids, each with a specific side chain of chemicals.

Amino acids bond to other amino acids to form a long
chain called a protein. These chains of amino acids fold
into a particular shape. The shape of a protein determines
its function. If a protein denatures (loses its shape) it
cannot function.
a. Hemoglobin is a protein shaped to hold oxygen for
transport through the bloodstream.
b. A group of proteins called enzymes are shaped to fit
and react with specific molecules.
2. Functions of proteins the basic building materials for life

The MAIN function of

protein is.

a. Some proteins, called pigments, absorb and reflect

light. They also create color by reflecting light.
Ex. Chlorophyll absorbs light to gather energy for

Some specific types of

proteins:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Photosynthesis, and reflects the color green.

b. Some proteins are constructed by cells to bind with and
inactivate foreign particles in the body. These are
called antibodies.
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c. Proteins may form structures in an organism such as

keratin (a protein) found in hair and nails.
d. Some proteins are used for transport through the cell
membrane or in the bloodstream (ex. hemoglobin)
e. Some proteins are used for communication between
cells. These may be hormones (insulin) or
neurotransmitters. Insulin is secreted by the
pancreas and is required by the cell of the body in
order for them to remove and use glucose from the
blood. Insulin can be used to treat diabetes.
f. Enzymes (a special class of protein) act to speed up
chemical reactions, helping to maintain homeostasis.
Check Yourself!
1. What is the subunit of a nucleic acid?
2. What is the function of DNA?

3. What is the subunit of proteins?

4. What determines the function of a protein?

5. Which protein carries oxygen?

6. Name three functions of proteins.

III.

Why are enzymes necessary for life?

A. Enzymes help maintain homeostasis
1. Metabolism (chemical reactions) requires certain
conditions to occur. Enzymes regulate metabolism,
allowing life to continue. Enzymes speed up reactions,
making an enzyme a biological catalyst.
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2. Metabolism (each reaction) has a small range of

temperature and pH at which it can proceed. Each

The main job of

enzymes:

reaction also needs some energy to begin. This is called

activation energy. Enzymes allow reactions to occur at
lower activation energy (body temperature).

Reaction vs. Energy

Legend
____ Without Enzyme

Explanation of graph:
Energy

-----

With Enzyme

Time

B. The structure of an enzyme determines its function

1. Enzymes are usually proteins. Proteins have a definite 3-D
structure based on how the amino acid chains fold.
Simple picture of an enzyme
and substrate
(label active site):

a. On the enzyme, there is a place where the target

molecule can attach. This place is called the active
site. The target molecule/chemical is the substrate.
b. If the enzymes active site changes shape too much,
the substrate will not fit. An enzyme may change
shape if it is denatured by a change in temperature,
pH, or salinity. This means the enzyme will not be able
to speed up the reaction.
2. Enzymes mediate (help) chemical reactions using a specific
chemical pathway (series of steps).
a. The enzyme collides with the substrate.
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Enzymes and
substrates are like a

b. The enzyme and substrate fit together at the active site

like a lock and key.
c. The enzyme changes the substrate in some way
i.

It may help break the substrate apart by

stressing bonds.

ii.

It may hold two (or more) substrates together

closely so the two parts interact.

d. The enzyme and the substrate (now product) separate.

Enzyme-Mediated Pathway

+
Enzyme

+ Substrate Enzyme-Substrate Complex Enzyme + Product A + Product B

C. Enzymes have distinguishing characteristics

Watch It!

1. Enzymes are specific. This means enzymes will catalyze

only one specific reaction because only certain substrates
fit due to the shape of the active site.
2. Enzymes are reusable. Notice in the diagram above that
the enzyme did not change shape or split. This means it
can now fit with another substrate or set of substrates and
repeat its role in speeding up the reaction.

Check Yourself!
1. What do enzymes lower, allowing reactions to occur at body temperature?
2. What organic compound are most enzymes?
3. What is the name of the target chemical on which the enzyme works?
4. Is the active site located on the enzyme or the substrate?
5. Name two characteristics of enzymes.

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Work on a

Are

Enzymes

Used as a

____________

__________
________________

In

Made of

a
For

Amino Acids
Lock and Key
Mechanism

All body functions

Built by

Digestion

Cell Division

Immunity

RNA

But can be

Amylase
Affected

Ligase

Lysozyme
enzyme

Copied from

Based on

DNA
_____

By

___________

Temperature

Determined by
order and folding of

Inhibitors

pH

Word Bank:
Substrate
Biological catalyst
Proteins

DNA
Shape
Environment

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Unit 2 / Module 2
Problem-Solving Set
For each of the following chemical structures, determine if the structure is
organic or inorganic. Write your answer on the line below the structure.

1.

2.
______________________

______________________

3. On the arrow below:

Label the pH that is neutral
Indicate the pH numbers that are acids
Indicate the pH numbers that are bases

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4. When a person has heartburn (also know as acid reflux), they may take
medication such as Tums, or Alka Seltzer. Explain how this makes the
person feel better, using the words neutralize and buffer.

5. Complete the following table:

Organic Molecule
Elements
Carbohydrates

Subunit

Functions/Jobs

Lipids

Nucleic Acids

Proteins

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6. Using the subunits below, identify which organic macromolecule is shown:

Amino Acid

Amino Acid

Amino acid

Glycerol

Phosphate Group
Fatty Acid
Fatty Acid

Nucleotide

Monosaccharide

Nucleotide

Monosaccharide

Nucleotide

Monosaccharide

For the problems below (7-10), determine which organic molecule would be the
best choice. Each type of molecule will be used only once.
7. Julie has a track meet after school and she wants to eat a lunch that will
provide energy, but isnt high in fat. What organic molecule should be the
primary ingredient of her lunch?
__________________________
8. Raul is studying birds that live in arctic regions and swim on the surface of
the waters to capture fish. Due to the extremely cold temperatures of these
regions and the birds food gathering behavior, what organic molecule will
most likely make up a large percentage of the birds body composition?
___________________________
9. Sardania is studying a disease in rats. She notices that the rats lack the
ability to produce antibodies, have low muscle mass, and have a very
inefficient digestive system. What molecule is likely deficient in these rats?
____________________________
10. Brianna is doing a research project on the Romanov royal family of Russia.
She notices that hemophila, a disease in which the blood does not clot
properly, appears in many generations of the family. What organic molecule
is the most likely cause of the inheritance of this disease within the family?
____________________________

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Use the diagram to answer questions 11 - 14 :

picture from www.accessexcellence.org

11. Color the diagram using the key below:

Enzyme = Blue
Product = Orange
Substrate = Green
Active site = Red
12. Put the following steps in order by placing a number in the blank.
_____ The substrate and enzyme collide.
_____ The enzyme releases the products.
_____ The substrate and enzyme bind together.
13. Substrate B is shaped like a diamond (
) Would this substrate react with
the enzyme in the diagram? Explain. _______; ______________________
_____________________________________________________________
14. Compare and contrast the substrate(s) and product(s).

Use the following graph to answer questions 15 18.

Graph from www.thermadix.net

15. In what pH range does Enzyme #1 work? _______________________

16. Which enzyme works best at a pH of 6? _________________________
17. Which two enzymes are active at a pH of 5? __________________ and
__________________
18. Which enzyme works best in a basic solution? ___________________
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19. Defend the following statement, If the enzyme denatures, the chemical
reaction will slow down.

For questions 20-25, use the clues and blanks to determine the word.
20. Allows digestion to occur quickly at body temperature
__ n __ y __ __
21. Type of organic molecule that makes the answer to #20
__ r __ __ __ i __
22. A chemical that speeds up chemical reactions
c __ __ __ __ y __ __
23. The chemical which is changed into the product
__ u __ __ __ r __ __ __
24. Other than pH and salinity, a factor that can denature a protein
t __ __ __ __ r __ __ __ __ __
25. The place on an enzyme that actually bonds to the substrate
a __ __ __ __ e
s __ __ __

26. Unscramble the letters circled in questions 20-25 to find the mystery word!
Your clue is All the chemical reactions in an organism
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

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