COOLING TOWERS SECTION 1 OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION 'There are exhibits placed in the center of the book that will be referred to later in the program. They should be removed and set aside now so that they will be handy when needed. e 1. Arefinery uses as much as 25 barrels of water for every barrel of crude processed. A 200,000-barrel-a-day refinery might use as much as barrels of water. p Of all the water used by a refinery, 80 to 90% is used as cool- ant to absorb ___________ energy. 8. Look at tnis heat exchanger. COOL WATER COOL, tiauip As the liquid travels through the pipe, the heat from the liquid is exchanged or transferred to the 4. Heat always travels from areas of higher temperature to areas of (higher /lower) temperature. 5,, Water can absorb only so much heat. As water becomes hotter, its effectiveness as a coolant (in- creases/decreases). 6. After a while, the temperature of the water becomes so high that it can no longer absorb _____________ from the hot liguid. ‘7. The water in this heat exchanger works as a coolant only as long as it is ____._______ than the liquid being cooled. 8. Maximum cooling is achieved by constantly replacing hot water with _______ water. 5,000,000 heat water lower decreases: heat cooler cool10. il. 13, 14. 15. 16. i. Inorder to provide for further cooling, two things are possible. First, the hot cooling water can be discharged and with fresh water. Or, the hot cooling water can be ____and reused for further cooling. ‘The amount of water needed for cooling in a large refinery is in the range of (thousands/millions) of barrels per day. Drawing millions of barrels of water per day from the water supply would be extremely The amount of water needed is so large that many water sup- Plies (would /would not) be able to provide enough. Arefinery must be careful about the quality of the water it discharges. Discharging millions of barrels of hot water per day might cause a___________ problem. Cooling the hot water enables the refinery to water over and over again. ‘The best way to handle hot water is to (discharge it/cool and reuse it). Hot water is cooled for reuse in special cooling METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER 18. 19. 20. Suppose a steel rod is heated at one end. (The entire rod heats up evenly./Section A gets hot first.) As séction A becomes hot, it acquires thermal, or energy. Thermal, or heat, energy always travels from higher to temperature regions. 2 replace? cooled millions costly, or expensive would not pollution reuse cool and reuse it towers Section A gets hot first. heat lower21, As one section of the steel rod becomes hot, the rod (conduets/ does not conduct) the heat to the colder sections. 22, In this example, the heat transfer from section A to C (occurs/ does not oceur) by conduction. 23. Conduction occurs when heat or thermal energy flows through a substance froma —_____ toa temperature region. 24,,Suppose a hot bar of steel is placed in contact with a cold one. COLD BAR POINT OF CONTACT The heat energy from bar A (will transfer/will not transfer) to bar B. 25. The cold bar becomes hot first at the point of 26. Then, the heat is transferred through the bar by 27. Another niethod of heat transfer is convection. BURNER ‘The burner heats the water in the vessel (all at once/at the bottom only). 28. As the water at the bottom of the container gets hot, it be- comes less dense. A volume of hot water weighs (more/less) than the same volume of cold water. 29. As the water at the bottom of the vessel gets hot, it will (float to the top/stay at the bottom). 30. In this case, heat is carried to other parts of the vessel by (conduction/physical movement). 3 conducts occurs higher; lower will transfer contact conduction at the bottom only float to the top physical movement81. 82. 33. Conveetion is the transfer of thermal or heat energy by actual within a substance, Heat transfer also occurs in another way. If you bring your hand near any hot object you (feel/do not feel) the heat from it. Usually, solids, liquids or gases have a high enough tempera- ture to emit oryadiate.________ energy. This method of heat transfer or flow is called (convection/ radiation). Review , 85. 36. 38. 39, There are three methods of heat transfer: radiation, conduc- tion, and Heat flowing within a substance from a higher temperature region to a lower temperature region is being transferred by . This shows a flame heating the bottom opening of a duct. HOT AIR COLD AIR _—* W COLD AIR FLAME As it enters, the cold air absorbs thermal energy and becomes As the air becomes hot, it rises and leaves the duct, taking its energy with it. The method of heat transfer by physical movement is called physical movement feel heat, or thermal radiation convection conduction hot heat, or thermal convectionHOW COOLING TOWERS COOL WATER Results 2f Evaporation 40. Sore form of energy is required for any movement or change in matter, To boil water, a source of energy is needed. heat 41. The molecules in any body of water move due to the heat in them, energy 42, The speed of the molecules depends upon the amount of heat energy in them. The more heat, the ______ the faster molecules move. 43. In any body of water, some molecules move faster than others. The molecules which move faster have (more/less) heat more energy. 44. Some molecules move fast enough to break away from the body of water and mix with the air. The molecules that break away first have a (higher/lower) higher amount of heat energy. 45. As the molecules leave the body of water, they take their energy with them. heat 46. The molecules that remain have a lower level of heat energy. With a lower level of energy, these molecules moye (slower / faster). slower 47. In order for them to escape from the body of water, the slow- moving molecules have to________in speed increase 48. Adding heat energy to the molecules will cause them to move _ faster , 7 . 49. Once moving fast enough, the molecules will escape. Th :) is evaporation. — After partial evaporation, a body of water (is cooler/stays the same). is cooler 50. Cooling towers are designed to expose hot water to the air. This (allows/ does not allow) partial evaporation of the water. allows 51. This partial evaporation (cools /does not cool) the water. cools What Affects Evaporation 52. In order for water to evaporate, it (needs /does not need) to needs be in contact with air, 53. The larger the surface in contact with air, the (more/less) more molecules can leave a body of water at a given time. 554. The more water molecules that leave a body of water at a ' given time, the (faster /slower) the rate of evaporation. 55. These two basins contain the same amount of water. A B ‘The rate of evaporation is faster from basin (A/B) 56. The faster the rate of evaporation from a body of water, the (faster slower) the body of water will cool. 57. Cooling towers are designed to provide the hot water with a surface-to-air contact. 58. The hotter the water, the more (fast/slow) -moving molecules in it. 59. Hot water will evaporate than cold water. 60. Atmospheric pressure (exerts/does not exert) pressure on a body of water. 7 81, Atmospheric pressure (resists /does not resist) the molecules escaping from a body of water. - 62. It is easier for water molecules to leave a body of water at (high/low) atmospheric pressures. 68. As air acquires moisture (water molecules), its humidity 64. Air can hold only a certain amount of water molecules. If it becomes water saturated, it will no longer water molecules. 85. The higher the humidity of the air in contact with the water, the the rate of evaporation. Review : 66, Hot water evaporates at a (higher/lower) rate than cold water. / 67. Which of the following affect the rate of water evaporation: a) humidity of the air b) surface of contact between water and air ¢) the temperature of the water 6 faster faster large fast faster exerts resists low rises, or increases absorb, or hold slower higher az bseCONSTRUCTION OF COOLING TOWERS 68. 69. 70. Te 72, S73, 74. In the early days of continuous processing, no attempt was made to cool process water. Water that was cool already was taken into the plant from the outside, then discarded when hot. ~ When a plant was located near a river or stream, the cool water was taken into the plant upstream and released When a plant was not located near a river, the water was taken from a pond. Hot process water was returned to the pond surface and cooled by surface exposure to the ‘The open pond cooling system was eventually modified. HEAT EXCHANGER WARM WATER, SPRAY POND COOLING SYSTEM In this system, hot cooling water is pond surface. over the By spraying the hot water, more water-to- surface contact is reached. With a larger water-to-air surface contact, the rate of evapora- tion (increases /decreases). However, wind could blow away the sprayed water, resulting in water and damage to nearky structures. é The spray pond system was also modified. To reduce water loss due to drift, and to prevent property damage, this system ineludes___"___ around the pond. q downstream air, or atmosphere sprayed air75. The air contacting both of these ponds is at the same humidity level. NO WIND. HUMID AIR WIND As evaporation occurs, the air in contact with the water becomes (more/less) saturated. 76. As the air becomes more saturated, the rate of evaporation 77. The air over pond B never becomes saturated because it is 78. constantly being with new air. . The rate of evaporation is more constant in pond (A/B). 79. The rate of evaporation in the open pond, the spray pond, and the spray type cooler is greatly affected by the prevailing 80. |. The rate of evaporation is also affected by the of the air. Atmospheric Cooling Towers / 81. Exhibit 1 shows an atmospheric cooling tower. This cooling tower, like a pond system, depends on the velocity and the relative _. of the air. 82. Some of the wind entering the tower is carried upward, but most of the wind blows straight the tower. 83. The wind flow through the tower is interrupted and changed by the and bars. 84. The louvers help direct wind and also prevent water 85. The hot air and water vapors leaving the top of the tower have to pass through the 86. Some atmospheric cooling towers have adjustable sections of and drift control of air flow. to aid in the 87 The splash bars slow down the fall of water and break it up into small more decreases replaced B wind humidity wind; humidity through louvers; splash Joss drift eliminators louvers; eliminators dropsCooling Towers EXHIBIT BOOKLETEXHIBIT 1 ATMOSPHERIC COOLING TOWER ORIFT ELIMINATOR COOLED WATER BASINNATURAL- DRAFT COOLING TOWER, HOT AIR AND WATER VAPOR * COOL WATER - WATER BASIN AND SUPPORT MAKEUP WATEREXHIBIT 3 FORCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWER HOT AIR ORIFT ELIMINATOR: HOT WATER IN SPLASH BARS SOLID SIDES MAKEUP. WATER —» @— COOLED WATER BASIN COOL WATERINDUCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWER (CFOSS-FLOW) - a HOT AIR AND VAPOR ‘CROSS FLOW AIR POOLED WATER BASIN COOL WATERINDUCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWERS = A. COUNTERFLOW Xd AIR, Sy89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 95. fe 91. 98. 99. The longer contact of water with air causes quicker. and faster than in a spray pond. Due to evaporation and drift, there is some OT which has to be replaced with makeup As the quantity of air passing up and through the cooling tower changes, water loss due to evaporation and drift antinori The longer air remains in a cooling tower, the (more/less) moisture it absorbs. ‘Yhe more moisture the air contains, the faster/slower) it accepts more moisture. In order to get maximum evaporation in a cooling tower, the air should pass through (quickly /slowly). Look at this drawing. DIRECTION OF PREVAILING WIND —__, A 8 More evaporation will take place in tower (A/B). For best operational results, atmospheric should be placed so that the prevailing wind the (shortest /longest) dimension of the tower. cooling towers blows through In an atmospheric cooling tower, a 10-mile-per-hour wind will cause (more/less) cooling than @ 1-mile-per-hour wind. Without wind, an atmospheric cooling tower efficiently /less efficiently). operates (more Atmospheric cooling towers are designed to operate best under the normal prevailing wind conditions at each If wind velocity is much higher than normal, higher than normal loss of water due to (drift site. there will bee t/evaporation). High winds will cause water to be blown from atmospheric cooling towers, Such towers are placed so that’ water blown from them will not cause buildings or equipment. to surrounding evaporation cooling loss water changes more slower quickly shortest more efficiently drift damage100. 7 Ml. 7 102. 103. 104. Whenever water is cooled by evaporation, there is always some water ‘When cooling water 10°F by evaporation, one percent of the water is lost due to evaporation. In cooling 100 gallons of water 10°F, a tower loses ______gailon(s) of water due to Drift loss is usually about 0.2% of the water flow or about gallon(s) per 100 gallons. Makeup water is used to replace water loss due to___, : or leaks. If there are no leaks and a cooling tower cools 100 gallons of water 10°F, there will be _________gallon(s) of water loss due to evaporation and _____rallon(s) due to drift. Review 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. , U0. An atmospheric cooling tower depends upon wind —__-__ and the relative ________ of the air for effective operation. The spray of water falling down the tower is broken up into Small droplets by ______ars. In atmospheric cooling towers, evaporation and drift are major causes of water For best operational results, the atmospheric cooling towers are placed so that the prevailing wind blows through the {shortest /longest) dimension of the tower. Atmospheric cooling towers usually operate hest at (high/ moderate) wind velocities. ‘The towers are located so that water blown from them will not _____ nearby buildings or equipment. Natural-Draft Cooling Towers 1. 12. Heat in a furnace causes hot flue gases to flow: through the stack causing a draft. Exhibit 2 shows a natural-draft cooling tower. The top part of the tower is a “ H8. The hot water is sprayed in above the —_ 10 loss 1 evaporation 0.2 evaporation drift velocity humidity splash loss shortest moderate damage up chimney, or stack splash bars114. 115. 116. 117. 18. 19. 120. “421. 122. 123. 124. ‘The splash bars break the falling water into fine drops in order to provide better air-to-~ contact. Some of the heat in water transfers to the air. As the air heats up, it becomes (lighter /heavier). “When it is light enough, the air _________ in the chimney. ‘he heateu air is replaced with cold air that enters the tower through the Because of its design, a natural-draft tower (does/does not) depend as much on the wind direction as the atmospheric tower. ‘The temperature of the air inside the chimney is always than the atmospheric temperature. This difference in temperature causes a constant —____— to exist. ‘The natural-draft cooling tower (needs/does not need) drift eliminators. Makeup water is needed to replace water loss due to leaks and - Louvers or baffles at times are installed around the air inlet of the natural-draft tower. such louvers or baffies (can/cannot) control the amount of air entering the tower. By regulating the amount of air entering the tower, the amount of cooling due to __________ can be vegulated. Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers 125. 126. 128. 129. ‘Atmospheric cooling towers depend upon the natural flow of “__ up and across the falling water. Natural-draft cooling towers create an upward flow of through the falling water. | Exhibit 3 shows a forced-draft cooling tower. The air flow through the falling water is produced by . ‘The internal construction of a forced-draft cooling tower is similar to an atmospheric tower, but the sides are. Motor-driven fans force air into the tower through openings near the of the tower. uu water | lighter | rises \ . | — air inlet does not higher, or warmer draft, or flow, or movement does not need i evaporation can evaporation ~ air air fans closed, or solid bottom, or base130. 131. 182. 184. The cooling of the water in all towers depends mainly on the amount and _______ of air passing through. Fans used in foreed-draft cooling towers should produce a large __________ of air with a low velocity. Both mechanical-draft and atmospheric towers are provided with ___________ to prevent water loss due to air velocity: . If one or more of the fans is shut down, the cooling rate is due to low ____-to-water contact. ‘The degree of cooling can be adjusted by controlling one or more of the ________ and the rate of _______ flow. & Induced-Draft Cooling Towers 185. 136. 187. 188. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. In a forced-draft cooling tower, the fans (push pull) the air through the tower. Look at Exhibit 4. In the induced-draft cooling tower, the fan is located at the of the tower. As the fan rotates, it (pulls pushes) the air through the tower. The air is driven upward.from the top of the tower, where it can be carried away easily by the. - This reduces the possibility of wet air reentering the at the bottom. Exhibit 5 shows two types of induced-draft cooling towers. The tower with its sides open is the _________ type. In the counterflow type, the largest part of the tower has sides. In a tower with solid sides, the induced air travels most of the time in (the same direction as/an opposite direction from) the falling water. . Both towers have movable side louvers to regulate the intake. In both towers, the air volume flowing throuzh the tower is controlled by the ________ of the fan and the amount of opening of the side 12 humidity volume, or amount drift eliminators less; air fans; air push top pulls wind cooling tower, or air intake crossflow enclosed, or solid an opposite direetion from air louversell Cooling Towers Large cooling towers are usually constructed in cells or sections which can be operated independently. ‘The cooling capacity of a multi-cell cooling tower can be de- creased by taking one or more out of service. |. This is g lower side view of an atmospheric cooling tower. CELLS ‘The drawing indicates that the tower has ——___—— cells. . If a tower with only one cell needs cleaning or repairs, the entire tower has to be 3. Any cell can be operated independently. If one cell in a multi- cell tower must be shut down, the entire tower (must also be/ need not be) shut down. Review 149. 150. 151. 162. 9158. ‘An atmospheric cooling tower depends greatly upon the natural velocity for effective operation. The natural-draft tower is constructed in such a way that it causes its own —_______—- Mechanieal-draft towers depend upon motor-driven to force the air through them. ‘The induced-draft tower (pushes/pulls) air through the tower. ‘A tower with fans at the bottom is (an induced/a forced) -draft tower. 154. All cooling towers cool water primarily by the process of 155. ‘The rate-of evaporation of water depends upon the water surface-to-air contact and on the relative —_____—— of the air. 13 sections, or cells three shut down need not be wind . draft ‘fans pulls a forced evaporation humidity156. (67. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. ‘The greater the water-to-air surface contact, the the rate of evaporation. The greater the water-to-air contact, the more is accomplished. ‘The splash bars in cooling towers break up the spray of water into smaller droplets as well as prolonging the water-to- ‘ contact. If the air passing through a cooling tower is water-saturated to the maximum, there (will ‘will not) be any cooling due to evaporation. If there is no evaporation taking place, but the air is cooler than the water, there will be (no,'some) cooling due to con- duction, convection, and radiation. In a cooling tower there is always some cooling of water due to conduction, convection, and However, most of the cooling of water in a cooling tower is accomplished by In any other type of cooling tower, drift eliminators are needed to minimize water ________ beeause of the wind. However, in a natural-draft cooling tower, drift eliminators (are/are not) used. Any cooling tower is subject to water losses produced by drift, leaks, and evaporation. These losses are compensated for by ____.._ water. In mechanical-draft towers, the volume of air passing through the tower can be adjusted by controlling one or more of the Controlling the volume of air passing through the tower (controls/does not control) the amount of cooling. It is easier to control the amount of cooling in a(n) (atmos- pheric/mechanical-draft} cooling tower. Mechanical-draft towers (can/cannot) regulate or control the amount of air passing through the tower. They cannot control therelative_______of the air. ‘They cannot control the temperature of the used for cooling, Mechanical-draft towers ‘can control the amount of air passing through them, as well as the __________ of, evaporation of the water. cs 4 faster, or greater cooling, er evaporation air will not some radiation evaporation loss. are not. makeup humidity air rate, or amountinstruction Materials 8. When iron is exposed to water and the oxygen in the air, it corrodes, or rusts 4. In a cooling tower, practically all parts are exposed to 7 I ncrnteetntastasinnis water; air 6, Iron and carbon steel are used to a very limited extent in cooling tower construction because they corrode or rust (rapidly /slowly). rapidly 76. The best grades of California redwood are used because they resist corrosion caused by —_______ and ____. water; air ITT. Wwfetals which resist corrosion are used in certain parts of red- wood towers. Copper-coated nails resist _____. corrosion -~ 178. Cast-iron is used in anchoring members that hold the tower on its conerete basin, but it does corrode and has to be occasionally. replaced 179, Brass bolts, washers, and nuts are used because they also ——________ corrosion and rust. resist 180. Fir wood is used as well as redwood because it resists rot due a to moisture. Like fir, synthetic materials such as tensile, fiber- glass, and other plastics resist moisture rot (poorly,‘well). well 181. Although some wood resists corrosion and rot and has rela- * tively little expansion due to heat, wood swells when it absorbs 3 water and________ when it dries. contracts, or shrinks © 182. Expansion and contraction from either temperature change or water content change can _____ the tower structure. weaken 188. Treating the tower wood with creosote increases its resistance to oth water-logging and moisture —____. rot, or damage 184. Synthetic materials are (more/less) damaged by corrosion, less a water-log and-rot than wood. : 185. Regardless of the material used in construction, cooling towers, Ed like other refinery units, should be _____peri- inspected, or checked odieally for structural soundness. at Cooling Tower Mechanical Equipment 186. The fans on forced- and induced-draft towers are driven by electric _________. motors 187. The pressure necessary to circulate the cooling water through « the plant cooling water system is provided by direct-acting steam or motor-driven —— _____. pumps 188. All mechanical equipment with rotating or moving parts must. be lubricated on a definite schedule to prevent excessive wear 15189. The operator must lubricate equipment regularly and all equipment daily for other conditions check, or inspec which require repair or replacement. CONDITIONS AFFECTING COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE 190. The most important factor in any kind of cooling tower is how fast the water —____. evaporates 191, Therefore, any condition which prevents water from evapo- rating = the efficiency of the cooling tower. reduces 192. Air contains moisture or water vapor. On a damp day, the air holds (a lot of/very little) water. a lot of 198, If the air surrounding a cooling tower is very humid, the water in the cooling tower dees not evaporate as much as it would if the air was dry 194, On damp, humid days, a cooling tower works (better than/ not as well as) it does on dry days. not as well as 195. One factor that affects the rate of evaporation is the amount of _ inthe air in contact with the water hnmidity, or moisture Absolute and Relative Humidity 196. Air becomes denser as the temperature decreases. Air is densest when temperatures are (very hot/very cold). very cold 197. More moisture can be contained in air if it is less dense. Very cold air can contain (more/less) moisture than hot air. less 198. Temperature (is/is not) an important factor in measuring is humidity. 199. Here is one way to express humidity measurements. Suppose we have a humidity measurement that reads 1 pound of water in 10 pounds of air. This reading is expressed as (degree of saturation/weight per given volume). weight per given volume 200. Pound is an expression of a specific quantity. 1 pound and 10 pounds are (relative/absolute) expressions ausolute of quantity. 201. Humidity expressed as weight per quantity is (relative/ absolute) humidity. absolute 202. Temperature is not considered in measurements of absolute humidity. solute humidity readings tell how much water is in a given quantity of air, but (do/do not) tell how much more water do not the air ean absorb. 16u order tc know how much evaporation can take place, it is to know how much more __________ the air absorb. pose we have a humidity reading that says air at 85° holds of the maximum it could hold at that temperature. reading is expressed as (degree of saturation/weight per ‘volume). BAThis humidity reading is given as a percentage of maximum EP humidity ax < 2 € Humidity expressed as @ percentage of maximum humidity at ‘a given tempereture is (relative /absolute) humidity. 206. A relative humidity reading (does does not) give an indica- ‘tion of how much more water air can absorb. 207. If air holds all the water vapor it can hold at any temperature, it is said to be 208. The relative humidity of air at the point of saturation is omsremeasennacsaemolills 209. As relative humidity increases, evaporation ____. 210, The performance of a cooling tower (increases/decreases) as the relative humidity increases. 211. Relative humidity is the (least /most) important variable af- fecting the performance of cooling towers. Dry-and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 212. This combination of thermometers and wick is a hygrometer. TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER 4 ‘The thermometers are icentical except that one bulb is covered bya 17 water degree of saturation relative does saturated 100 decreases decreases most wick .{ 218. Because the wick is saturated with water, the thermometer {it covers is called a________-bulb thermometer. wet 214. Evaporation has a cooling effect. | If the water in the wick of the wet-bulb thermometer is evaporating, it will show a (warmer/cooler) temperature than cooler | the other thermometer. 215. The faster evaporation occurs, the (greater/less) difference greater there will be in the readings. 216. Evaporation will occur faster if the air ‘surrounding the wick is (moist/dry). dry 217. In dry air, the wet-bulb reading is always (lower/higher) than lower the dry-bulb reading. 218. Suppose the dry bulb reads 90°F and the wet bulb reads 75°F. 100% 90% 80% 70% 90 0% oe ey son 9 & eof eA wong fcr mE é zon 2 Zz 70 * a G to é g 3® 5 2 < a 50 G 2 40 {| 50 60 7” 80 90 100 & DRY BULB TEMPERATURE ‘The chart shows that therelative humidity is_____. 50 219. If the dry bulb reads 60°F and the wet bulb reads 60°F, the relative humidity is ____9%. 100 220. The greater the difference between readings, the (higher/ lower) the relative humidity. lower 18. A sling psychrometer also measures relative humidity. GAUZE WICK ORY BULB The operator whirls the sling psychrometer in the outside atmosphere after saturating the wiek with 22. If the atmosphere is not saturated, there will be readings on the two thermometers 28, When the wet bulb reads lower than the dry bulb, it is because water has from the wick. 24, Evaporation causes 125. Cooling tower performance is (highest /lowest) when wet-‘and 4. dry-bulb temperatures are equal. 226. Even when the air is saturated in the tower, some cooling oceurs by convection and conduction. Therefore, cooling towers do not depend entirely on to accomplish cooling. 27. When the outside air is cooler than the water being cooled, some cooling occurs due to radiation, ________ and even though none occurs due to evaporation. 228. ¥ven,though no evaporation occurs, if the air is cooler than the water, heat is transferred from the water to the 229, The heated air then carries the heat with it out of the tower by 280. Cooling towers are never 100% efficient. If the wet-bulb temperature is 65°F, that would be the mini- ‘mum approach temperature of the water. ‘The lowest possible water temperature after cooling with the above condition would be (60°F /above 65°F). 21. The efficiency of cooling towers, regardless of type, increases as the difference between wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature 19 water different evaporated cooling lowest evaporation convection conduction air convection above 65°F increasesWinter Operation 282, The degree of cooling in cooling towers in part depends on the amount of air flowing through the 238. In addition, if the air is hot and humid, the degree of cooling is (more/less) than when the air is cold and dry. 284. Low air temperature may result in too much 285, Water freezes at 82°F. In winter, air temperature well below 32°F may cause cooling water to.______ on parts of the cooling tower. 286. Because of more cold air contact, water broken up into small droplets freezes (faster slower) than if it was in a solid stream. 287. Ice formations may ________ the passages between splash bars. 288. The operator has to watch for formation of ice around the fan. If ice builds up around the fan too much, it may shut off the flow of 289. In cold weather, moisture-filled air is likely toform on the fan blades and other moving parts. 240. This may cause overloading of the fan motor and costly 241. The operator needs to know how to prevent formation in the tower and on moving parts. 242. One way to control freezing is to limit the quantity of cold entering the tower. 243, In atmospheric towers, adjustable louvers can limit the intake of 244. To limit the intake of air in induced-and forced-draft towers, the ______can be slowed or shut down. 245. Decreasing the pitch of the fan blades will also reduce the ne 246. If ice has formed in the fill deck, it can be melted by reducing the amount of cold ____________ entering the tower. 247. The incoming water will melt the ice because the water is 248. Fans which do not have variable-pitch blades are usually equipped so that the direction of rotation can be Now tum the page, 20 turn the book over, ond go o1 tower less cooling ae freeze faster block air ice damage, or repairs ice air air fans air air hot, or warm we changed, or reversed249. On a forced-draft tower, the fan Pushes the air into the (top bottom) of the tower. 250. Reversing the pitch of the fan blades causes air to be (pushed into/sueked out of) the tower. : 251. Since the air in the tower is hot, reversing the fan (can/cannot) gaslt an ice buildup, 252. The quantity of air flowing through the forced- or induced- draft tower can be controlled: by shutting off one or more by changing the pitch or direction of rotation of jand by changing the of fan motors. Review and Summary 258. Cooling towers are needed in modern refineries to reduce the temperature of cooling water. Cooling water needs cooling so that it can again be used in exchangers to: condense petroleum cool products enough so that they do not go off in storage due to heat; and to Pressure- or fire-safe storage temperature. Products to 254. Cooling towers depend mostly on the (conduction of heat from water to air/partial evaporation of water). 255. Evaporation depends on water-to- contact. 256. The most important condition affecting the rate of evapora- tion is the (temperature /relative humidity) of the air. . Atmospheric cooling towers depend primarily upon the pre- . Vailing for performance. . The natural-draft tower is designed in such a manner that the heat of hot water causes a through it. 1. In forred- and induced-draft cooling towers, the draft is * caused by motor-driven 260. The draft in forced- and induced-dfaft cooling towers is (easier/harder) to control than the draft in atmospheric © towers: 261. Redwood and fir is used in the construction of cooling towers because it resists wet 21 bottom sucked out of can fans fan Ps blades vapors specification cool partial evaporation of wate air telative humidity wind draft fans rot262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 269. Ideally, metal parts of the towers should be highly to corrosion. Metal parts are coated with special crease their corrosion resistance. to in- The operator should keep alert to evidence of excessive and wet Cooling towers perform best when the air passing through themis cool.and (dry /wet). Hygrometers and psychrometers .are instruments used in determining the of the air. If there is no difference in the temperature Teading of a dry-and wet-bulb thermometer, the relative humidity is Jo. 3. At 100% relative humidity, there will be (some/no) cooling due to evaporation. Even though there might not be any cooling due to evapora- tion, a cooling tower will still cool water slightly due to radiation, and - & 270. In cold climates, where temperatures get below freezing, the operator must guard against the formation of in the tower as well as the fans. 271. A natural-draft tower (needs /does not need) drift eliminators. 272, All other towers have ts reduce loss of water due to wind. 278. Makeup water is needed in cooling towers to replace water loss due to leaks, and ae SECTION 2 WATER CONDITIONING PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 1. H20 is a chemical symbol for water. It shows that a water 2. molecule is a compound made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of When hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, the process is a (chemical/physical) change. 22 resistan, coating, or paint corrosion, or rust; rot dry relative humidit¥< 100 no conduction; convection ice does not need drift eliminators evaporation; drift oxygen. chemical8. The drawings show different changes that water can undergo. 2 Oy 5 OTY (ee ae ICE (SOLID) WATER (LIQUID) STEAM (GAS) BELOW 32°F 32°F TO 212°F ABOVE 212°F ‘These changes are (chemical/physical). physical 4. Whether water is a solid, liquid, or vapor, its molecules are still composed of two ______” atoms and one hydrogen atom. oxygen 5.aHeating or cooling water causes it to change state from one form to another. Changing’the state of water is only a change. physical 6. A chemical change occurs only when atoms or molecules change from one substance into an entirely substance. areca different 1-1, Water does not undergo chemical change easily. + Chemically, it is relatively (stable/unstable). stable 2/8: Water also has a good heat capacity. That means that it has + good capacity to absorb heat ‘, 9 BTU stands for British Thermal Unit. It is a measurement of ” quantity of energy. heat 10. Specific heat is the number of BTU's required to raise the tem- perature of 1 pound of any substance 1°F. For water, this takes 1 BTU. To raise 2 pounds of water by 1°F, for example, requires BTU’s. 2 ‘IL, Here is a table of specific heat values for different substances, g Specific Heats & ‘Substance Sp. Ht. ‘Substance Sp. Ht, “ 0.24 Kerosine 0.50 0.60 Lead 0.03 0.22 Lube Oi! 0.45 0.091 Mercury 0.033 0.093 Steam 0.48 0.20 Stone 0.192 | 0.21 Tin 0.055 Gold 0.082 = Water 1.00 Tee 0.51 Wood (avg.) 0.42 Tron (steel) 0115 Zine 0.098, Kerosine has a specific heat value of —__ = 0.50 2312, To raise the temperature of 2 pounds of kerosine by 1°F ¢ Tequires BTU. 18. When any liquid or fluid is used as a coolant, it absorbs heat energy from the material being 14. Asa coolant absorbs heat energy, its temperature. 15. Raising the temperature of 1 gallon of kerosine a certain amount requires (more/less) heat than raising a gallon of water the same amount. 16. A substance with a high specific heat can absorb (more/less) heat per degree of temperature change than a substance with a low specific heat. 17. A substance with a high specific heat should make a (good/ poor) coolant. 18. Water can dissolve many things. Water is normally a (good/ poor) solvent. 19. Many tiny, insoluble particles, such as grains of sand, rust, and calcium carbonate, become suspended in water. Water can contain two kinds of solids: (1) dissolved solids and (2) solids. Review 20. Water is made up of two atom. etoms and one 21. Chemically speaking, water is (stable /unstable 22, Water makes a good coolant because it hasa specific heat. 23. Because of its properties, water can carry various solids. and 24. The two types of solids that can be found in water are and solids. EFFECTS OF TOTAL SOLIDS ON COOLING 25. The makeup water used in refineries comes from natural ‘sources such as rivers, lakes, and wells, Such waters are likely to contain both and : solids even though they may appear per- fectly clear. 24 cooled rises oo less more good good ‘suspended, or undissolve hydrogen oxygen stable high dissolve dissolved; suspended we dissolved suspended26. Because the water circulates many times through pipes, ex- changers, cooling towers, and basins, it picks up (more/less) solids. 21. ‘The total solids increase because the water a little bit of the substances it contacts. 28.' When water evaporates, it (takes/does not take) the solids with it, 29, After partial evaporation, the solids tend to concentrate in “8 the remaining water. Cooled water leaving a cooling tower ‘f has (more less) total solids per gallon than the hot water oppentering the tower. 80, The circulating water ir a cooling system has (more/less) :fiis total solids than the frest makeup water. tit B1f'So, the discarding of some cooling water and the addition of makeup water tends to keep the total volume of solids (up/down). #82. Suspended solids tend to settle out in sections of the cooling ee where the velocity of the water is (slowed /increased). ‘Some dissolved solids are less soluble in hot water than in cold water. When the water becomes hot, these dissolved solids & become ______ solids. $4, Calcium and magnesium carbonate are less soluble in hot ‘water than in cold water. When cooling water goes through + gf heat exchanger, calcium and magnesium carbonate become solids, When water containing calcium and magnesium carbonate is boiled in a vessel, _________form on the sides and ‘51, bottom of the vessel. " The same thing happens when the water passes through a heat 7, Deposits or scales formed in the tubing of heat exchangers will (increase/decrease) heat transfer. cause or source of the deposit, is called fouling. Fouling makes periodic necessary. . ‘Coarse, suspended solids also cause wear in narrow passages or turns in the flow. This kind of wear is (erosion /eorresion).. (ao. If too much buildup of solids is permitted in a cooling tower, * it, too, has to be periodically. 25 more suspended i: cleaning > erosion’ cleanedAl. 45. 46. 47. Tiny, microscopic plants sometimes thrive in cooling water systems. These tiny growths, often green in color, require light in order to grow. They start growing on the walls of (closed /open) parts of the system. Parts of the growth break away from the walls and start floating in the water. They become part of the solids. They can plug narrow passages in the wood in the ‘stem and damage These are biological, or living, substances. To control or stop their growth they have to be The biological growths are algae and slime. There are a number of varieties; all cause __________ to cooling systems. Cooling water, in addition to dissolved solids and suspended solids, contains some dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide which are (solids/gases). It is not the water in the system that causes corrosion, erosion, and fouling. It is the dissolved —__________, suspended solids, and dissolved KEEPING COOLING WATER IN CONDITION 48. 49. 50. 51. Waters from different water sources are likely to contain kinds and quantities of solids and gases. The chemical analyses and the physical tests made on the different waters are likely to be ‘The chemist prescribes what the operator must do to keep the cooling water in gocd ‘The operator may be required to make a few simple tests and change his __________ of the water as the test may indicate. . Because each cooling system is different and the natural make- up water is different, methods of treatment are CONTROLLING SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS 58, 54. If it is necessary for the operator to make certain tests on cooling water, his supervisor will arrange for the necessary instructions and _____________ for the test. * Chemists use two measures to express the quantity of various ‘¢ impurities in water: grains per gallon (gr./gal.) and parts per million (PPM). One grain per gallon equals 17 parts per million. If the total solids in cooling water is 10 gr./gal., the PPM is . 26 open suspended cooling towers killed, or poisoned damage, or fouling gases solids gases different, or various different condition Ueatment, or conditi different equipment, or tools 170* 55. Cooling water analyses usually are reported in PPM. 50 PPM total solids means that in one million Pounds of water there » are Pounds of suspended and dissolved solids, 50 3, \ 56. There are both suspended and dissolved solids in the natural “-"'« makeup water. These solids increase in the cooling tower water because of _________ and because of the treating evaporation — chemicals that are added. ; 57 Some small increase of both kinds of solids also comes from { the basins, pipes, and wood in the cooling system. The total of solids in cooling waters varies from one PPM in {gy Telatively clear water to 50,000 PPM in muddy river water. 7" Muddy river water probably has (more/less) suspended solids than dissolved solids. Sedimentation Basins 58. If there is so much suspended solid matter in water that it sf can be seen easily, the water is turbid. Suppose the water is flowing rapidly. The solids are (more/less) likely to settle out. “60. One way to settle out the solids would be to (speed up/ slow down) the flow of the water. 61. One process for removing suspended solids from the water by causing them to settle out is called sedimentation, * qyThe process uses a sedimentation basin which is large enough ‘189 that the flow of water through it is extremely "€2. Then the particles of suspended solids ean drop to the bottom é of the basin due to (gravity /pressure). boss / 68. Clear water is drawn from near the (top/bottom) of the basin, i f £64, If the basin is being used continuously, sediment must be "removed from the bottom of the basin 166. Ifa battery of two or more sedimentation basins is used, the flow through at least one ean be completely. . If the flow is stopped completely, suspended particles settle << (faster/slower). 61. Good settling basins of sufficient size provide sufficient eae ; of natural waters to make it suitable for settling, or clariticati cooling. sedimentation <3 ig 27Mechanical and Chemical Clarifiers me 68. Mechanical clarifiers take up less space than sedimentation basins. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE — CHEMICAL FEED INLET OUTLET LAUNDER OUTLET SLUDGE OUTLET SCRAPERS Here, turbid water and coagulating chemicals are fed in through (the same inlet /different inlets). different in'-ts 69. The design of the clarifier causes the chemi oughly ls to be thor- with the raw, turbid water. mixed 70. Aluminum compounds such as aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate, and iron compounds, such as ferrous sulfate and ferric chloride, are coagulants. When added to turbid water with other chemicals, they speed up . sedimentation, or purification Tl. Coagulants with other chemicals form a spongy floc which settles rapidly, taking with it sediments, algae particles, and other suspended solids, or matter {% The chemicals coagulate the suspended solids so that they become heavy enough to settle quickly to the of the clarifier tank. bottom 18. The solids pile up as sludge on the bottom of the clarifier tank, A rotating scraper moves the sludge toward the center where itcanenter the sludge outlet 74, Because the chemicals speed up the settling, these clarifiers Tequire (more/less) space than a sedimentation basin. less 15, Because of the coagulating action of the chemicals, water from these clarifiers is than water from sedimenta- clearer, or cleaner tion basins. 28Filtration 76. Suspended solids can be removed from water by filtering the # solids out. Filters work by either gravity or pressure. OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE SAND GRAVEL WATER INLET BACKWASH OUTLET FILTERED WATER OUTLET BACKWASH INLET This is a —_____ filter. gravity ‘1. Note that the tank for this filter is completely enclosed. BACKWASHING FILTER { This is a filter. 78.:Both gravity and-pressure filters can produce backwash. "Water can be forced back in the {gto normal flow. direction 19. ‘The solids trapped in and on the filter bed are backwashed or {flushed into the disposal system. 80. Filters are usually installed in batteries of two or more so that the flow of filtered water can continue through at least one filter while the other is being . 29Hardness 81. Hard water is water which contains dissolved solids . 82. Distilled water does not contain either dissolved solids and gases or suspended solids and gases. It is therefore (soft/hard). soft 88. Rain water is not entirely soft because it picks up some hard- ness from thé solids and gases in the tere air, or atmosphere ‘84. Natural water from wells, lakes, and streams is often quite hard. When the water is heated, some of the dissolved solids in the water form insoluble in the equipment. deposits, or soli or s¢ 85. The hardness itself does not cause corrosion in the system, but the deposits create a condition favorable to eas corrosion by other impurities in the water. Scale Control 86. Cooling water conditioning is necessary to prevent or minimize gcorrosion, fouling, and —__ formation in heat scale ‘exchanger equipment. 87. The dissolved solids which cause calcium and magnesium hardness also cause scale formation if the cooling water be- comes (hotter /eolder). hotter 88. Calcium and magnesium scale on heat exchanger tubes significantly reduces the transfer of —_—. through heat the tube wails. ss 89. Scale also reduces the flow of fluid through the heat exchanger shell, completely plugging some or all of the exchanger if it is not removed. tubes, or passages + 90. The formation of scale makes the equipment less efficient and makes costly necessary. cleaning, or repair 91. There are three widely used methods for conditioning water against sealing. One method is to soften the water by making the soluble compounds insoluble so that they can be removed by settling or filtration 3092. This is a cold-process softener. CHEMICAL INLET MECHANICAL MIXER ‘The softening reaction is accomplished by feeding in chemicals such as.lime and soda ash and mixing them with the water tw" by ________ means. mechanica) 98, This softener uses heat as well as chemicals. CHEMICAL INLET TREATED WATER TO FILTERS (94, There (is/is no) mechanical mixing. is no ‘95.|Heat speeds up the softening reaction. ; Because the reaction is speeded up, in a given amount of time ‘the hot-process softener can soften (more/less) water. more 3196. 99. 100. 101. 102. If the processing rate for both hot- and cold-process units is the same, the size of the (hot/cold) unit ean be smaller. hot . Heat makes the softening reaction more complete. lount of processing time, the water from a is likely to be softer. hot For a given (hot/cold) unit . Because its reaction is faster and more complete, chemical costs for the hot-process unit are usually (higher/lower) than lower the egsts for the cold unit. The amount of chemicals used depends, however, on the hardness of the raw water Generally, the higher the hardness of the raw water, the (higher/lower) the chemical costs to soften the water. higher Zeolites, chemicals that produce ion exchange, are also used ® to soften water. JON EXCHANGE we REGENERANT TANK (SODIUM CHLORIDE BRINE) In this kind of softener, the water (intimately mixes with/ passes through) the zeolite. passes through An ion is an atom that either has extra electrons or is missing some electrons. An ion exchange involves one substance collecting ions from, or giving up ions to, ano:her substance. Passing the water through the zeolite (makes possible/ prevents) ion exchange. makes postible 32108. Usually, the zeolite has sodium ions attached to it. ‘When hard water passes through the zeolite, the sodium ions of the zeolite exchange with calcium or magnesium ions of the raw — 104. With calcium or magnesium removed, the water is now than it was. 105. When all the sodium attached to the zeolite has been removed, the zeolite (can stillcan no longer) exchange ions. 106. Suppose a sodium chloride brine is flushed through the saturated zeolite. There (now can be ‘still can’t be) an ion exchange. 107. The zeolite now exchanges ____ or ions with the brine. 108. The brine gives up ________ ions to the zeolite. 109. With sodium once more attached to it, the zeolite is re- activated. It can (once again/still no longer) softeri water passed through bi 110. The zeolite can only be reactivated a certain number of Limes. Eventually, the zeolite must be 111. Zeolite softeners yield much softer water than is usually needed in a-eooling system. Their use is generally \imited to providing very soft boiler feed water and some of the ____________ water in the cooling system, “112. Sulphuric acid also can be used in water to control sale. Sulphuric acid is highly ‘118. Therefore, the quantity of acid added to the water has to be carefully ___. 114. The sulphuric acid acts on scale-forming substances to keep them dissolved in the water. This means that adding sulphuric acid to the water makes seale-forming substances (more/less) soluble. * 115. So Jong as these substances remain soluble, it is (easy /difficult) for them to settle out and form scale. 116. Retarding the rate at which scale-forming substances settle out (speeds up/slows down) the formation of scale. 117. Another way to control the formation of scale is to blow down or discard some cooling water continuously. ‘This lost water is then replaced with (herd /soft) makeup water. 33 i water softerRROSION CONTROL 3, Cooling water corrodes by destroying the metal which it }.” Perfectly pure water is not corrosive. Cooling water corrodes because there are dissolved and gases in it. * }. Dissolved solids in the natural makeup water become con- centrated because of ___________ which takes place in the cooling tower. \, Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are picked up from the _____ in the cooling tower. . Carbon dioxide causes the water to become acidic. Aci water is (corrosive /non-corrosive). 3, Oxygen in contact with iron causes oxidation or , These forms of corrosion are in part eliminated by using corrosion-resisting __________ in construction of parts which come in contact with cooling water. 3. But, using expensive metals entirely is more costly than the water to lessen its tendency to corrode metal. 3. One way to treat the water to prevent corrosion is to inhibit or stabilize the water chemically so that it will not attack 1, Another approach is to treat the water so that it deposits a thin, protective film on the __________ of the metal. ithedie Protection 3, The tarnishing of polished metal is a form of 9. Oxidation of the metal occurs in dry air. Water is not involved in the corrosion. This kind of corrosion is called dry ), Because water is involved, the kind of corrosion which occurs in cooling systems is (wet/dry) corrosion. 1. During wet corrosion, two reactions occur at the same time, ‘Metal passes into the water and hydrogen passes out of the into the metal. 34 contacts solids evaporation air i corrosive | rust, or corrosion | metals, or mateiials conditioning, or softening metal surface corrosion corrosion wet water132. When this occurs, there is a tiny flow of electricity between » the water and the ____m_. metal 133. The metal is the anode and the water is the cathode. >a cL GALVANOMETER et CATHODE HYDROGEN IRON CONDENSER BOX The galvanzmeter indicates a small flow of —______. current, or electricity. 184. Iron is going into solution from the metal walls (anode) and hydrogen is leaving the water at the cathode A 185. Suppose a strong direc: current is applied in the opposite direction. ELECTRICAL SOURCE e eMManHe sd In this situation, hydrogen leaves the water at ‘the iron- walls } and ______is taken from the rod. peli soucrd metal abide 186. The anode, which may be scrap iron, corrodes, but ices metal from the iron condenser box is 187. This arrangement provides cathodie protection of me:al parts in the cooling water system. ‘To keep the current flowing in the right direction at the right magnitude, the operator may be required to make adjust- ments of the outside ____souree. 188. The amount of current that must be applied from the outside source (depends/does not depend) on the corrosiveness of the water and on stray current from nearby electrical equipment. “488TESTING FOR ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY 189. Water from any source is either acidic, alkaline, or neutral. 140. 8 141. B 142, 43. M44. 145. 146. 147. 148. 14s > 150. ‘151. Litmus paper and phenolphthalein and methyl-orange solu- tions are indicators that do not show neutral water but can indicate either acidic or water. If blue litmus paper is dipped in acidic water, it turns red. 4 then dipped in alkaline water, the Paper turns once more, . Phenolphthalein solution is colorless and stays colorless in acidic water. It turns red when added to water. A drop of methyl-orange solution is yellowish-orange. When added to alkaline water it remains yellowish-orange, but turns reddish-orange when added to water. Litmus paper, phenolphthalein and methyl-orange only in- dicate whether a sample of water is acid or alkaline. They do not indicate the degree of acidity or The degree of acidity or alkalinity can be established by finding a pH value for a given sample. pH SCALE 34°56 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Ie ale umes —all NEUTRAL, A sample of water with a pH value of Tis A sample of water with a pH value of 5 is —_. A sample of water with a pH value of 9.5 is —____. If you want to increase the pH value of the cooling water, you would add (an acid /an alkali), Water with a high pH value is (more/less) likely to form seale than to corrode metal. Water with a pH value of 9.0 causes red litmus Paper to turn Water with a pH of 4.0 causes methyl-orange indicator to ~ orange, A sample of water with a PH value of 11.3 causes phenol- phthalein indicator to turn ‘ 36 alkaline blue alkaline acidic alkalinity neutral acidie alkaline an alkali more blue reddish red& 152. Phenolphthalein in 4. pH water is 153. If applied excessively, the chlorine and phenolic compounds used as disinfectants and algaecides are _________ to the wood in cooling towers. 154. Exeess alkalinity over a long period of time is damaging to cooling tower lumber. Water which is damaging to lumber is likely to have a (high/low) pH value. 155. Wood contains organic acids which act to protect it from rotting. These acids can be washed out by —_________. sub- stances with high pH values. 156. Excessive chlorine also destroys the natural preservatives in cooling tower wood. Excessive ____________ and _ excessive should be avoided. REVIEW AND SUMMARY 157. Water for cooling is (readily available/scarce) in most areas. 158. Water has the capacity to absorb (more/less) heat than most available coolants. 159. Water is (more/less) costly than other possible coolants. 160. Water from natural sourees (is/is not) corrosive to metals. . Water (has/does not have) scale-forming and fouling tendencies. 162, Water is non-combustible and therefore does not add to dangers from fire. It also responds readily to a large variety of treatments. 163. Accumulation of suspended solids in cooling water may be reduced by filtration, adding soft __________ water, sedimentation, and continuous ___________ from the system. 164. In ev oling waver, the main problem with hard water makenp is that it (does not evaporate quickly /iucreases scale-forming tendencies). 5. Lime-soda and zeclite processes are used to water. 37 si colorless * damaging: or Harmful‘! high alkaline166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 178. 174. 105. The pH value is an expression of (hardnes -softness/acidity- alkalinity) of the water. Water with a pH value of 3.9 is Water with a pH value of 7.9is__.__—__ Water with a pH value of 7.0 is _._»_. Algae and slime are (mineral /biological) m: ‘ter. Algae occurs-mostly where water is expo ed to (darkness/ sunlight). Algae and slime cause heat exchanger ____ Coagulation is a process which may be aiv'ed by the use of Coagulation aids (filtration only/sedimer-ation only/both filtration and sedimentation). Gases, especially oxygen and hydroge™ sulfide, cause of metal parts. A process for protecting metal equipmen’ against electro- chemical corrosion is ______ prot: ction. 38 acidity-alkalinity acid alkaline neutral _ biological sunlight fouling, or clogging* chemicals both filtration and sedimentation corrosion cathodic