Creativity Ed ReismanF 2013

Creativity:
Process, Product, Personality,

Environment & Technology
Guest Editor
Fredricka K. Reisman, PhD
President, American Creativity Association
KIE Conference Book Series
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE, RIGA, LATVIA, 22

2225 JULY 2014
Knowledge, Innovation and Enterprise

The 2014 edition of the KIE Conference
will be held in Riga, the European Capital City of Culture for 2014
Venue: Radisson Blu Daugavaa
5 star hotel in Riga, Latvia
Papers are solicited in most topics or fields within the following and related themes:
Knowledgeincluding knowledge management,
comparative knowledge, indigenous knowledge,
Knowledge & Education, Knowledge Transfer Partnerships, Knowledge Utilisation, Patents & Copyrights and Business & Information Systems.
Innovationincluding Science Innovation, Technology Innovation including Big Data Analytics and
Management/Organisation and Open Innovation.
Creativityincluding Themes & Concepts, Business/Organisational Creativity, Arts, Media & Digital
Creativity, Creative Industries & Enterprise, Digital
Design & Architectures, Craft & Animation.
Enterpriseincluding entrepreneurship, Marketing
& Strategy, HR, Talent & Development, Servant/
Leadership in Enterprise, SME Business Finance,
Supply Chain Management, International Business
& Management & Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship.
Confirmed Speakers:
Professor Abhishek Das, Central University, India, and formerly of the Indian Institute of Space Science
& Technology, speaks on science innovationspecifically visual analytics/medical image processing and
computer vision.
Professor Ruth Alas, ViceRector for Scientific Affairs at the Estonian Business School. Professor Alas,
a recipient of CEEMAN Champions Award 2011 for Academic Research, presents findings from a panEuropean comparative study on entrepreneurship.
Professor Fredricka K. Reisman, President of the America Creativity Association and Drexel/Torrance
Centre for Creativity and Innovation, Drexel University, Philadelphia, USA. Professor Reisman speaks
on the application of creativity in business.
Professor David Turner, Faculty of Business and Society, University of South Wales, UK, and Treasurer of the World Councils of Comparative Education Societies, speaks on comparative knowledgeeducation and innovation.
Dr Dom Heger, Founder & CEO of DHTechnologies, Texas, USA and Dr Alain Beim, Senior Scientist
and Project Lead at IBM Research, New York, USA, will speak on Big Data and Enterprise Computing.
Free Seminars for PhD Students & New Academics
Big Data & Predictive Analytics
Papers will be published by in the KIE
Becoming Smart Entrepreneurial Academics
Conference Book Series and selected
papers will be published in the associated Discussing Your Research Findings
Publishing Your Workhow to get editors on your side
journal of the conferencesee ijkie.org.
For details of registration including deadlines, please visit: www.kiecon.org
Creativity: Process, Product,

Personality, Environment &
Technology
Guest Editor
Fredricka Reisman, PhD
CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY
All rights reserved.

You are welcome to copy this publication for scholarly or noncommercial use. Otherwise, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
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2013 KIE Conference Books:

Creativity: Concepts, Product, Process, Environment & Technology
Short Research Papers on Knowledge, Innovation and Enterprise
2013 International Conference on Knowledge, Innovation & Enterprise

2013 Individual Authors
ISBN 978-1-85924-202-5
Creativity: Process, Product,

Personality, Environment &
Technology
KIE Conference Books
CONTENTS
Preface
JAMES OGUNLEYE. Strengthening the links in the knowledge, Creativity,
Innovation and Enterprise Chain, 6
Chapter 1
FREDRICKA REISMAN. Introduction to Creativity: Process, Product, Personality,
Environment & Technology, 9
Chapter 2
SANDRA I. KAY. Designing Elegant Problems for Creative Thinking, 28
Chapter 3
MICHAEL BROWN & CHRIS WILSON. Between Possibilities and Places: Cognitive
Metaphor, Creativity, ART and Education, 37
Chapter 4
CHIMAE CUPSCHALK. Assessing the Reconnection to Creative Strategies in Nontraditional Learners, 47
Chapter 5
MARGARET MURPHY. Generation Z and Media & Arts Entrepreneurship Education: An Investigation of Creative Learning Issues and Opportunities, 58
Chapter 6
NATHAN M. SACHRITZ. Application of Creativity in Enterprise: Risky Creativity,
70
Chapter 7
JAMIE LEITCH & LARRY KEISER. Creativity as a Bridge for Synergizing the Goals
of Business and Academia, 77
Chapter 8
CHRIS WILSON & MICHAEL BROWN. Extending Realities: Creativity, Artistry
and Technology, 84
Chapter 9
CASSANDRA COSTE & TARA GREY COSTE. The Culturally Competent Creative in
Complex Environments, 94
4
CONTENTS
Chapter 10
TERRI ZOBEL. Empowering Functional Creativity through Creative Lifetime
Learning Environments, 103
Chapter 11
DENNIE L. SMITH. Blending Creativity and Problem Solving, 113
Chapter 12
VALERY KEIBLER. The Transformational Decision to be a Creative, 122
Chapter 13
KUAN CHEN TSAI. Creative Teaching and Teaching Excellence, 131
Chapter 14
DIANE ROSEN. What You DONT Know Can Help: The Role of Uncertainty in
Creativity, 140
PREFACE
Strengthening the links in the knowledge, Creativity, Innovation

and Enterprise Chain
The Organising Team of the International Conference on Knowledge, Innovation

and Enterprise is enormously delighted to publish this bookCreativity: product,
process, personality, environment and technologyas part of the 2013 KIE Conference
Book Series. It is also an enormous privilege for us to have a wide range of subject
experts led by Dr Fredricka Reisman, to contribute to the book.
Creativity is a significant theme of the KIE conferenceit sits at the very heart
of innovation. Innovation in this context is broadly defined. I havealong with a
colleague from IBMconceptualised innovation in a seminal work as a by-product
of creativity (Ogunleye and Tankeh, 2006a; Tankeh and Ogunleye, 2007). At the
heart of creativity and innovation is knowledge. But knowledge on its own will not
produce a desire result: it requires our abilities, creative abilities to apply that
knowledge including our skills and expertise in a variety of contextsboth to
familiar and unfamiliar situationsin a way that creates or adds value (see for also
Ogunleye, 2009, 2008, 2006b, 2006c, 2002a, 2002b, 2001, 2000). Creativity
theorists such as Teresa Amabile (1983) and Joy Paul Guilford (1950, 1987) have
demonstrated the importance of some of these domain-specific skills sets
including creative thinking and problem solving skillsthat are involved in the
process of creativity and innovation. Terri Zobel also highlights some of these skills
sets elsewhere in this book.
However, creating or adding value to a product or service or taking the outcome of innovation to the marketplace is an art of enterprisesomething that is
relished by every entrepreneur. So, our mission at the KIE Conference is to provide a platform for stakeholders in the fields to not only to cross-fertilise ideas or
test potential of their ideas, but more importantly to join hands with us to
strengthenand stiffingthe knowledge, creativity, innovation and enterprise
chain as we seek out new ways to galvanise our global economies.
Finally, Im grateful to Dr Reisman for her hard work in editing this book and
also to all the authors in creating time from their very busy schedules to contribute
to this volume. Thank you so much.
James Ogunleye, PhD, FRSA
Chairman, 2013 KIE Conference &
Data Nubes Big Data Analytics Symposium and Roundtable
6
References
Amabile, T. M. (1983) The social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Guilford, J. P. (1950) Creativity. American Psychologist, Vol. 5, pp. 444-454.
Guilford, J. P. (1987) Creativity research: Past, present and future. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.),
Frontiers of creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 33-65). Buffalo, NY: Bearly.
Ogunleye, J. (2009) College leaders conception of creativity and its application to English
further education, Occasional Papers in Education and Lifelong Learning: An International Journal,
Vol. 3, Nos1-2, pp.165-188.
Ogunleye, J. (2008) Innovation and creativity in the curriculum: An American study, Occasional Papers in Education and Lifelong Learning, Vol. 2, pp.131-153. London: Middlesex
University, ISBN 978-85924-241-4.
Ogunleye, J. and Tankeh, A. (2006a) Creativity and innovation in IT Industry: an assessment of trends in research and development expenditures and funding with particular reference to IBM, HP, Dell, Sun, Fujitsu and Oracle, Journal of Current Research in Global Business,
vol. 9, 14, pp 75-85, Fall 2006.
Ogunleye, J. (2006b). A review and analysis of assessment objectives of academic and vocational qualifications in English further education, with particular reference to creativity.
Journal of Education & Work, 19(1), 95-104.
Ogunleye, J. (2006c) Creative training techniques and their benefits, in Reddy, S (ed)
Creativity in Training: Ideas with Impact, ICFAI University Press: Hyderabad, India.
Ogunleye, J. (2002a) Creative approaches to raising achievement of adult learners in English
further education, Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 26 [2] pp173-181.
Ogunleye, J. (2002b) Teachers perceptions of constraints to creativity in the further education curriculum, LSRN Conference Proceeding CD-ROM. London: Learning Skills Development Agency.
Ogunleye, J. (2001) Creativity training techniques: how to spell success in creative organisations, Training Journal, January, pp21-23.
Ogunleye, J. (2000) Facilitating creativity in further education: A key to improving Retention in 16-19 full-time courses, Goldsmiths Journal of Education, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp 13-24.
Tankeh, A. and Ogunleye, J. (2007) The Server Market: Innovation, Competitive Performance and Optimal Strategy in the face of Disruptive Innovation, Conference Proceedings (PeerReviewed), 19th Annual Conference of the Association for Global Business, Nov 15-18, 2007, Washington DC, USA.
FREDRICKA REISMAN
INTRODUCTION TO CREATIVITY: PROCESS,

PRODUCT, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT &
TECHNOLOGY
Nationally and internationally, integration of creativity theories and research
within academic and corporate settings is accelerating. Creativity and innovation in
thinking, problem solving, and enhancing life in general is evidenced in books
(Tanner & Reisman, in press; Pink, 2005; Florida, 2002, 2010; Torrance and Reisman, 2004a, 2004b; Reisman and Torrance, 2005), the media, and corporate environments. A 2010 IBM study, based on face-to-face conversations with more than
1,500 chief executive officers worldwide, identified creativity as the most important leadership quality of the future. Creative leaders invite disruptive innovation,
encourage others to drop outdated approaches and take balanced risks. They are
open-minded and inventive in expanding their management and communication
styles (IBM Institute for Business Value, 2010). The 2013 Knowledge, Innovation & Enterprise global conference that crosses disciplines and strengthens the
links in the knowledge, creativity, innovation and enterprise chain (conference
url) is unlike any other as described next from the conference communication:
There has been a number of annual international conferences on innovation, entrepreneurship (not enterprise) and knowledge transfer in recent
years, but none has really attempted to provide a common, fertile global
platform for practitioners and subject experts in the fields to crossfertilise ideas and provide insights into emerging issues and challenges.
The International Conference on Knowledge, Innovation and Enterprise
(KIE Conference) fills this gap.
Creativity: Process, Product, Personality, Environment &
Technology
The Creativity: Process, Product, Personality, Environment & Technology section of the
conference has yielded an eclectic group of papers that are reflective of Knowledge, Innovation and Enterprise. Sandra Kay presents six characteristics of an Elegant Problem followed by Brown and Wilsons discussion of the interactive power
9
of synthesizing music and art to enhance creative expression. Chimae Cupschalk

focuses on nontraditional learners applying the Metiri rubric as a centerpiece of
this heavily qualitative research. Margaret Murphy presents an excellent review of
literature on entrepreneurship with young folk, while Nathan Sachritz presents
both business and nonbusiness settings for risk as a creative strategy. Leitch and
Keiser use creativity to bridge corporate and educational Knowledge, Innovation
and Enterprise, while describing an international creativity organization as the
vehicle for corporate-academic friction. Wilson and Brown pose the following
questions about creativity, technology and artistry that form the structure of this
paper: As creative practitioners and artists, how should we approach the use of
technology? In what way is technology mediating or inhibiting creativity? And,
how might technology and the arts help to inform our understanding of what it is
to create and to be creative? The authors incorporate historical words of wisdom
from great artists (Picasso), philosophers (Plato, Aldous Huxley) and the Greeks
and Romans. The tension among art, technologies and play is an added bonus.
Coste and Coste discuss the fit between individuals and their surroundings; the
interplay between creativity and person, culture, and environment. Terri Zobel
presents an impressive list of steps for building teams and ground rules/activities.
She also incorporates many of the leading creativity researchers into her paper.
Dennie Smith presents a kaleidoscope as a metaphor for his 5-step problem-solving
model. He suggests that the physical presence of the objects, models, and/or photos will also impact the overall utility of the metaphor in serving as direct or indirect influence on creativity and problem solving. Keiblers study investigated the
process used by individuals to identify potential fields in which to be creative and
personal self-realization of the emergence of unique creative activity. She creates
the ME-Zone Theory, which resulted from the grounded theory methodology of
her qualitative research. The main purpose of Kuan Chen Tsais article was to survey related literature and promote creative teaching in the classroom. The author
focuses on three topics. First, the perspective of creative teaching is outlined. Second, modeling creative behavior is described. Third, practical guides for creative
teaching are suggested. Finally, Diane Rosen states: Domain-knowledge supplies necessary raw material but is not sufficient for creativity, which depends heavily on heuristics or
the way knowledge is combined. If creativity is about surprise, not predictability, and is fueled by its very indeterminacy, how might we develop those conditions that allow creative
capacities to flourish? Rosen presents interactive approaches that use uncertainty to
increase creative potential.
Introduction to Creativity as a Venue for Research and Study
Contrary to some belief, Creativity and Innovation are not interchangeable. Creativity generates novel ideas and innovation implements these ideas. Creativity is the
10
1 FREDRICKA REISMAN
ability to come up with a new idea, process, or product. The people and companies that are innovative are able to harness those creative ideas and bring them to
market in a profitable manner. However, many well paid innovation consultants
and organizations focus initially on innovation (e.g., 2010 World Innovation Forum held in New York City with headquarters in New York, London, Manchester
and Singapore) demonstrating the need for consultant education. These consultants are supposed to be leading, coaching and creating what Florida refers to as the
Creative class.
According to Richard Florida, Professor of Business and Creativity at the Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto., a visiting fellow at the Brookings Institution and a columnist for Information Week, there is a rise in the creative
class in America, a class he defined as a fast-growing, highly educated, and wellpaid segment of the workforce on whose efforts corporate profits and economic
growth increasingly depend. Florida asserts that the creative class includes
creative professionals who work in a wide range of knowledge-intensive industries
such as high-tech sectors, financial services, the legal and healthcare professions,
and business management. These people engage in creative problem-solving,
drawing on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems.
On the other hand, in an interview for a Newsweek article entitled The Creativity Crisis, Kyung Hee Kim at the College of William & Mary, after analyzing
almost 300,000 scores of children and adults on the Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking, asserted that since 1990, creativity scores have consistently inched
downward (Bronson and Merryman, 2010).
For years there has been an interest by universities to offer, at least, one course
dealing with creativity (e.g., a course in creativity studies offered at universities in
North America, Europe, Japan, and China that occur in a variety of disciplines).
However, only one other university offers a masters degree in creative studies;
namely, Buffalo State. The Drexel University online Masters of Science degree in
Creativity and Innovation expands masters level work from the idea-generating
phase to the implementation phase (the innovation phase), and prepares participating students to think and act as creative professionals.
J. P. Guilfords 1950 presidential address to the American Psychological Association inspired resurgence in the field of creativity research. It is now 63 years
since that call for creativity research in which Guilfords delineation of creativity
attributes moved the field from vague notions of creativity to distinct constructs
that describe creative thinking. These constructs included fluency, flexibility, novelty, synthesis, analysis, reorganization and redefinition, complexity, and elaboration. Guilfords address provided the vague concept of creativity with scope,
depth, and breadth that could be measured and studied, and led to exploration of
Personal Creativity Characteristics shown in Table 1. Although we have come a
long way, the path is still open to new and challenging research studies and applica11
tions.
Table 1: Four Categories of Personal Creativity Characteristics and Examples
Creativity Characteristic
Example
Divergent Thinking
fluency, flexibility, originality,

elaboration, and metaphorical
thinking
Convergent or Critical Thinking
analyzing, synthesizing, reorganizing or redefining, evaluating,

seeing relationships, desiring to
resolve ambiguity or bringing
order to disorder, and preferring
complexity or understanding
complexity
Personality traits that relate to problem sensitivity, aesthetic
ones interests, experiences, sensitivity, curiosity, sense of
attitudes, and self-confidence
humor, playfulness, fantasy and
imagination, risk-taking, tolerance for ambiguity, tenacity,
openness to experience, emotional sensitivity, adaptability,
intuition, willingness to grow,
unwillingness to accept authoritarian assertions without critical
examination, and integration of
dichotomies or opposites.
Traits that involve a personal Awareness of creativeness, perunderstanding of who you are, a sistence or perseverance, selfvision of where you want to go, direction, internal locus of conand a commitment to do what- trol, introspective, freedom
ever it takes to get there
from stereotyping, concentration, energy, and work ethic
Adapted from: Assessing Creativity: A Guide for Educators (www.gifted.uconn.edu)
Many definitions of creativity reflect its complexity and multi-faceted nature.
Table 2 illustrates the diversity of creativity definitions from the literature.
12
1 FREDRICKA REISMAN
Table 2a: Creativity Theorists and Their View of Creativity

Theorist
Creativity Definition
Amabile
Involves an interaction of three components:

domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant
skills, and task motivation. Domain-Relevant
Skills include knowledge about the domain,
technical skills, and special domain-related
talent. Creativity-Relevant Skills include working styles, thinking styles, and personality
traits. The Task Motivation dimension involves the desire to do something for its own
sake, or based on the interest in the activity
by a particular person at a particular point in
time.
Erich Fromm
The creative attitude requires the capacity

to be puzzled, the ability to concentrate,
the ability to experience oneself as the
initiator of ideas and actions, and the
ability to accept, rather than to avoid,
conflict or tension.
Howard Gardner
One who regularly solves problems, fashions

products, or defines new questions in a
domain in a way that is initially considered
novel but that ultimately becomes accepted
in a particular cultural setting.
William J. J. Gordon
Emphasizes the use of metaphor and analogy for "connection-making, coining the
Greek word synectics, which refers to the
joining together of different and apparently irrelevant elements.
Emphasized that "problem solving and
J. P. Guilford
creative thinking are closely related in that

creative thinking produces novel outcomes, and
problem solving involves producing a new
response to a new situation, which is a
novel outcome" (Guilford, 1977, p. 161).

Guilford emphasized: sensitivity to problems, fluency, flexibility, novelty, synthesis, reorganization or redefinition, complexity, and evaluation. In Guilfords
Structure of Intellect Model creativity has
usually been associated with the mental
operation described as divergent production.
13
Table 2b: Creativity Theorists and Their View of Creativity

Joe Khatena
The co-developer (with E. P. Torrance) of

several creativity assessment instruments,
defined creativity in terms of . . . the
power of the imagination to break away
from perceptual set so as to restructure or
structure anew ideas, thoughts, and feelings into novel and associative
bonds (Khatena & Torrance, 1973, p. 28).
Donald W. MacKinnon,
Emphasized that creative responses must be

both novel and adaptive to reality (i.e.
useful) and found that creative people were
frequently characterized by inventiveness,
individuality, independence, enthusiasm,
determination, and industry. Highly creative people were self-confident and selfaccepting and could address both their
personal strengths and limitations openly
and honestly. They were also able to deal
with ambiguity and lack of closure.
Concerned with people and the way they
deal with their daily lives as it is with impressive products e.g., hierarchy of needs.
Proposed that creativity involves the process by which ideas already in one's mind are
associated in unusual but original ways to
form new ideas.
Proposed that it is essential to consider four
factors in a multifaceted conception of
creativity: person (personality characteristics
or traits of creative people); process
(elements of motivation, perception, learning, thinking, and communicating); product
(ideas translated into tangible forms); and
press (the relationship between human
beings and their environment).
Emphasized three major inner conditions
of the creative person: (a) an openness to
experience that prohibits rigidity; (b) ability to use one's personal standards to evaluate situations; and (c) ability to accept the
unstable and to experiment with many
possibilities.
Abraham H. Maslow
Sarnoff A. Mednick
Mel Rhodes
Carl R. Rogers
14
1 FREDRICKA REISMAN
Table 2c: Creativity Theorists and Their View of Creativity

E. Paul Torrance
Donald J. Treffinger, Scott G. Isaksen

and Brian K. Dorval
Graham Wallas
15
Arguably the person whose work is most

widely associated with creativity testing,
defined creativity as "a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps
in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty;
searching for solutions, making guesses, or
formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies; testing and retesting these hypotheses
and possibly modifying and retesting them;
and finally communicating the results" (Torrance, 1974, p.8).
Emphasized the importance of harmony or
balance between creative and critical thinking during effective problem solving and
decision-making. In their definition, creative
thinking involves, "encountering gaps,
paradoxes, opportunities, challenges, or
concerns, and then searching for meaningful new connections by generating many
possibilities, varied possibilities (from
different viewpoints or perspectives),
unusual or original possibilities, and details
to expand or enrich possibilities." Critical
thinking involves "examining possibilities
carefully, fairly, and constructively, and
then focusing thoughts and actions by organizing and analyzing possibilities, refining
and developing promising possibilities,
ranking or prioritizing options, and choosing or deciding on certain options" (Treffinger, Isaksen, & Dorval,
2000, p. 7).
Author of one of the early classic studies in
the field (1926), defined four major stages
in the creative process: preparation
(detecting a problem and gathering data),
incubation (stepping away from the problem
for a period of time), illumination (a new
idea or solution emerges, often unexpectedly), and verification (the new idea or
solution is examined or tested).
Table 3: Assessing Creativity Data Sources

Data Source
Example
Behavior or performance data
Creative products, performances, or accomplishments from real-life creativity or

demonstration of creativity under simulated conditions.
Self-report data
Respond to questions about oneself and
their own skills, abilities, activities and
behavior via attitude inventories, personal
checklists, or biographical inventories.
Rating scales
Descriptions of qualities or behaviors that
are associated with creativity characteristics that ask people to rate the creativity of
others.
Tests
Responses to a structured set of tasks or
questions, administered under controlled
or standardized conditions, through which
the person demonstrates his or her ability
to think or respond creatively.
Neuroimaging methods
Focus is on human memory, problem
solving, intelligence, & creativity; specialization in electrophysiological methods
(EEG, ERP), & other behavioral & neuroimaging methods (e.g., fMRI).
Psychophysiological methods
Studies of creativity are considered a
higher level of research into brain and
mentality, its further progress and evolution. Due to the integration of cognitive
psychology, neuropsychology and cognitive neurophysiology achieved during the
last decade, it has become possible to
attack this problem. The latest advancements in technology, especially rCBF
investigations using PET and fMRI, play a
particularly important role here. As a
science, the psychophysiology of creative
thinking is still in its infancy.
Adapted from: Assessing Creativity: A Guide for Educators (www.gifted.uconn.edu)
Teresa Amabile, Edsel Bryant Ford Professor of Business Administration at Harvard believes that exploration of team-level creativity can deepen our understanding of both creativity and teamwork. These include internal motivation, broad
interests, and attraction to complexity, intuition, aesthetic sensitivity, toleration of
ambiguity, risk taking, perseverance, and self-confidence (Amabile,1983; Oldham
16
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
BF Goodrich (NYSE: GR)aerospace and defense

Grub & Ellis Company commercial real estate
Mitsubishi Corporationauto manufacturers
Alegent Healthhealthcare
Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Companysemiconductor manufacturing
Coca-Cola (NYSE: CCE)beverages, food
Publicis Group Media (NYSE: PUB) advertising
WPP Group (Nasdaq: WPPGY)advertising
MusicStrandsaudio technology
Health Sciences Centerhealthcare consulting
HealthDialoghealthcare
Hitachi (NYSE: HIT/TSE)electronics
IntuitQuicken products
Chief Creative Officers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Ford Motor Company (NYSE: F)auto manufacturers

Walt Disney Company (NYSE: DIS)entertainment
Electronic Arts (Nasdaq: ERTS) multimedia & graphics software
Time Warner (NYSE: TWX)entertainment
Kmart (Nasdaq: SHLD)department stores
Warnaco (Nasdaq: WNRC)apparel
John Wieland Homeshome builders
Atari (Nasdaq: ATAR)interactive entertainment
Victorias Secretapparel
Apago, Inc.technology
Searsdepartment stores
The Future
Creativity and innovation are strategic tools that allow us to overcome the many
difficulties in preparing for the future. In The New Division of Labor: How Computers
are Creating the Next Job Market, the authors (Levy & Murnane, 2004) argue that
computers are:
better at deriving solutions than people when the problems can be described in
a rules-based logic that provides a procedure for any imaginable contingency.
What a rules-based system cannot do, however, is deal with new problems that
come up, problems unanticipated by the program of rules; that is to say, problems
of the future. Most importantly, computers cannot capture the remarkable store
of how-to or tacit knowledge that we all use daily but would have a lot of trouble
18
1 FREDRICKA REISMAN
articulating.
Levy and Murnane go on to say, In the absence of predictability, the number of
contingencies explodes as does the knowledge required to deal with them. As
smarter and faster computers increasingly replace service-oriented jobs, the most
creative problem solvers will emerge as leaders. The chief export of postindustrial economies will be the creativity and innovation of its companies and
organizations, government agencies, and academic centers. We are moving from
the information age to the conceptual age, and workers and organizations that can
continuously innovate and apply principles of creativity to their work will be in the
best position to succeed (Pink, 2005).
Increasingly, capacities such as cognitive flexibility, knowledge transfers, and
adaptability the core characteristics of creativity are emerging as the new basic
skills of an educated generation. In its 2003 report, The Business-Higher Education Forum urged higher education to adopt new approaches to learning with emphasis on: leadership, teamwork, problem solving, time management, selfmanagement, adaptability, analytical thinking, global consciousness, and strong
communication skills. The message is clear: it matters not only what we know but
also how we know it, how we use what we know, how we work with others who
have different expertise than our own, and how well we respond to unexpected
challenges that we encounter (AAC&U, 2002).
Correspondence
Fredricka Reisman, PhD
Professor, School of Education
Program Director, Creativity and Innovation
Director, Drexel Torrance Center for Creativity and Innovation
Drexel University
3001 Market Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104
President, American Creativity Association
Ph: 215-895-6771. Fax: 215-895-0555
19
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Callahan, C. M., Lundberg, A. C., & Hunsaker, S. L. (1993). The development of
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DESIGNING ELEGANT PROBLEMS FOR CREATIVE

THINKING
Creative thinkers seek elegance in their work. An aesthetic sensibility accompanies
creative work from the original vision or motivation to its use in identifying what
many creators describe as an elegant solution. Examples of this characteristic can
be identified in most, if not all fields. If one defines creative thought in developmental terms, as a process in which the individual finds, defines, or discovers an
idea or problem not predetermined by the situation or task (Kay 1989, p.65),
then the importance of guidance by an aesthetic sensibility becomes more visible.
We can see elegant solutions all around us. This chapter will look at what has
been said about elegant solutions by a few creative producers and a few examples
of elegant solutions that can affect our environment prior to introducing the concept of elegant problems. Elegant Problems address the what, not the how of
creative teaching and learning.
Aesthetic Sensibility, Deep Problems and Elegant Solutions in the Sciences
The ability to appreciate the beauty of a solution has been noted by scientists,
mathematicians, and artists. The term Elegant Solution is used across disciplines
and time to describe the result of creative thought. For example, Campbell (1960)
cites its importance with the words of the mathematician Poincare:
The useful combinations are precisely the most beautiful, I mean those best able
to charm this special sensibility that all mathematicians know, but of which the
profane are so ignorant as often to be tempted to smile at it.
When a sudden illumination seizes upon the mind of the mathematician, it usually happens that it does not deceive him, but it also sometimes happens, as I have
said, that it does not stand the test of verification; well, we almost always notice
that this false idea, had it been true, would have gratified our natural feeling for
mathematical elegance.
Thus, it is this special esthetic sensibility which plays the role of the delicate sieve
of which I spoke, and that sufficiently explains why the one lacking it will never be
a real creator.
(Campbell 1960, pp. 85-86)
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SANDRA I. KAY
Research on Nobel Laureates in science provides another example:

Like other departments of culture, science has its own esthetic. Among the elite
scientists, the prime criteria of scientific taste are a sense for the important problem and an appreciation of stylish solutions. For them, deep problems and elegant
solutions distinguish excellent science from the merely competent or commonplace. This requires good modeling and intuition and develops during interaction
with masters.
(Zuckerman 1977, p.127)
Another example is found in an early interview with the Nobel laureate Frank
Wilczek where the identification of an aesthetic quality to research questions was
stated with elaboration:
S: Is it possible to teach that aesthetic to someone?
W: Oh, yesthe sort of teaching that goes on here at the Institute. This sort of
post-graduate teaching I would say is mostly teaching in taste. And, its done, of
course, very informally. You get a sense of what excites people, what problems
are regarded as too difficult, what problems are not ripe, what people express
admiration for which isnt the same, of course. Different people admire very
different things, in fact. ... But, I think actually the best way to get an idea of what
the aesthetic is, is again, to read the masters. You get an idea of what the possibilities of achievement are. And, just as in art and music, the works arent selfcontained. Each work explicitly refers to other work, and you cant fully appreciate the beauty of it and where it fits in and what it means unless you know something about the whole culture.
(Subotnik 1992, p.374)
Aesthetic Sensibility, Deep Problems and Elegant Solutions in the
Visual Arts
This same intellectual and intuitive process occurs in the arts. As individuals,
artists have a highly developed personal aesthetic that guides more than their work
(Kay 1989). In a study of problem solving and problem-finding behaviors, a task
that was considered a very open-ended problem by others was described as a constrained problem to solve by the professional artists. Where the other participants
were amazed (or overwhelmed) by the choices within the task, the majority of the
professional artists commented on the predetermined nature of the game. One
participant said this isnt fair to artists because their own aesthetics gets in the
way. Yet, despite their perceived limitations of the problem posed, all of the
artists sought their own elegant solutions.
Artists define (although not always with words) the problems or issues they
consider important and appreciate the solutions of others doing similar investigations. This may be a major impetus for the forming of schools of art (e.g. Bau29
haus, Hudson River School). Traditionally, artists and scientists have collaborated
to address issues regarding theories of perception (Kubovy 1982).
A closer look at elegant solutions
You know it when you see it. Elegant solutions have an aesthetic quality. In
mathematical terms, it is qualitative something is or isnt elegant. An example of
an elegant solution can be recognized without precisely knowing the problem
posed.
For a visual example, imagine if you will, the entrance door of an elementary
school adorned with a sculpture in the shape of a Greek temple pediment that displays a collaged mosaic form that reads, What do you need to Know? Taking one
of the major guiding questions built into all curriculum design (What do you need
to know?) and transposing it to a visual greeting that exclaims the buildings purpose is elegant. This particular piece also provides the visual paradox of converting
the spontaneous or quick medium of collage into the ancient, meticulous art form
of mosaic (new and old, past and present). Thanks to the Chicago Public Art
Group, Lowell Elementary students, staff and administration are enjoying the visual and intellectual stimulation of this elegant solution (Gude 2007). One does not
need to know the precise problem posed to this community arts group to appreciate the solutions architectural elegance.
In technology, the interface between early Internet technology and applications
deemed safe for K-12 school systems was elegantly resolved by Bernie Dodges
creation of WebQuests. By designing a controlled yet creative environment, students explorations were limited to pertinent and appropriate sites as determined
by the teacher. This invention overcame the legal and moral obstacles that prevented so many schools from immediately embracing the new technology. Yet
decades later, creative teachers and students continue to find this tool quite useful
for designing safe environments for open-ended investigations.
Although these examples of elegant solutions are from creative experts in each
field, these solutions may not receive the same degree of appreciation as the work
of a Poincare or Nobel Laureate because they are not responses to problems surrounding big ideas (Whitehead 1929) or the powerful ideas that entertain a mind
interested in redefining the field of computer technology (Kay A. 2009). Where
Alan Kays work may be categorized as Emergentive Creativity, the highest level
of creativity (Taylor 1975), the technological example would likely be considered
Innovative whereas the architectural Inventive Creativity. Reflecting on the
relationship of aesthetic sensibilities and elegant solutions, I wondered if elegant
solutions were only associated with expertise or was it possible for beginners to
attain elegant solutions through aesthetic knowing?
As an educator I know learning occurs when you meet the learner where s/he is
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SANDRA I. KAY
to guide them to the next level whether that level is a step or a leap. But what
invites the leaps? Reviewing past experiences at the K-12, college, and staff development levels, yielded instances when an assignment consistently evoked elegant
solutions from at least a few students. In a sudden realization, I knew that if I
want my students to strive toward elegant solutions as they develop their creative
thinking skills, then my role is to inspire with Elegant Problems (Kay 1995).
The next question What is an Elegant Problem? has engaged my imagination,
thoughts, research and teaching for some time.
Types of problems
How one solves a problem depends, among other conditions, on the type of problem at hand. The transition between closed and open-ended problems has been
highlighted in much of the literature on problem solving. Closed problems
(sometimes called well-defined) have one correct answer. On the other side of
the continuum are open-ended problems (or ill-defined) where the process is as
open-ended as the amount of satisfactory answers. In between these two extremes
are degrees of open-endedness. An art question that asks the name and date of a
particular painting is a closed problem. Typically, the artist working in the studio
or scientist in the lab are the examples given of open-ended, problem finding. Yet
the most open-ended directive I have seen is a desktop sign given to IBM employees long ago that simply stated: Think. Without advanced creative thinking skills,
this level of open-endedness might paralyze. The problems posed to students
even post-docs - can fall anywhere along the closed-open continuum depending on
their prior preparation, their own and their mentors perceptions. Each of these
problem conditions (closed to open) invites Elegant Problems.
Characteristics of Elegant Problems
There are six characteristics of an Elegant Problem. Beyond the fact that an Elegant Problem provides the potential for elegant solutions, they are also quite
clearly, creative problems. Guilfords (1964) four characteristic behaviors found
in creative thinking: fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration characterize
Elegant Problems. Elegant problems or challenges gain strength from their ability
to render many different solutions (fluency of responses), appeal to a variety of
problem solvers (flexibility of problem space), provide opportunities for unique
(original) responses, and invite elaboration (or reduction of it) in details or concept. Perhaps most importantly, an Elegant Problem has a worthiness factor.
Each of these characteristics requires some further explanation illustrated by the
simplest concrete example:
1.
The defining element of an Elegant Problem is its ability to elicit a multi31
2.
3.
4.
5.
tude of elegant solutions across time and place. However, one can only
identify an Elegant Problem in hindsight by the amount of elegant solutions
it evoked over time.
An elegant problem provides FLUENCY in responses. Fluency applies
broadlyit has length, if you will. The question or problem statement
accepts many answers. At best, each problem solver will find ones own
answer(s). This doesnt mean there are no wrong answers. It also doesnt
mean that all right answers are equally good. Much like brainstorming or
sketching, the idea/solution selected for further development by the problem-solver is a different step for discussion elsewhere. Here we are looking
at the purposeful design of the problem (issue/challenge/assignment) to
make sure that the problem invites many responses.
FLEXIBILITY of problem space means that the way an elegant problem is
defined must include an entry point for those uninterested or unable to go
beyond developing basic skills yet also extend wide enough to encourage
delightful surprises you did not see as possible. It reaches all levels of engagement, satisfying disinterest to passionate emersion. An Elegant Problem is also flexible in that it applies universallyappealing across age span,
level of ability or expertise, culture, or conceptual sophistication.
An Elegant Problem provides room for ELABORATIONit applies
expansively and/or deeply. At first glance, elaboration could simply
mean adding complex or entertaining details to a solution is a welcome
contribution. This is an especially useful stretch for learners talented in a
particular domain who complete a challenge quickly. One might also
elaborate on an idea by removing extraneous details. Elaboration can also
mean communicating to others by providing the necessary details for
others to follow ones path to the selected solution. For example, many
scientists, mathematicians, artists and other thinkers, will develop an
analogy or metaphor to help outsiders understand the new concept or
idea by associating it with something familiar to the audience members.
This is particularly important if the new idea is very creative so viewers
require a safety line to comfortably reach the new summit. A metaphor
elaborates with details needed for understanding.
An elegant problem encourages ORIGINALITY. Originality is the characteristic most often imagined when one uses the term creativity. (Yet
least often measured in tests of creative thinking.) An Elegant Problem
must set an environment for novel, inventive explorations and solutions.
It permits problem interpretation. It engages the imagination. It also
invites personal aesthetic inquiryan important area of development for
creators and for audiences of appreciators. The problem invites possibilities that surprise.
32
2
6.
SANDRA I. KAY
The element of VALUE or WORTHINESS is key to distinguishing an

Elegant Problem. An Elegant Problem is personally relevant and meaningful and\or addresses an issue fundamental to the field of inquiry
(technical and/or intellectual importance). At best, it does both. An
Elegant Problem may serve as a bridge between and across realms of
meaning by making connections or encouraging the transfer of an idea to
other knowledge domains/interdisciplinary issues. It may reveal conceptual similarities and contrasts. Most importantly, the problem fascinates.
It stimulates curiosity and a sense of wonder. A well-constructed problem is one that can fascinate the beginner as well as the expert.
Describing an Elegant art Problem might solidify the abstract idea with an example
of basic or expressive creativity. Asking participants to Draw your shoe invites
possibilities that range from learning scientific observation skills to creating metaphoric self-portraits. One could present this in an elementary class as easily as an
advanced high school or college course. It can work as a staff development exercise as well. There are many shoe drawings by renowned artists, but the fact that
ones shoe continues to inspire current post postmodern work strengthens the example (Shiota 2008). Lets look at the six characteristics through this exemplar:
Personally relevant and meaningful solutions from experts to novices are encouraged in this simple problem and have been across time. With regard to Guilfords creative behaviors: By definition, the problem requires fluency with individual responses. Flexibility is exhibited in the Draw your shoe challenge as it appeals
to elementary students to adults; beginners to the artistically talented, and novices
who need help with a specific technique to experts such as Michelangelo who identify new techniques are intrigued. Originality has emerged often, but a favorite
was drawn by a young man who drew his sneaker with absolute realism then depicted cartoon characters as a team of miniature workmen in hard hats using tools
to repair holes with needles/thread or buffing out scuffs. Another who drew her
shoe, capturing it before drawing her leg exiting the page on one side with detailed
background covering the rest of the page, demonstrated elaboration. Understanding
this drawing of a shoe as a visual metaphor for self-portrait invites elaborations of
object and background from other problem solvers.
A three - word problem using simple tools has inspired endless possibilities
across time, cultures, age levels, and expertise. Elegant problems yield elegant
solutions in any field.
Creativity and Aesthetics
Creative thought encourages, perhaps requires, aesthetic sensibilities. Exposing
problem solvers to different creative thinking strategies through Elegant Prob33
lems exercises and strengthens creative muscles. For example, there is an
artist/educational consultant at an outdoor sculpture museum who introduces

participants to the interactive creative processes needed to be an audience to the
creative process of others. By helping multi-age audiences make a heart connection with art, he shares what and how to observe the clues left by the conversation
the artist began then offers ways to engage ones own imagination to seek personal
meaning. This contricipationthe contribution of the creator interacting with
the participation of the viewer is required for the appreciation of any creative
product produced (Stein 1984)from the arts to new ideas to inventions. Appreciating the creative work of others may serve as a preamble to creative thinking, as
it seems to also require the development of aesthetic knowing or personal taste
(Kay 2012). As art informs science (Root-Bernstein 2000), aesthetic knowing may
be required for creativity in all domains. Elegant Problems may be a useful framework for designing opportunities to develop aesthetic style and creative thought in
every context.
Correspondence
Dr Sandra I. Kay
13 Ross Ave., Nyack, NY 10960, USA
Email: skay_elegantproblem@yahoo.com
Tel.: +1-845-987-2818
Authors brief bio
Sandra I. Kay has a Doctor of Education and Master of Education in Special Education from Teachers College, Columbia University and a Bachelor and Master of
Science in Art Education from SUNY New Paltz. She has over 40 articles and chapters including: School Arts, The Journal of Aesthetic Education, Design for Arts Education,
Roeper Review, Creativity Research Journal, Gifted Child Quarterly, Teaching Exceptional
Children, M. A. Runco (Ed.) Problem finding, problem solving, and creativity; K. D.
Arnold, et.al. (Eds.) Remarkable women: Perspectives on female talent development, the
APA publication by R. Freeman & B. Shore (Eds.) Talents unfolding: Cognition and
development and has coauthored an art education text Creating Meaning in art: Teacher
as choice maker. Her research interests focus on developing talent/expertise and on
the problem-finding aspects of creative thought, visual thinking, and other habits of
mind that engage the imagination and promote self-directed inquiry in children and
adults.
A founding faculty member of the Center for Teaching Critical Thinking and
Creativity (CTCTC) at San Diego State University, she also provides workshops or
courses on a developmental model of creative thinking when she is not writing or
spearheading the production of a not-for-profit educational documentary on crea34
SANDRA I. KAY
tive processes of audience members entitled Engaging the Imagination: Wallys

Way.
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Taylor, I. A. (1975) A retrospective view of creativity investigation In I.A. Taylor & J.
W. Getzels (Eds.), Perspectives in creativity p. 1-36. Chicago, Illinois: Aldine.
Whitehead, A. N. (1929) The aims of education and other essays Toronto, Canada: MacMillan.
Zuckerman, H. (1977) Scientific elite: Nobel laureates in the United States New York: Free
Press.
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36
MICHAEL BROWN & CHRIS WILSON
BETWEEN POSSIBILITIES AND PLACES: COGNITIVE METAPHOR, CREATIVITY, ART AND EDUCATION
Creativity: 'The process of having original ideas that have value' (Ken Robinson,
2009)
Introduction
Art emerges when every facet of sensory experience is channeled through the creative process. Artists may not exclusively draw from the visual domain when applying brush to canvas or musicians from the sonic world alone when developing new
compositional ideas; the expression of the whole self is integral to the discourse of
artistic practice and reception. The senses being the only available form of information, all creativity therefore stems from the processing of personal sensory experience and cognition. Art exists as a metaphorical and representation process of
communicating ideas and experiences drawing from immediate experience, and
memory of touch, sight, and sound, framed by culture, historical context, and
materials, and driven by exploration and inventiveness. Bernbachs insight1 coming
up with an idea is a process, informed by the new combination of old elements was born
out of the world of commercial advertising, but does exemplify the typical view of
creative endeavour; if all forms of creativity ultimately involve the reorganization
of experiential information and the development of new patterns and combinations
within the bounds of discipline, how can we tame this knowledge to render it
meaningful and applicable for creative artists and is there virtue in further exploring the dialogue between different creative domains given the myriad of evolving
technological conduits?
A Problem Defined
In arts education, personal expression and the development of craft and technical
expertise, tends to emphasize creativity as an integral and valuable part of the
world rather than simply a response to the world. Arguably discussed most openly
1
Taken from Webb Young, J,.1965, A Technique for Producing Ideas, Thinking Ink Media
37
in the arts (Wilson & Lennox, 2012), creativity is more routinely the objective of
pedagogic practice and the focus of learning. The consequence of history is however for a level of segregation between artistic practices to have become entrenched. Whilst technology continues to inaugurate new multimedia domains and
open new opportunities for integrated approaches to creative practice, specialization in either textual, visual, or auditory domains predominates in education curricula around the world.
The precepts of this text are that integrated approaches to arts practice and the
understanding of the creative process, as expressed through common theoretical
models, can facilitate, stimulate and enrich creativity, and that creativity itself is
fundamentally a process involving integrated sensory experience and recall; the
recombination and recontextualisation of experiences. Challenging the specificity
and security of artistic domain classifications, the boundary between visual and
auditory realms when collapsed, through technology, provides for new approaches
to collaboration, artistic practice and creative process and creative outcomes.
Creative stimulation and provocation can provide structure and increase fluency
of ideas within a creative process, and significant opportunity exists for the enrichment of arts education and wider development of creativity through the arts. Exploring the role of cognitive metaphor in artistic creativity when working across
auditory and visual domains, this chapter presents practical insights about the application of creativity in the arts, models of educational practice for the development
of artistic creativity, and explores more general questions of creative thinking and
thought processes. As a point of departure this chapter will explore musical creativity from the perspective of nurturing creative activity within an English undergraduate programme.
The Creative Musical Process
What does it mean to be creative musically? To what extent is coherence in structure a necessity that constrains expression with a stylistic boundary, within which
musicians may establish identity and consistency facilitating commercial appreciation and artistic longevity? As Mehldau states a truly creative musician is one
who is simultaneously rooted in the past and expressing something new2. Where
does the new reside? If novelty is a motivating factor, what would the consequences be for musical expression and the maintenance of performer/
compositional identity? Musicians are very firmly rooted in the past; it is ingrained
within the disciplined rehearsal regimes and within long established listener expectations. Very often within tightly bound stylistic constraints musicians strive for
individual expression and commercial recognition through adaptive interpretation,
and sometimes subtle, nuances of individual muscle memory, performers establish
a sense of expressive ownership. Compositions may largely follow structural exMehldau, Brad (2010)Jazz Pianist, Jazzman Magazine http://www.carnegiehall.org/BlogPost.aspx?
id=4294973887 <accessed 30 July 2013>
2
38
pectations to comply with stylistic definition but the boundaries offer enticing
motivation within which a variety of invention prospers. Boundaries can stretch,
break, and merge to form new styles but this is often not the jumping-off-point
within musical expression; coherence within a largely abstract system, as music is,
is a primary concern commercially and individually.
The Contextual Gatekeepers
Creativity within a very limited pallet of expression, and frequently with a limited
set of tools, steered towards specific commercial outlets, has its risks. Who decides
when a creative artifact is original, the student, the teacher, the artist, the audience? In the commercial world of music production, ownership is secured and
protected through copyright regulation and there are a number of relatively high
profile cases in which copyright ownership is deemed infringed3 which could be
costly on more ways than one. There may be a case here for the development of
copyright verification software to function as an electronic gatekeeper in a similar
form as the hit song science database technology that has appeared in recent years
on the WWW4.
In many ways then originality within a musical context is an increasingly difficult activity because of the established habits of behaviour governed by stylistic
context; Byrne (2012) expresses this well: I had an extremely slow-dawning insight
about creation. That insight is that context largely determines what is written, painted,
sculpted, sung, or performed. I believe that we unconsciously and instinctively make work to
fit pre-existing formats. How then is novelty within music ever achieved without
surrendering to the whims of intuition and how can creativity, musical or otherwise, be encouraged outside of a traditional musical educational framework which
depends more often upon musical analysis to develop craft skills than upon creativity itself? Early undergraduate compositional artifacts are generally re-creative
facsimiles of earlier successes.
Colourful Language and Noisy Pictures
Clearly one answer would be to integrate educationally, insights into the creative
process to facilitate favourable environmental conditions within which creative
thinking may be more easily provoked. Familiar stylistic habits may also be broken
through the implementation of strategies within a creative toolkit, which could include the use of metaphor and cross-modal strategies to stimulate shifts in musical
perception5.
The concept of tone colour being perhaps the most obvious use of visual metaphor to describe aspects of musical experience, there are numerous intercessions
between the scientific and artistic consideration of perception. The interrelation3. For example: BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8497433.stm <accessed 30 July 2013>
4. musicxray: http://blog.musicxray.com/tag/hit-song-science/ <accessed 30 July 2013>
5. Brown, M and Wilson, C ,. 2013, presentation at ACA Maine 2013: http://prezi.com/phfbu-5yhani/?utm_campaign=share&utm_medium=copy
39
ship and commonality of terminology to describe aspects of auditory, visual, physical and emotional experience is a common feature of most languages. Newtons
careful calibration of the optical spectrum to map to the seven-note Western diatonic scale leading Rimington (2002) and others to produce devices to express
more formal interrelationship of music and colour are well documented.
In the arts, the synaesthesia of many practitioners is also explored and a general
interest in cross-domain creativity more common still. Scriabin was the first to
include a notational staff in the manuscript score for colour in his work Prometheus:
The Poem of Fire (1910) following prolonged work with the Western cycle-of-fifths
to which he allocated spectral colours. In the visual arts, Kandinsky has a welldocumented interest in the relationship between the arts and as Expressionistic
painters in the early 19th century were coming to terms with Abstract artwork,
many turned to music.
Paul Klee, Frantiek Kupka, Roy De Maistre are other notable examples of
artists that have explored translation or transference; capturing aspects of time,
rhythm and form in sculptural and visual arts, the terminology itself revealing
more musical thinking, they recognised that the direct visualisation of music itself,
when expressed graphically, to be aesthetically satisfying stimulating new patters of
personal expression.
Music also became the inspiration to underpin and inform temporal and structural progression for experimental film makers, necessitating the utilisation and
development of emergent technologies to facilitate abstract communication; Oskar
Fischinger, Len Lye, Norman McLaren being significant exponents of this emerging art form leading John and James Whitney to advance the language into the
digital domain finding new audio-visual correspondences. Studies of synaesthesia,
stemming from the work of Galton who coined the term in 1880, demonstrate
clear potential for the development of greater understanding of imagination. As
argued by Cytowic and Eagleman (2009), synaesthesia may even hold the key to a
more fundamental understanding of creativity and insight. Simner, C. M. et. al.
(2006), Schlewitt-Haynes, L. D. et. al. (2010), Dailey, A., et. al. (2010),
Ramachandran and Hubbard (2001), Kadosh & Terhune (2011), Eagleman, D. M.,
et. al. (2006), and, most notably, Ward, J., et. al. (2008), all identify the creative
significance of cross domain sensory experience and the potential for the bisociation of perceptual matrices to enrich experience and potentially stimulate creativity.
The Sound Canvas
As musicians and academics, it is a responsibility to provide learning, teaching and
practice opportunities most capable of producing the most creative output. Given
the predominant requirement for exclusively auditory output from musicians, and
40
visual output from artists, if there is any possibility of enrichment by challenging

this exclusivity then it should be explored directly. As such, the practice-based
research in this work is designed to explore the precept that cross-domain creative
practice can be beneficial in terms of fluency and quality. Centering creative work
on the parallel and integrated approach to visual, animated and sound art work,
specific physical locations were adopted as places to meet, discuss, and, ultimately,
to gather raw digital data in the form of location sound recordings, photographs,
acoustic impulse responses, and videos.
The development of work, whilst designated as a collaborative process, was
nevertheless open to transformation and adaptation throughout. Using only a relatively small amount of initial data-capture time, and discussion of creative directions and methodologies, a strong identity quickly became apparent in the work
with many emerging commonalities and perspectives. The process of interpretation through collaboration was an insightful process. Whilst musicians are well
practiced in forms of direct collaboration through training and professional experience, the integration of technology as a medium of communication and interaction
in this project inaugurated distinctively new patterns of experience and exchange
of ideas.
Whilst communal energy and impetuseven creative competition--would perhaps
be anticipated, the use of a central database of creative work in sound, animation
and image during all stages of development, created a concepts and ideas space in
which interpretations and responses could not only be appreciated but also appropriated, integrated and distorted. Each selecting to work in parallel with sound,
image and moving image, often explicitly using combined sound and image editing
tools including sound-to-image, image-to-sound, and impulse response algorithms,
distinct interpretations emerged during sporadic but prolific periods of development work.
Combining the use of sound recordings captured from the same source location
in creative practice, the process of animating the fixed image and rendering still
the time-based elements of sound are brought together. During the initial opening
outthe process, using technology, of exploring every creative possibility and
opportunitya proliferation of ideas emerge, are then documented and shared.
Interaction occurred both through sharing of ideas and through practical operation
of cameras, sound recording equipment and projection systems.
A Toolkit for Musical Creativity
Application of the precepts of this research, in undergraduate learning and teaching
have taken several different forms. Firstly, the use of visual stimulus in music composition tuition has been practiced in a more focused way. In one example, students in the first of two distinct three-year undergraduate music programmes
41
were, in different practical composition sessions, provided a specific creative brief.

In the first session, students worked in an exclusively musical way using only
software interface as visual stimulus during a creative practice session. In a separate
session students were instructed to compose music for, or in response to, selected
videos. This test was completed with two different student groups; the first focused on the study of music production and the second studying more traditional
music composition. Following both creative sessions students completed evaluations and submitted their work for assessment. When composing for video, the
vast majority of students reported; a) an increased fluency of compositional ideas;
b) increased enjoyment of the creative process; c) increased perception of quality
of ideas produced. The quality and quantity of creative ideas as evaluated by marking tutors aligned with the student perspective in almost every case.
Ultimately, there is considerable evidence that the introduction of visual stimulus can enrich and make more fluent the development of musical ideas. Whilst on
the one level simply alleviating responsibility for development for structure and
form, there is also evidence that the interaction with other perceptual domains
provides opportunity for development of more and better ideas rather than simply
the same more straightforwardly. Students of numerous disciplines fine themselves
on spectra of discipline and creativity. Since the development of music technology as
a defined discipline related to but distinct from music, there have emerged a plethora of educational courses, syllabi and qualifications frameworks that encompass
everything from the technical focus on audio engineering through to more traditional composers and creative practitioners.
Summary and conclusions
Considering the work of De Bono (provocation and lateral thinking) and Csilszentmihalyi (creative flow), the introduction of what could be described as the sensory
opposite domain as a creative stimulus could provide the necessary agent for improved quantity and quality of ideas in undergraduate music study. Moreover,
research indicates a clear possibility that creativity directed towards sound and
visual media more generally could be significantly developed through more explicit
interaction with corresponding domains. In an increasingly media-orientated cultural space in which learners are educated alongside, through, and professionally
for environments progressively transformed by technology, it is perhaps no surprise that new generations of undergraduate students bring increasingly more complex creative techniques and perspectives to their studies. In the arts this is particularly significant given the integrated and immediate accessibility of creative tools
for sound visual practice and more media orientated foundational experience.
With a focus on the pedagogic interpretation and implementation of research
ideas, the consequence of interim findings is the development of a website in order
42
to promote and to facilitate interaction, exhibition and further research. Perceptual Research in Image, Sound and Music (PRISM: www.prism.gb.net) was
launched in September 2012 to enable; a) the interaction of artistic practitioners;
b) access to auditory and visual arts stimulus for creative practitioners; c) a forum
for interaction and collaboration using social media. The aim in the coming year
will be to encourage interaction between students of different subject disciplines
and to incorporate techniques developed through the practice-based element of
this work in undergraduate learning and teaching.
As is clearly evident in early childhood, creativity in multiple and combined
forms and formats is commonplace in many cultures. The point at which people
either paint, write stories, make music, dance, or do none of these things, tends to
occur after childhood in most cultures. The reasons for this are numerous. Progressive specialisation or ultimate abandonment of creative arts practice has been
driven most widely by socio-political factors including education systems, professional and socio-economic conditions. Technology is at the heart of dynamic
changes in each of these spheres of which each of these changes provide significant
context to appreciate a shifting dynamic in creative practice experience. The accessibility of mobile and wider computing technology has resulted in the proliferation
of photographic, graphic design and music production experience. Interaction with
creative arts practice has been extended geographically, socially and culturally. The
implications of this for higher education are significant. Whilst universities will
continue to adapt and refine course designation and provision, there may be a need
to reconsider the classifications of creative arts practice more fundamentally.
Were not creative for one of our senses; we need to be creative with all our
senses.
Correspondence
Michael Brown & Chris Wilson
Creative Technologies Research group
School of Technology
Faculty of Arts, Design & Technology,
University of Derby, England, United Kingdom
Email: c.j.wilson@derby.ac.uk; Email: m.brown2@derby.ac.uk

Authors Brief bios
Chris is Senior Learning and Teaching Adviser for the Institute for Learning Enhancement and Innovation, and senior academic in the Faculty of Arts, Design &
Technology of the University of Derby in the UK. A classically trained musician
and practitioner in the technological arts with over seventeen years experience of
43
teaching in higher education, Chris has presented and published widely on the
subjects of creativity, artistry, technology and education, and is an active member
of the American Creativity Association, associate and Fellow of the Higher Education Academy, principle researcher of the Creative Technologies Research Group,
and associate of the Digital and Material Arts Research Centre in the UK.
Michael is Senior Lecturer in Music and Programme Leader for the BA (Hons)
Popular Music with Music Technology degree in the Faculty of Arts, Design and
Technology at the University of Derby, UK. He holds diploma's in both Art and
Music, a BSc (Hons) degree in Software Engineering, Mathematics and Music, and
Masters degree in Contemporary Composition which combine to fuel his interest
in computer creativity. He is a principle researcher for CTRG (Creative Technologies Research Group) with over twenty five years of teaching experience in the FE
and HE sector, and an active digital artist, virtual art practitioner, composer, musician and sound designer with international professional experience in media production. As well as maintaining his professional role, he is an active member of the
ACA (American Creativity Association), is published and has presented his research in multimodal creativity internationally.
44
References
Byrne, D (2012). How Music Works, Canongate Books Ltd, Edinburgh
Cytowic, R. E, & Eagleman, D. M (2009) Wednesday is Indigo Blue: Discovering-37(D)the Brain Of
Synaesthesia, The MIT Press.
Dailey, A, Martindale, C., & Borkum, J (1997) Creativity, Synesthesia, and Physiognomic Perception
45
46
CHIMAE CUPSCHALK
ASSESSING THE RECONNECTION TO CREATIVE

STRATEGIES IN NONTRADITIONAL LEARNERS
Introduction
While a great deal of emphasis is placed on 21st century skills for K-12 students,
nontraditional learners in todays workforce are seeking ways to maximize their
opportunities to explore and exercise creative process strategies such as fluency,
originality, risk taking, inquisitiveness, adaptability, intrinsic motivation, ambiguity, complexity, and self-reflection. The facilitation of creative behaviors allows for
growth resulting in greater opportunities and increased job performance in nontraditional learners professional environment (Driver, 2001). This research is significant because reconnecting with creative processes affords the nontraditional
learner the ability to positively contribute to our diverse, global workforce
(Khaire, Amabile, 2008). In addition, fostering an inclusive and supportive classroom provides nontraditional learners with a creative process staging area to practice convergent and divergent methodologies often undervalued in a work environment.
Description of Program
Cedar Crest College (CCC) is a liberal arts college for women located in Allentown, Pennsylvania. The CCC curriculum is designed to integrate and develop
critical thinking, leadership skills, creative strategies, technological literacy and
social awareness (Cedar Crest College, n.d.). The Studio Art classes are one example of the kind of environment where nontraditional learners can foster personal
growth and development preparing them for life in a global community. The focal
point of Structures in Book Arts instructional plan features Metiris Rubric on Creativity (Metiri Group, 2009) comprised of ten creative strategies: fluency, originality, expertise, risk, inquisitiveness, adaptability, intrinsic motivation, ambiguity,
complexity and maturity of personality, and self-reflection. To successfully transition creative process skills from the classroom to their professional life, students
needed clear and specific feedback on their work, guidance in the conception and
completion of projects and examples sharing how the creative process could be
applied in their organizations. Using Metiris rubric throughout the class offered a
47
CHIMAE CUPSCHALK
framework to gauge the success, progress and application of the creative process.
Problem solving skills and taking risks are two components equally critical in
developing creative processes in the classroom and work environment. Both of
these elements comprised 60% of what nontraditional learners used as a foundation for the other creative process components. Self-reflection and developing a
vocabulary for expression were ranked at 10% each and exploring interconnectedness was weighted at 20%. Successfully re-connecting with creative processes utilized 40% of the Instructors time to provide concise feedback. Project guidance
amounted for 33% of the classroom time. 15% of studio time was used to provide
clear project demonstrations and 12% of class time focused on providing examples
of how the creative process could be applied on the job. This research has taken
responsibility for expanding awareness along with providing as much detail about
the processes, procedures, challenges and successes as possible. In addition, data
findings provided in this evaluation offers a complete picture and includes any contrasting perspectives. Finally, the resulting action plan garnered the commitment
from the CCC Art Department Chair and faculty and included a living, comprehensive activities list and Creative Strategies Instructional Plan that has been applied throughout Art electives courses. Use of a creative strategies rubric in classes
has provided measureable and achievable objectives for the CCC Art Department,
faculty and nontraditional learners. In addition, policy changes within the Art Department reflected updates made to instructional plans, rubrics and class activities
designed for each Art electives class.
Purpose of Evaluation
The purpose of this evaluation was to determine if nontraditional learners have
successfully reconnected with creative strategies introduced in a classroom setting
and could transfer these skills to their professional work environment. In addition,
the evaluation measured the value Studio Art classes lend in assisting nontraditional
learners explore how and why decisions about problems and challenges are
made in conjunction with what, where and when allowing for a greater depth
of self-discovery, reflection and exploration.
Evaluation Matrix
An evaluation matrix assisted in the consideration of the most appropriate and
useful data collection methods and information sources for the guiding questions
identified in the reconnection to creative strategies evaluation plan. Three key
questions guiding this evaluation design included:
48
Questions
1.
2.
3.
How has the creative process affected the nontraditional learner professionally?
What are the nontraditional learners perceptions of Structures in Book Arts
course in terms of what has been enhanced due to the creative process?
How are the nontraditional learners applying the creative process in their
professional lives?
Methods
This evaluation included four types of data collection methods: observations in a
natural setting, pre and post class survey, archival data and an optional interview.
The qualitative data sources collected for this evaluation provided invaluable insight and understanding into the behaviors of the nontraditional learners creative
process strategies.
Information Sources
Twelve nontraditional learners enrolled in the Structures in Book Arts class served as
the primary information source for evaluation. Work samples collected captured
each students creative strategies progression throughout the course.
Data Collection
The Instructor was responsible for observing, documenting, guiding students and
collecting data from the appropriate information sources beginning the first day of
class. In addition, individual interviews resulting from the 90 day post class survey
were administered. Collected data showed the progression in students self- expression and involvement in the creative process when facing challenges normally
unfamiliar to them. Nontraditional learners classroom comments showed an understanding of parallels and similarities found in creative and work processes. Observable high levels of project engagement and collaboration signified the attainment of a flow experience when it came to designing, problem solving and creating their books (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Observations in Natural Settings
The purpose of qualitative observations in natural settings was to capture students
interactions and application of creative strategies within the classroom. An obser49
CHIMAE CUPSCHALK
vation form was used to collect information about the student, classroom environment and efficacy of coursework. Metiris Rubric on Creativity (Metiri Group,
2009) was used as a gauge to measure the progress of each student.
Surveys
The Instructor conducted two surveys for the class using a Likert-type scale design
with options ranging from: strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, undecided,
somewhat agree and strongly agree. The initial survey was filled out by the student
the first evening of class to establish a base line of the students understanding of
creative strategies. The Instructor distributed and reviewed Metiris Rubric on
Creativity, explaining the purpose of the pre class survey and collected it for review. The 90 day post class survey assisted in determining whether or not the reconnection to creative strategies transferred to the nontraditional learners work
environment and offered an option for an informal interview with the course Instructor.
Individual Interviews
Nontraditional learners had the option to take part in an informal phone interview
with the course Instructor. Specifically, the phone interview allowed the Instructor
to gain insight as to whether or not there had been a successful reconnection to
creative strategies after Structures in Book Arts class ended.
Archival Data
Student papers, project photographs, models and final projects comprised the list
of artifacts collected and reviewed for evaluation. This data provided additional
qualitative information and determined whether or not the class had afforded students the opportunities needed to successfully progress through projects requiring
the application of creative strategies.
A two-page narrative was submitted at the end of class and captured what inspired the student along with an explanation of how reconnecting with the creative
process had affected them personally and professionally. Project photographs provided visual documentation of students progress throughout the course as they
incorporated creative strategies to work through individual projects.
The use of models to rough out book projects encouraged nontraditional learners to step through the process of bookbinding. Creating a perfect book was not
the goal, instead, mistakes were encouraged and used as a tool to strengthen and
expand on creative strategies. Projects eliciting high levels of engagement or flow
were documented for further exploration (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
50
The completion and presentation of a final project provided nontraditional learners

a way to share how they had used creative strategies for the design and execution
of their projects. Students had an opportunity to discuss materials, ideas, problem
solving, challenges and successes as they presented their projects. A question and
answer portion of the presentation encouraged the class to take part in their peers
creative learning journey.
Data Analysis
Data was collected and analyzed from observations in natural settings, surveys,
individual reviews and archival data in order to provide as much detail as possible
for expanding awareness, improving the nontraditional learners classroom experiences, classroom tools for linking creative strategies to existing curriculum for
faculty and connecting the CCC Art Department with the policies, vision and mission statement of CCC.
The ages of the nontraditional learners ranged from 18 to 60 with 33% of the
class between 21 and 30 years of age and 8% of the students at age 51 or above. Of
the 12 nontraditional learners attending this class, 42% were Nursing majors, 25%
of the students were majoring in Business, Education also ranked at 17% with the
remaining students were 8% were either English majors and another 8% were
undecided. In addition, two female class members were exchange students from
Africa. The professional backgrounds of these nontraditional learners included
nursing at 43%, art collection liaison for a local university, Instructor in the nursing profession, a business owner, bartender, financial analyst and adults in transition taking classes to improve current job skills.
Observation in a natural setting captured qualitative data and focused on language and comments nontraditional learners used in the classroom, social interactions and level of engagement. The narrative data associated with each class meeting showed nontraditional learners reconnecting to creative strategies outlined in
Metiris Rubric on Creativity (Metiri Group, 2009) in the way students discussed,
planned and executed their models and final projects. For example, Tunnel and
Carousel books are models used to tell stories possibly indicating a preference for
dialogic learning. In other words, telling a story about the model appeared to help
work through any creative process challenges faced by the nontraditional learner.
In addition, observations in natural settings showed a progression in the way in
which projects of increasing complexity were assessed and completed. Students
were observed individually and as a team. Nontraditional learners grades were
provided as a percentage based on the classroom rubric showed the level of proficiency attained by the conclusion of class.
The twelve questions on the pre and post class surveys offered insights into how
the nontraditional learner viewed creative process strategies in their professional
51
CHIMAE CUPSCHALK
environments, how comfortable nontraditional learners felt applying creative

strategies on the job and if their professional experience had changed since reconnecting with creative strategies. Pre and post class surveys were compared to show
increases, decreases or whether the respondents had no changes in their perception. 42% of the nontraditional learners enrolled in Structures in Book Arts responded to the 90 day post survey. The final analysis of this evaluation proved the
ability for nontraditional learners to successfully reconnect to creative strategies in
a classroom environment and transfer these skills to their professional environment.
The overall results indicated 33% of the nontraditional learners strongly agree
on the value and implementation of creative problem solving at work and agree
they feel creative on the job and some risk taking at work is acceptable in both the
pre and post class surveys. 67% of the nontraditional learners responses indicates a
lift in their perception, application and affects of the creative process demonstrating a reconnection to creative strategies in their professional lives 90 days after
taking Structures in Book Arts.
Average rating increased based on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means Strongly
Disagree and 5 means Strongly Agree 8% of the 90 day post survey respondents showed a .2 increase for: I feel I am rewarded for creative thinking at work. The
majority of lift occurred for categories pertaining to the application and affect of
creative strategies in the workplace where 42% of the respondents noted a .4 increase from their pre class surveys. A significant increase when comparing pre and
post survey responses for: I often receive positive feedback about my creative approach
showed a .6 increase and: I do not feel pressured to conform to what others think or do at
work resulted in a 1.0 overall increase from the pre class survey.
An informal interview held on Thursday, May 26 at 3:00 pm in the afternoon
with a nontraditional learner who is employed as an Art Department Liaison resulted in the following information:
Question: Please share how the creative process strategies you
reconnected with in Structures in Book Arts have affected you professionally.
Response: Its obvious in my profession its important to have a good
understanding of different book structures. I realize I dont need to know
everything about the various structures just feeling comfortable seeing connections.
Question: What are you perceptions of Structures in Book Arts
course in terms of what has been enhanced due to the creative
process?
Response: You know once I relaxed and just let things happen every52
thing fell into place. I wasnt afraid to make mistakes and I began to see
other possibilities with my projects. It was OK not to have to know everything up front and I really wanted all the details right away but I can see I
feel more comfortable not having to control every detail.
Question: How are you applying the creative process in your
professional life?
Response: Im much more willing to take risks and trust my instincts
than I had been before class. Im also more comfortable making judgment
calls at work. Probably the biggest change is accepting ambiguous situations
and knowing Ill make the right choices.
Additional Comments: I feel much more confident about the choices
I make at work and being able to think about different possibilities has
afforded me more responsibilities. My manager sees my confidence and she
trusts my decisions. If there was something Id like to be able to do more
easily I wish I could implement more creative strategies in my daily life or
just revisit a creative space.
The creative strategies action plan proposed can be used in conjunction with individual studio art curriculums. In other words, professors are able to augment their
studio art class with an action plan on creativity. The results from this evaluation
along with the implementation of a creative strategies action plan allowed nontraditional learners to reconnect with creative strategies yielding positive results.
Providing a new way to approach current classes, with the added focus on creativity, helps professors show adult non-Art majors how they can successfully incorporate creative strategies in their professional lives.
Utilization and Action Planning
The CCC Art Department Chairperson has helped faculty understand the importance of including creative strategies in their existing curriculum. An outcome of
this research has resulted in the Art Department faculty incorporating a rubric to
gauge creative strategies, content, and abilities of their non-Art major adult learners. The rubric measures the creative strategies from novice to advanced allowing
professors to measure students progress. In the future, faculty may engage in brief
weekly meetings to share ideas, offer suggestions, discuss what went well in class
and what changes they can make to address creative learning areas of opportunity.
Collecting and discussing data, as demonstrated in Structures in Book Arts course,
could assist in establishing changes within existing traditional classroom environments where nontraditional learners begin their holistic journey interconnecting
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CHIMAE CUPSCHALK
Studio Art triumphs and challenges with their professional lives.

Summary
Nontraditional learners often share that they feel Art electives hold little or no
value when compared to their core requirement courses. However, individual and
collaborative problem solving, ambiguity, quick turnaround time, and risk taking
are just some of similarities shared between Studio Art classes and 21st century
work environments. Faculty can successfully augment their existing curriculums
with instructional plans and rubrics geared to support creative learning environments while using classrooms as staging areas for practicing creative strategies. In
addition, taking part in weekly collaborative meetings to share successes and challenges allows for a greater depth and understanding of how best to implement
creative strategies in Studio Art classes. Finally, its necessary to continually revise
best practices and procedures in the classroom to meet the needs of the nontraditional learners. Studio Art classes provide a vehicle to build valuable skills which
can be utilized to encourage collaboration, risk taking, flexibility, meaning and
competence while ensuring a reconnection to creative strategies and the transference of these skills to the nontraditional learners professional work environments.
Correspondence
Chimae Cupschalk, 214 Third Street, East Greenville, PA 18041
Tel: ++1 (610)360-8168. Email: cfc28@drexel.edu
References
Beghetto, R. (2006). Creative Justice? The Relationship Between Prospective Teachers'
Prior Schooling Experiences and Perceived Importance of Promoting Student
Creativity. JOURNAL OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR, 40(3), 149-162.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow. New York: Harper & Row.
Coates, J. F., & Jarratt, J. (1994). Workplace Creativity. Employment Relations Today, 21
(1), 11.
Cole, D., Sugioka, H., & Yamagata-Lynch, L., (1999). Supportive Classroom Environments for Creativity in Higher Education. JOURNAL OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR, 33(4), 277-293.
Driver, M. (2001). Fostering Creativity in Business Education: Developing Creative Classroom Environments to Provide Students with Critical Workplace Competencies.
Journal of Education for Business, 77(1), 28.
Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Beyond Big and Little: The four C Model of
creativity. Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 1-12. doi:10.1037/a0013688.
Khaire, M., & Amabile, T.(2008). Creativity and the role of the leader. Harvard Business
Review, 86(10), 142.
54
Metiri Group. (2009). Dimensions of 21st Century Learning. Retrieved from http://
creativity-innovation.metiri.wikispaces.net/Rubric
Sternberg, R. J. (2007). A Systems Model of Leadership: WICS. American Psychologist, 62
(1), 34-42. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.1.34.
Sternberg, R. (2002). Creativity as a Decision. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST, 57(5), 376-376.
Appendix
Continuum of Progress: Creativity
Creativity is the act of bringing something into existence that is genuinely new, original, and
of value either personally (of significance only to the individual or organization) or culturally (adds significantly to a domain of culture as recognized by experts)
Source: Dr Fredricka K. Reisman
55
4
Continuum of Progress: Creativity
Source: Dr Fredricka K. Reisman
56
CHIMAE CUPSCHALK
57
MARGARET MURPHY
GENERATION Z AND MEDIA & ARTS ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: AN INVESTIGATION

OF CREATIVE LEARNING ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Abstract
Generation Z, Post Millennials, Post Gen, Gen Wii: call this generational cohort
what you will, they are reshaping the world around us, including future business
enterprises. Born in the early to mid or late 1990s (Ife, 2013), many of these
digital natives are very interested in entrepreneurial undertakings, despite (or perhaps because of) the economy (Ernst & Young, 2013). According to Harris Interactive, nearly 40% would like to start their own business some day (2010). Current educational and community outreach efforts most often focus on business
and/or technology driven endeavors. However, a review of literature and analysis
of current published interviews with young entrepreneurs reveals young Gen Z
media and arts entrepreneurs are motivated by somewhat different factors, as compared to more traditional entrepreneurs and thereby facing some different challenges ahead. This paper concludes with recommendations for future research
and an implications discussion for the development of creative young entrepreneurs.
Introduction
Entrepreneurship is critical to economic growth and job creation, especially with
the financial times faced worldwide. The United States Small Business Administration (SBA) reported 28 million small businesses (2013), a 4% increase versus
2011. More importantly, these small businesses represent 60-80% of all new jobs
created in tough economic times (SBA, 2011). Continued entrepreneurial interest
and growth is part of a global phenomenon, despite the economic concerns worldwide. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) with 250 or fewer employees provided two-thirds of G20 employment, created jobs at twice the rate of their bigger
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MARGARET MURPHY
competitors and were more likely to recruit the unemployed (Ernst & Young,
2011). Unemployment and underemployment among teens and young adults are
two more bleak side effects of the global financial crisis. Within the U.S., teens are
facing a record level of unemployment at 24%; equaling levels achieved the Great
Depression (BLS, 2013). Globally, the International Labour Organization (ILO)
reported almost 13% of the worlds youth (representing nearly 75 million young
people) as unemployed (2013). Some economists feel the real youth unemployment is much higher, estimating rates of economically inactive young people
(those neither working or studying) at nearly 290 million (Economist, 2013).
Therefore, entrepreneurship is critical not only to global growth of the world
economy; but, also, the employment and future of todays youth. In fact, a study
for the SBA, points to a direct correlation between entrepreneurship, positive
economic growth and decreased unemployment (Plehn-Dujowich, 2012). Additionally and perhaps more importantly, a Harris Interactive Youth Pulse study for
the Kauffman Foundation for Entrepreneurship found entrepreneurship to be a
desired activity for 40% of those ages 8 to 24 years old in 2007 and again, three
years later, despite the economy (Harris, 2010). In the same study, 25% of 18 to
21 year olds and those aged 13 to 17 years old surveyed saw starting a business as
more desirable than other career opportunities. More recently, a 2011 Gallup
Hope Index Student Poll documented even more pronounced entrepreneurial
aspirations stating nearly 8 in 10 students (77%) in grades 5 through 12 want to
be their own boss; 45% want to start their own business and 42% believe they
will invent something that will change the world (Calderon, 2011).
Entrepreneurship motivations obviously extend beyond economic issues for
young people. Pop culture personalities, the media and startup events are nurturing the growing interest in entrepreneurial endeavors. In fact, entrepreneurship
has become a pop culture hot button, creating a start up nation frenzy. Television programming such as Dragons Den, the top rated (especially among young
people) Shark Tank, Crowd Rule, the new Supermarket Wars, and the soonto-debut DormBiz (among others) have created heightened interest and appeal
for entrepreneurship. Additionally, entrepreneur superstars such as Mark Zuckerberg, Sergey Brin, or the late Steve Jobs have given entrepreneurship a quasi- rock
star cool status. Additionally, events like hack-a-thons, start up weekends,
and other often technology based activities (frequently sponsored by assorted business incubators, accelerator programs and more) attract young entrepreneurs interested and excited by the intense, high-energy experience. Entrepreneurship is
widely covered by the media and a phenomenon that young potential entrepreneurs have literally grown up amidst all of the excitement.
A final overriding force influencing young people to consider entrepreneurship
is the technology-driven world they have been immersed in, since very young
childhood. Pew Research Center, in conjunction with The Berkman Center for
59
Internet & Society at Harvard Society, produced a study showing that 95% of teens
are online which is consistent with 2006 findings (Pew, 2013). However, teens
internet usage behaviors have changed as they have moved from stationary desktops to a laptop or even a tablet, 24/7. Per Nielsens The Teen Transition report, 71% of teens now own a tablet and 61% own a smartphone and have increased their monthly data usage 256% versus a year ago, giving them even greater
access to instant information and solutions as they google it or turn to a YouTube
tutorial (Nielsen, 2013). These young people have never known a world without
the internet, without instant access to information or without the ability to quickly
find the answer themselves.
Entrepreneurial education
Current entrepreneurial educational efforts are primarily concentrated within
higher education and the private sector focused on adult learning. A passive study
by Saint Louis Universitys John Cook School of Business resulted in a combined
list (mining data from the Entrepreneurship Compendium, the National Consortium of Entrepreneurship Centers, the GWU/SBA Survey and other sources) reported some 224 higher education U.S. institutions with majors in entrepreneurship or small business. However, data from the United States Report for the
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2012 found that of entrepreneurs aged
18 to 64 years old, only 31% had trained for their entrepreneur endeavors at a
college or university course, 8% had adult training and less than 1% received
training at grade school or youth programs (Kelly et al. 2012). Presumably the
number of higher education students majoring and benefiting from entrepreneurship coursework will grow as the programs proliferate.
Within the United States, the Gallup Hope Index 2011 survey reports that 64%
of students in grades 9 through 12 believe my school offers classes in how to start
and run a business (Calderon, 2011). Yet, very few of these Gallup surveyed
students had any actual entrepreneurial experience as 96% of those in grades 5-12
then responded no to the question do you run your own business now? (2011).
Similarly, in a 2006 National Federation of Independent Businesses (NFIB) and
VISA survey, 90% of high school teachers and guidance counselors surveyed believed their students had interest in becoming their own bosses; but, 75% of respondents felt students didnt know where to turn for assistance (NFIB, 2006).
Additionally, the GEM Global Report (Xavier et al., 2013) survey of 69 participating countries found entrepreneurship training for elementary and secondary school aged
students to be the least adequate factor.
Therefore, GEM recommendations globally were to increase entrepreneurial
training efforts within these youth segments, for a variety of reasons (employment
growth, economic development, innovation, etc.). For example, 66% of the
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MARGARET MURPHY
young entrepreneurs at the G20 Young Entrepreneurs Summit in Russia believe

entrepreneurial skills need to be taught (Ernst & Young, 2013). Also, in a 2011
survey of current and recent college graduates, 89% believed entrepreneurship
education is important given the new economy and job market; yet, only 27% of
respondents felt they had been ever offered a class(es) on entrepreneurship (Youth Entrepreneur Council, 2011). These findings are also supported by
the 2011 Entrepreneurship Barometer as presented at the G20 Young Entrepreneur Summit in Nice, where young entrepreneurs profiled felt budding entrepreneurs needed a stronger infrastructure of educational support and mentoring
(Ernst & Young, 2011). Specifically, 70% of the G20 Young Entrepreneur Summit attendees felt students needed to follow specific training to become entrepreneurs and 88% saw success stories and coaching programs as key priorities to
improve student perceptions of entrepreneurship as a career option over the next
three years (2011).
The imperative to increase youth entrepreneurship educational efforts becomes
particularly important when one considers the age of potential entrepreneurial
beginnings. Among a study of 685 leading entrepreneurs, 59% started their first
business before the age of 30; 10% starting their business even earlier, under 20
years old (Ernst & Young, 2011). Recent popular press is inundated with stories
of teen entrepreneur prodigies such as: Nick DAloisio, the 17-year-old news
summarization app. developer who sold his business to Yahoo! for $30 million;
Madison Robinson, 15 year old Founder and CEO of the $1 million+ sales apparel
company, Fish Flops apparel; Cameron Johnson, a serial teen entrepreneur, who
started his first business at age 9 and had a net worth of $1 million plus before he
earned a high school diploma and many more (Strauss, 2013). Teen entrepreneur
dramatic success stories are still certainly buzzworthy headlines; but not the isolated phenomenon they might once have been.
Key motivations for entrepreneurs have been identified time and again as involving the goals of profit and commercial gain. More recently however, Noam
Wasserman and Timothy Butler of Harvard Business School (HBS) surveyed 2,000
entrepreneurs and identified key motivators, by age and gender. Key motivators
within this HBS study for 20-something entrepreneurs of both genders included
autonomy, power & influence and managing people; gender differences stressed an
emphasis on financial gain for men versus altruism for women. Wasserman discussed the two key distinguishing motivators leading to the founders dilemma of
determining the balance between being rich or being king, arguing that successful entrepreneurs ultimately should choose a path (not both), accepting the inevitable trade-offs involved (Wasserman, 2008). Interestingly, the Harris Interactive
survey that reached 5,077 potential U.S. entrepreneurs aged 8 to 24 years old
unearthed both similarities and differences when exploring start-up motivation
patterns among the very young (Harris Interactive, 2010). The top 5 reasons
61
among the youthful potential entrepreneurs in the Harris study included: money
(26%); building something for the future (18%), being my own boss (16%), using
my skills and abilities (14%) and seeing my ideas realized (12%). Themes of financial reward, autonomy and personal achievement are sentiments frequently voiced
by traditional entrepreneurs.
In comparison, when exploring the motivations of media arts and arts entrepreneurs, impetuses begin shifting. As Ruth Bridgstocks so aptly entitled paper, Not
a Dirty Word: Arts Entrepreneurship and Higher Education implies and discusses, there is a seemingly inherent discomfort with any potentially crass
commercial aspect associated with artistic endeavors (Bridgstock, 2012). Young
artists (often as well as their educators and mentors) frequently are very committed to fulfilling internal needs such as personal artistic fulfillment and a passionate
desire to innovate. Arguably, art entrepreneurs can also be seeking external rewards such as validation via appreciation from others, community connections through
shared visions, etc. Based on published interviews with entrepreneurs who began
as teens and interviews with current teen entrepreneurs, the following preliminary
analysis begins to illustrate the similarities and differences between more traditional entrepreneurs (involved in business, science and/or technically driven efforts) versus media and arts entrepreneurs as youthful business beginners.
Young entrepreneurs interested in more traditional business models and technology driven businesses repeated consistent themes of profits, autonomy, maximizing
investments and sometimes, people management. As the quotes provided indicate,
although these motivations may seem a bit cold and rational, the language and sentence structures reveal strong emotional connections highlighting passion, drive,
pride and excitement.
In elementary school, I was trying to sell not only my toys but also, for example, my uncles
products to friends and family for a profitit was a continuous quest for autonomy.
Christopher Pruijse, letslunch.com
When I was youngI found out you can make a lot of money as an entrepreneur I was
hooked at that point! Nick Friedman, College Hunks Hauling Junk
At the age of 4I realized I could make moneyI wanted more of it. I continued to brainstorm and create new opportunities every year since then! Charles Gaudet, Predictable
Profits
I started my first business in middle school, when I was 11 years old, by partnering with an
artist friend of mine... He was the manufacturer, and I was the salesman. We made
enough to pay for our lunches every day Chad French, Peerfly (Young Entrepreneur
Council, 2012).
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MARGARET MURPHY
most of my companies focus on making moneyPart of my struggle is that I want to see

where theyre going with the business and, in most cases, I dont have control over that. Like
with a baby, I just want to make sure that its going to have a good future. Mark Bao, 17
years old with 11 companies, 3 foundation (Scheides, 2012).
Although young media and arts entrepreneurs exhibit many of the same personal
sentiments (passion, drive, excitement, etc.) through syntax and word choices,
these teen entrepreneurs reveal slightly different priorities in terms of personal
expression, artistic fulfillment, innovation, individual validation and connections.
Less emphasis is placed on financial rewards, people management or power.
One of my first ventures was in middle school: A co-founder and I offered more stylish Physical Education uniforms for fellow students. Doreen Bloch, Poshly
My favorite example is my quest, as a teenager, to become an actress. I didn't have the look
or the talent, but I persisted past a million nos. Lauren Friese, TalentEgg (Young Entrepreneur Council, 2012).
I like a challenge. I think what drove me to start my magazine was the fact that I was so
young and I was doing something that nobody around me was doing. Savannah Britt,
15, Youngest Magazine Publisher
When it first started, it wasnt a business. The characters of the Miss O girls started off as
my drawings. I thought, We should really start doing something for these girls. Juliette
Brindek, MissOandFriends.com (began at age 10)
Its fun to meet people who use the site. Go for your goals. Dont let anyone tell you that
you cant do it. -- Catherine Cook, yearbook.com (launched in high school) (Scheides,
2012).
Conclusion and Next Steps Recommendations
In conclusion, young entrepreneurship is an important global educational priority
and economic imperative. In particular, media arts and arts entrepreneurship education should be an important initiative. Although growing, arts entrepreneurship
in undergraduate programs is inconsistent and seemingly, supported at a low level
(Beckman, Hong & Bridgstock, 2011). Indeed, Dr. Gary Beckman, Director of
Entrepreneurial Studies in the Arts at North Carolina State University argues,
There
63
are
at
least
130
universities
and
colleges
that
have
arts
entrepreneurship courses of various kinds. While the majority of them are

minors, many of us in arts education are looking at designing and offering broader arts degrees. We are working towards helping creative people become better at the business facets of
their vocation. The marketing of artistic products and services has to be different, just like
those who are great at running businesses need to be more creative (Jessu, 2013).
In addition, further consideration should be given to arts entrepreneurship efforts at the secondary and even, primary education levels. Given the self-help inquisitive nature of GenZ, the technological resources available, the pop culture
start-up mania and the economic uncertainty further focus on entrepreneurship is
both necessary and seemingly welcome. Young artists (and their educational institutions) will otherwise continue to face a potential lifetime of portfolio based job
to job assignments and/or the unpleasant reality of a day job to support their
art, (Bridgstock, 2012). Recommended next steps are to conduct original research involving a comparative study of current GenZ students already exploring
and considering media arts and arts entrepreneurship projects. In addition, indepth interviews with appropriate GenZ educators and outreach program should
provide narratives, giving perspective on the issues and opportunities ahead.
Correspondence
Margaret (Peg) Murphy
Assistant Professor, AAF-NSAC Advisor
Marketing Communication
Columbia College Chicago
624 S. Michigan, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
Email: pmurphy@colum.edu
Tel: +001 312 369 7489 (office) +001 773 919 0247 (mobile)
Authors brief bio

Margaret (Peg) Murphy is an Assistant Professor at Columbia College Chicago,
teaching Advertising, Marketing, Consumer Insights and Semiotics. She has published and presented papers at international conferences in Spain, Portugal, Canada, Ireland and more. Her research interests include the impact of digital sharing
on self-image (and self-love) projections and young entrepreneurship.
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MARGARET MURPHY
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Beckman, GD 2007. Adventuring Arts Entrepreneurship Curricula in Higher
Education: An Examination of Present Efforts, Obstacles, and Best Practices,
Journal Of Arts Management, Law & Society, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 87-112.
Bridgstock, Ruth 2012. Not a Dirty Word: Arts Entrepreneurship in Higher
Education, Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, vol. 12, no. 2/3, pp. 122-137.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor. 2013.
Employment Situation Summary. (Online) Available from: http://
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Calderon, V 2011. U.S. Students Energy Waiting to be Tapped, Gallup
[online] October 13. Available at: http://www.gallup.com/poll/150077/
students-entrepreneurial-energy-waiting-tapped.aspx [Accessed: July 1, 2013].
DesMarais, C. Inside Chicagos Start-Up High School, Inc. [online] February 22.
Available at: http://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/chicago-tech-academytrains-new-generation-entrepreneurs.html [Accessed: June 21, 2013].
Ernst & Young, 2013. Avoiding a Lost Generation, G20 Young Entrepreneurs
Summit, Russia 2013.
Ernst & Young, 2011. Entrepreneurs Speak Out: A Call to Action for G20 Governments, Ernst & Young Global Limited.
Ernst & Young, 2011. Nature or Nuture? Decoding the DNA of the Entrepreneur, Ernst & Young Global Limited.
Harris Interactive and Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation 2010. Youth Entrepreneurship Poll Fact Sheet 2010, Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/
abstract=1710017 (Accessed July 1, 2013).
Hong, C, Essig, L & Bridgstock, R (2012) The Enterprising Artist and the Arts
Entrepreneur: Emergent Pedagogies for New Disciplinary Habits of Mind, Explor65
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68-81.
Huston, J 2013. Teen Inventor Eyes Entrepreneurship, Chicago Tribune [online]
April 9. Available at: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2013-04-09/news/cttl-lk-0411-hp-teen-inventor-20130409_1_school-buses-greenshields-inventor
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International Labour Organization, 2013. Recovering From a Second Jobs Dip,
Global Employment Trends 2013, p. 3.
John, Jessu 2013. Enterprise in Arts: An Underestimated Sector, The Hindu
Business Line, [online] June 6. Available at: http://
www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/enterprise-in-arts-anunderestimated-sector/article4817816.ece [Accessed July 13, 2013].
Kamien, Mi 2008. Entrepreneurship by the Books, Journal Of Economic Education,
vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 245-250.
Larenaudie, S 2008. Russian Kira Plastinina is sweet 16 and already a success-running a global fashion brand, Time, no. 172, pp. 58-59.
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National Federation of Independent Businesses 2006. Back to the Basics, NFIB
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NATHAN M. SACHRITZ
APPLICATION OF CREATIVITY IN ENTERPRISE:

RISKY CREATIVITY
Just take that old Bible off the shelf.
I sit and read the verses by myself.
Todays message has to reach my soul.
I like that old time Rock that rolls.
And shake those old methods out of your head.
If you dont change, the world goes by and youre dead.
Todays ideas will ultimately come and go.
You have to plan for tomorrow.
(Apologies to Bob Seeger, George Jackson, and Thomas Jones)
Bob Seegers Old Time Rock and Roll is part of a classic scene with future businessman Tom Cruise in the movie Risky Business. We do not generally think of
the business world as a world of faith. Or think of the world of faith as a business.
But since Faith is the evidence of things not seen (Hebrews 11:1)1, there may
be more faith on Wall Street than there is in churches. Because there is a HUGE
amount of evidence of things not seen. And if churches and other non-business
enterprises do not take care of business, they risk not being able to spread their
messages.
Some things cannot be seen because they have not happened yet. But you know
they will eventually. That is why Generally Accepted Accounting Principles require setting aside reserves for things like future warranty claims.
Then there are things like Goodwill. Trademarks. Patents. These are
called intangibles on financial statements. For example, on 3/31/12 Facebook
reported a Net Worth of $5.3-billion. After almost $200-million of Intangibles,2
Tangible Net Worth was $5.1-million.
Then there are the hope and a prayer types of things not seen. When Facebook went public less than two months later on 5/18/12, the stock price hit $42
per share before dropping back. At that high, the company had a market value of
over $120-billion. Compared to a Tangible Net Worth of $5.1-billion. Wall
70
NATHAN M. SACHRITZ
Street had a lot of faith. Three months later, Facebook was trading below $20, and
at this writing the closing price near $24 per share gives Facebook a market capitalization just under $60-billion.3 That means in March of last year the market
had faith enough to see twice the value that it no longer has faith to see now.
And then there are the smoke and mirrors types of things not seen. In 1985,
after several very large, very public business failures, five accounting organizations
sponsored a study of financial reporting fraud in publicly traded companies, and
made recommendations to companies, auditors, the U.S. Securities and Exchange
Commission, and other regulators. This Committee of Sponsoring OrganizationsCOSOcontinues to study fraud; but has expanded its focus to include
other risk, too.4
This is the world of Enterprise Risk Management, or ERM.
ERM combines:
Enterprise
What is the purpose of your organization?
What is your mission?
What are your goals?
What is your method of trying to accomplish that?
Risk
What could keep you from getting there?
What is the likelihood of that happening?
Management
How much risk are you willing to take?
What are you willing to take a chance on not happening?
How much effort are you willing to spend to prevent it or prepare for it?
In terms of managing risk, lets use an example that will be familiar to everyone.
Insurance. Risk management is making a conscious effort to figure out:
Where is the risk of a fire?
How big could that fire get?
What could that fire do to you?
What would it take to put it out?
How likely is it to happen?
71
What might it take to prevent it in the first place?

Are you willing to take the chance that it wont happen?
Now, at this point, some of you are thinking, What in the world does this have
to do with me? And I submit to you that government agencies, churches, charitable organizations, member driven organizations, nonprofit agencies are enterprises
that have risk that needs to be managed.
Because a non-business is a business. A government agency is a provider of
services in return for resources provided by someone elsebe it an executive,
administrator, or legislature. A church is in the business of selling Jesusgetting
people to buy into the Gospel. A charity is in the business of promoting its cause
to contributors as well as users.
So the question is, What would keep our organization from achieving its mission? Those are the risks you have to manage.
There are certain obvious risks that non-businesses have in common with businesses. We already mentioned fire. And there is risk of theft. And risk of financial loss. But the risks can have a different face for each organization.
For example, while money may be a measure of success for a businesse.g.
Earnings Per Share; Return on Assets; Return on Investmenttypically money
itself is not the goal. Some sort of activity is the actual goal. And money is a resource for getting it done.
Therefore, the real damage from fire or theft is having to use resources to get
back to where you were, rather than being able to use them to move forward.
Money is also a resource for a non-business. But it may not be the most critical
resource. Often volunteers are more critical. People who share your interest and
passion. People who you depend on, but cannot fire if they are not dependable.
Or people in a legislature that controls your purse strings.
Thus, the real risk to businesses and non-businesses alike is the risk of loss of
resources. Where do those risks lurk?
Enterprise Risk Management categorizes risk in such areas:
Regulatory Risk
Strategic Risk
Operational Risk
Reputation Risk
These risks apply to both businesses and non-businesses alike. Consider:
Regulatory RiskNot just the money spent for a noncompliance fine. Possibly losing tax-free status. A church could lose affiliation with its denomination
because of a censure.
Strategic RiskFollowing a plan that uses resources on efforts that do not

72
NATHAN M. SACHRITZ
accomplish your goal.
Operational RiskThe risk of loss from a bad process. Basically lack of excellence in all you do.
Reputation Risk The risk of loss because of peoples opinion of you. A bad
report.
And all are related. If a charitys computers are stolen, what is the most important
thing they would lose? A pastors sermons and sermon notes? The clubs membership list? What would happen if a charity could not give contributors their
giving statements when they needed to file their tax returns? What would happen
if they lost members because of this? So you have both Operational Risk and
Reputation Risk at play in the one place.
And Reputation Risk is everywhere. Which is why I submit that Reputation
Risk is connected to all others.
If a church has operational problems on Sundaybad musicians in the service;
the lights go out; the heat or A/C goes out; they have wrecks in the parking lot it
will leave an impression. Likewise, if someone speeds through rush hour with the
organizations bumper sticker on his car, or shows up on the evening news after
getting picked up on a DUI on his way home from a meeting, it will affect the organizations reputation.
It can even come from your technology. We automate processes for efficiency;
to free us up for the important stuff. So we can do things without thinking. But
even that requires thought.
I recently got an e-mail from a car dealer. Happy one-year anniversary of buying your new car Ann. Come get a free car wash. They left a voice mail message, too. Now, I did buy a new vehicle a year ago. But, I am not Ann. They sent
the e-mail to the right place. But addressed me by my wifes name. They called
her cell phone to leave the message, too. And they told me a couple years ago they
do not run pick-up trucks through their car wash.
They thought they were being efficient, when they were actually showing they
put no thought into their dealings with me. Which affected their reputation.
This is key. After your message, your good name is the greatest asset you have
got. What would happen to funding if it were discovered that the American Cancer Society could not account for $100-million of donations? That the American
Red Cross spent 80% of contributions on administration and fund raising? That
the IRS spent billions on employee parties?
So, what am I saying here? Im saying any business or non-business ignores risk
at its own risk. You need to think about it. And it takes a conscious effort. It
requires thinking about things that have not happened yet.
73
This is why it is vital that creative thinking be a part of ERM. Because ERM requires envisioning things that you cannot see yet. The only way to see something
that has not happened is with vision. Without sight, a person can get by. But
Where there is no vision, the people perish (Proverbs 29:18).
And where there is no risk management, enterprise value perishes. Investors
know there is a risk/return tradeoff. The New York Stock Exchange now requires
audit committees of listed corporations to discuss risk management. Credit rating
agencies such as Standard and Poors include enterprise risk management processes
in their analysis.5 Effective 2/28/10, Securities and Exchange Commission Regulation S-K Rule 229.407(h) requires publicly traded companies to disclose in
proxy statements how the board of directors oversees the risk management process.6
The challenge is that people do what they are paid to do. In a business, the pay
is obvious. In a non-business they may get a pay-check or satisfaction or recognition or some other type of warm fuzzy. But in any case, people do what they are
compensated for.
It is managements job to get the people to want to think about risk. And if, as
George Kneller is quoted as saying, Creativity consists largely of rearranging
what we know to find out what we do not know, 7 where could there be a greater
need for creative thinkers than in Enterprise Risk Management?
Correspondence
Nathan M. Nate Sachritz
4497 English Oak Court
Mason, Ohio, USA 45040
Email: n8sakss@netscape.net
Authors brif bio
Nathan M. "Nate" Sachritz is the Loan Review Officer for a community bank in
the Cincinnati, Ohio area. He has had 3 articles published by RMA-The Risk Management Association, with his "'Top 10' Rules for Credit Analysts" having won 3rd
Place in the RMA Journals 2011 Journalistic Excellence Awards. He advocates
creative thinking in risk managementfor businesses and non-businesses
and can be reached at the above address.
74
NATHAN M. SACHRITZ
Notes
1
Bible references are King James Version.
Prospectus filed with the SEC pursuant to Rule 424(b)(4), Registration No. 333179287, dated 5/17/12, Page F3, [Online], Available: http://www.sec.gov/
Archives/edgar/data/1326801/000119312512240111/d287954d424b4.htm, [7
July 2013].
2
Closing price $24.40 with Market Cap $58.92-billion, Available: http://

quotes.wsj.com/FB?mod=DNH_S_cq, [July 7, 2013].
3
History of the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission,

[Online], Available: http://coso.org/aboutus.htm, [9 Sep 2012].
4
Effective Enterprise Risk Oversight 2009, [Online], Available: http://

www.coso.org/documents/COSOBoardsERM4pagerFINALRELEASEVERSION82409_001.pdf [7 July 2013].
5
Notice on Final Rule of Proxy Disclosure Enhancements, Securities and Exchange Commission, Page 39, [Online], Available: http://www.sec.gov/rules/final/2009/339089.pdf [7 July 2013].
6
Notable Quotes, Creativity Quotes II, [Online], Available: http://www.notable

-quotes.com/c/creativity_quotes_ii.html [7 July 2013].
7
75
76
JAMIE LEITCH & LARRY KEISER
CREATIVITY AS A BRIDGE FOR SYNERGIZING

THE GOALS OF BUSINESS AND ACADEMIA
In attempts to partner with one another, business and academia often find themselves at odds with goals that are not often aligned. Academia seeks to pursue the
enrichment of the academic body of knowledge and business seeks to advance its
strategic objectives. In such situations, these two entities share a commitment to
working together to enhance the common good. Such is the case that exists within
the American Creativity Association, which provides the background for this article and the opportunity to demonstrate how creativity can serve as the mechanism
with which both entities can come together to not only accomplish this shared
commitment, but also to accomplish their individual goals. Strategically using
creativity can foster a synergy where the goals of each entity actually complement
vs. conflict with one another. The goals of each entity become more holistic in
nature; taking on more of a strategic focus with a shared purpose. As such, each
entity is able to more effectively accomplish its own goals and to work together to
enhance the common good.
For over two decades, the American Creativity Association (http://
becreative.org) has been a primary resource for learning and applying creativity,
innovation, problem-solving, and ideation theory, tools, and techniques. The organization is comprised of a global network of creative professionals and students
in disciplinesthe arts, academia, corporate and business, military, government,
science and technology, and trainers and consultants. Its memberships collective
expertise provides a wide range of problem-solving methods, from simple ideacapture techniques to complex problem-solving methodologies. Above all, American Creativity Association members benefit from personal interaction with top
experts in the field of creativity and innovation worldwide. The organization takes
deliberate steps to have its membership rub brains with members in different
fields for cross-disciplinary interaction. As can be imagined, the rubbing of brains
often results in friction; primarily from those members with a business/corporate
background and those members steeped in academia.
This friction occurs because members from these factions primarily approach
issues from two very different mindsets with frequently oppositional goals. Members from the business community are in search of time sensitive creative solutions
77
that net the greatest gain. Their primary goal is to minimize cost and maximize
benefit. Members from academia on the other hand wish to forward time-tested,
deliberate, scientific creative methodologies as well as to create new ways of theorizing, assessing, and applying creativity in order to build new knowledge; however, the minimization of cost is not so critical an issue. The schism between these
two mindsets can promote feelings of frustration and mistrust. This, in fact, is
ironic as more and more businesses and organizations are recognizing the important and pivotal role that creativity has within in the corporate sector. In the May
2010 published report, Capitalizing on Complexity, a survey conducted by IBM of
over 1,500 CEOs worldwide, found that creativity was considered the most
important leadership quality.
Creative leaders expect to make deeper business models
changes to realize their strategies. To succeed, they take
more calculated risks, find new ideas, and keep innovating in
how they lead and communicate. (p. 8)
It is important to note that the behaviors of creative leaders cited in the report are
in line with 6 of the 11 creativity factors of the Reisman Diagnostic Creativity Assessment (RDCA), a mobile self-assessment app that scores an individuals perception of their own creative strengths and weaknesses based on a 40 item Likert-type
questionnaire. Specifically, take more calculated risks aligns with1) Risk
Taking (taking smart risks), find new ideas aligns with 2) Originality
(coming up with new ideas), 3) Fluency (generating many ideas), and keep
innovating in how they lead and communicate aligns with 4) Tolerance of Ambiguity (being comfortable with the unknown), 5) Resistance to Premature Closure (keeping an open mind) and 6) Flexibility (generating many categories of
idea). The other 5 creativity factors are touched upon in the statement, but not
overtly, i.e., Elaboration (adding details verbally or to a drawing), Convergent
thinking (analyzing and evaluating solutions to come to closure), Divergent Thinking (thinking of multiple, new solutions), Intrinsic Motivation (acting upon a situation due to inner drive or self-satisfaction), and Extrinsic Motivation (acting upon a
situation to obtain an external reward).
In order to provide a supportive atmosphere for its members, the American
Creativity Association takes great care to not be didactic in its view of creativity. In
general, the organization operates on the basic consensus that creativity is the generation of new ideas and innovation is the ability to implement new ideas. There
also seems to be apparent agreement between the business members and the academic members that institutional processes put in place to encourage and improved innovation should be research-based. From the authors experiences, friction seems to develop between the business members need and want for immedi78
ate solutions and academic members view that an innovators understanding of the
theoretical underpinnings of creativity and innovation is crucial in order for the
innovator to take full advantage of creative theories and practices.
In embracing a more open philosophy toward creativity, it may seem that the
American Creativity Association has created a structure that promotes a continual
friction which impedes the ability for business and academia to team together to
accomplish both individual and shared goals. Gratton and Erickson (2007) indicate
that this may indeed be the case as they relate:
although teams that are large, virtual, diverse, and composed of highly
educated specialists are increasingly crucial with challenging projects,
(these) same four characteristics make it hard for teams to get anything
done. To put it another way, the qualities required for success are the
same qualities that undermine success. Members of complex teams are
less likelyabsent other influencesto share knowledge freely, to learn
from one another, to shift workloads flexibly to break up unexpected
bottlenecks, to help one another complete jobs and meet deadlines, and
to share resourcesin other words, to collaborate. They are less likely
to say that they sink or swim together, want one another to succeed, or
view their goals as compatible. (p. 3)
In order to obviate these challenges and enable members from business and academia to better team with one another to accomplish shared business goals, the
American Creativity Association has turned to creativity itself as a vehicle to promote increased collaboration trust, and commitment. Creativity has taken the
form of creative collaboration, ideation, and creative problem-solving and work
practices. An excellent illustration of these practices in action can be drawn from
the organizations methodology employed during meetings between its board
members. Frequently board members from academia will employ creative ideation
and creative problem-solving techniques such as divergent and convergent thinking
exercises, i.e., generate as many different solutions/ideas as possible in a brainstorming-type session to solve the issue and then cull the ideas down to the best.
The divergent/convergent process (aka the Creative Problem Solving method)
process can then be repeated on the best ideas over several iterations to see if
better ideas are generated until the group is satisfied with a final solution or idea.
This practice allows the group to forward shared goal accomplishment and relieve
fixation during these meetings. As related by Paulus and Nijstad (2003):
The term fixation, in the present context, refers to something that
blocks or impedes the successful completion of various types of cognitive
operations, such as those involved in remembering, solving problems,
and generating creative ideas (e.g., Dodds & Smith, 1999; Smith, 1994b,
79
1995b; Smith & Blankenship, 1989, 1991; Smith & Vela, 1991). For
example, fixation can obstruct memory retrieval of well-learned names
or words, such as the names of famous celebrities or politicians. The
same fixating forces can likewise block solutions to puzzles or math
problems, such as Luchins and Luchinss (1972) famous water jar problems or common anagrams. The ways that fixation can cause such blocks
can also limit the directions taken in creative idea generation in such
tasks as divergent thinking and brainstorming (p. 16.).
Other strategies employed include temporarily diverting group thinking to another
activity and then revisiting the issue at a later time thus allowing the group to return to the issue with fresh thoughts (Reisman & Hartz, 2011). Reisman and
Hartz (2011) emphasize the importance of providing adequate time for incubation
of ideas and that when not allowed, these organizations are less innovative.
The American Creativity Associations business and corporate members bring a
sense of urgency and real-world adaptation to these creative practices. As they say,
Time is money. These members provide the tension and helpful balance that
keeps the creative process moving. At some point, analysis and discussion must
end and action taken. The business members are able to assist academic members
in streamlining extraneous processes in order to maximize benefit and minimize
cost. The resulting solutions are a more effective and efficient accomplishment of
shared goals obtained through the contribution and collaboration of both factions.
Through its employment of these practices, the American Creativity Association has enabled its members to effectively team together to accomplish shared
goals. As an added benefit however, these practices have also enabled the organizations members to more effectively accomplish individual goals. One example of
this phenomenon is the adoption of creativity practices initiated by academic members, utilized within American Creativity Association meetings, and then ultimately utilized by business members within their work operations. Another example is applying a more real-world business focus to creativity practices within the
academic environment. This continual practice of creative collaboration between
members of the American Creativity Association has also created a synergy where
the goals of each entity actually complement vs. conflict with one another. Members look to one another to bring a specific mindset or focus to the entire creative
process; this results in better and more well rounded solutions. The goals of the
business members and the academia members have become more holistic in nature; taking on more of a strategic focus with a shared purpose. As such, each
group is able to more effectively accomplish its own goals and to work together to
enhance the common good.
It is the opinion of the authors of this chapter that creative synergy is realized
through creative practices that cause the release of cognitive dissonance. When
80
mutually engaging with one another, American Creativity Association members go

through divergent and convergent thinking exercises in order to arrive at more
creatively synergistic solutions. Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that people
have a strong desire to seek consonance between their expectations and reality.
Festinger (1985) relates that this dissonance reduction can be achieved through
lowering the importance of one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements, or changing one of the dissonant factors. Through these practices American
Creativity Association members are working together to accomplish shared goals,
individual goals, and to enhance the common good. There is every reason to believe that these practices can be transported to other organizations comprised of
similar constituents.
Correspondence
Jamie Leitch, SPHR, MBA, MHRD, Mc.AEd
Director, Career Development & Training
American Infrastructure - Continuous Learning Center
1805 Berks Road, Worcester, PA 19490, USA
Jamie.Leitch@americaninfrastructure.com
Larry Keiser, MS,
Director of Special Projects and Certification Officer
School of Education and Goodwin College of Professional Studies
Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104 , USA
Email: keiser@drexel.edu
Authors brief bios
Jamie Leitch has experience in a variety of areas of workplace learning and performance, including instructional design; delivery and facilitation; assessment,
measurement and evaluation; and organizational change. She is currently the Director of Organizational Development & Training for American Infrastructure, the
largest heavy-civil construction company within the mid-Atlantic region of the
United States. Within that role, she manages the strategic design, development,
delivery and evaluation of learning for more than 2,000 employees. She holds a
Senior Professional in Human Resources certification and certificates in both executive and performance coaching. She possesses an MBA, a Masters Certificate in
Adult Learning and a Masters Degree in Human Resources Development. She is
also set to receive an Ed.D. in Educational Leadership and Management in 2014.
Jamie currently serves as a board member on various construction industry organizations and is president-elect of the American Creativity Association. She has also
81
served as a member of the Pennsylvania Governors Subcommittee on Adult

Learning. Through Jamies leadership, her current organization has been awarded a
variety of training and development awards. These awards include, the ASTD Best
award, the Chief Executive Magazine Best Company for Leaders award, the Associated Builders and Contractors Contractor of the Year award, the Training Magazine Top 125 award, and the Training Magazine Top 125 HR score award. Jamie is
proud to attest that her current organization attained a Top 10 designation for the
Training Magazine Top 125 award in 2013 and the Training Top 125 Top HR
Score award for the 2nd consecutive year (2012 & 2013). Jamie and her organization have also been featured in a variety of training and development industry publications highlighting best practices in learning and development. In her spare time,
Jamie is a United Way volunteer and enjoys sailing and travel.
Larry Keiser, serves as Director of Special Projects for Drexel Universitys
School of Education in Philadelphia, PA, in the US, as well as the Schools Certification Officer. He has served in various capacities for the School of Education including Director of Records and Finance, Director of Teacher Education and Coordinator of Academic Advisors over the last 28 years. Larry has assisted in the
development and implementation of externally funded projects (e.g., National
Science Foundation, US Department of Education, PA Department of Education,
Philadelphia Department of Human Services, etc.) totaling upwards of $18M USD.
He has presented nationally in the US on the topic of creativity and its relationship
to teaching, academic achievement and academic advising and is currently finishing
up his doctoral program in Educational Leadership.
References
American Creativity Association. (1990). FOCUS Newsletter, Vol. 1, No. 3. Retrieved
from http://becreative.org.
American Creativity Association. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved from http://becreative.org.
Festinger, L. (1985). A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Gratton, L. & Erickson, T.J. (2007) Eight Ways to Build Collaborative Teams.
Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from: http://hbr.org/product/eightways-to-build-collaborative-teams/an/R0711F-PDF-ENG
IBM Global Business Services. (2010, May). Capitalizing on Complexity. Retrieved from
http://www-935.ibm.com/services/us/ceo/ceostudy2010/
Paulus, P.B. & Nijstad, B.A. (2003). Group creativity: An introduction. In P.B. Paulus, &
B.A. Nijstad (Eds.), Group creativity: Innovation through collaboration (1st edition,
pp. 314). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Reisman, F.K. & Hartz, T.A. (2011). Generating a culture for creativity and innovation.
Talent Management Handbook 2nd Edition. Edited by Lance A. Berger & Dorothy R.
Berger. NY: McGraw Hill.
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83
CHRIS WILSON & MICHAEL BROWN
EXTENDING REALITIES: CREATIVITY, ARTISTRY

AND TECHNOLOGY
Chapter haiku
Objects sleep dormant,
Touch becomes change and movement,
Ideas made real.
"the moment man first picked up a stone or a branch to use as a tool, he
altered irrevocably the balance between him and his environment. []: the more
the tools, the faster the rate of change" (James Burke, 2007)
Foreword
The story of human creativity is indivisible from the history and evolution of tools
and technologies. Whilst by no means an exclusively human endeavour, the capacity for tool making is nevertheless regarded as a defining feature of human achievement and, in utilitarian terms, arguably the most recognisable indicator of human
creativity. Technology is inaugurating fundamentally new patterns of human experience, understanding and meaning. With a generation emerging with increasingly ubiquitous screen-based media experience and exposure to information on a
scale unprecedented in human history, new questions emerge about creative capacity, craft, imagination, and the technical knowledge necessary to create.
The nature of artistic expression when virtualised, and the parallel role of technology as both the tool and the medium, also present challenges of interpretation
and understanding. At the forefront of innovation for all of recorded human history, the arts continue to play a significant role in interrogating the possibilities and
the implications of new technology for creative practice, human expression and
cultural interpretation. Beyond mere documentation of events, art continues to be
simultaneously redefined by technology as practices as well as operating as active
cultural spaces in which new realities are investigated and meanings negotiated.
84
The problem with technology

Pablo Picasso famously pronounced that, Computers are useless. They can only
give you answers, and there are evident tensions in any analysis of the impact of
technology on human development and artistic creativity in particular. From Socrates view of writing as inhuman and something which destroys memory [and]
weakens the mind (Plato), to Aldous Huxleys abrupt critique that, technological
progress has merely provided us with more efficient means for going backwards (1937), active opposition to new technologiesor technophobia (Weil &
Rosen, 1995)has become increasingly significant in the post-industrial era as
technology increasingly transforms human society. For every passionate technical
advocate and adopter, there is a strident critic.
Many concerns are born out by evidence. With medical recognition of Internet
addiction, there is also emerging research highlighting the danger of excessive use
of technologies and related health risks (Saad & Kira, 2007). With evidence of
high levels of mobile phone use leading to increased stress and sleep disruption
(Thome et al., 2011), Carlsson-Paige (2012) even questions the potential for a
more general negative impact of modern communications and media technology in
sapping childrens creativity and cognitive development.
In the context of art and personal creativity, technology disrupts traditional
associations between artist and artwork and challenges the accepted notions of
craft, skill and creation itself. The emergence of mass culture and the professionalization of artistic creativity inform blurring distinctions between art and entertainment, craft and product, and the use of technology in creative practice and artistic
production raises issues of predetermination, originality and ownership. Recognising the convergence of creative arts practice and the development of fundamentally
new artistic practices (Wilson & Brown, 2012; Lindauer, 1998), questions emerge
about creativity, technology and artistryas creative practitioners and artists, how
should we approach the use of technology? In what way is technology mediating or
inhibiting creativity? And, how might technology and the arts help to inform our
understanding of what it is to create and to be creative?
Definitions
To engage meaningfully with any discussion of creativity, technology and the arts,
it is necessary to acknowledge the inherent difficulty in determining precise interpretations of the terminology involved. Subject first to variation by cultural and
historical context, recognised domains of human activity are considerable and in
many cases themselves subject to rapid change, development and redefinition.
85
Creativity itself is subject to continued flexibility of specification. Whilst numerous

systems have been developed for the measurement of creativity, and methods for
development of creative thinking, there remains a considerable diversity of views
on the nature of creativity itself. The development of creativity remains problematic and, why some people reach a level of creative genius while others do not is
still unknown (Michael, 2001). All creativity is nevertheless connected to a domain of human knowledge or activity and a relationship with a framework is at
least present in all cases and a determining factor in recognition. All creativity is
ultimately derivative, a social construct (Tornkvist, 1998, p. 10), and definable
as any act, idea, or product that changes an existing domain into [a] new
one (Csilszentmihalyi, 1997 in Clegg, 2008, p. 220).
The definition of art is more complex. The subjectivity of interpretations and
diversity of cultural frames of reference reflect the historical records of art as a
fluid concept with context-led definitions and understandings. From the liberal
and mechanical, to the fine and applied, art remains an illusive term, subject
to redefinition both historically and contemporaneously; there being inherent uncertainty in any discussion of aesthetics (Weitz,1956).
For the purposes of this text, art is defined first-and-foremost as; 1. That
intended as art; 2. That widely received and conceptualised as art, and, finally; 3.
That ultimately recorded or experienced as art. Heidegger, in the Origin of the
Work of Art (1950, in Heidegger, 2003), approaches the subject of art and metaphysics and concludes that art is not mere representation of reality but something
itself that changes and is part of reality; something that does not simply change
according to the experience of existence, but something that changes the meaning
of existence itself.
As with creativity and art, technology is also a term with a wide range of potential
meanings and interpretations. Indeed, the distinction between science and technology can itself be described as one of contention (Price, 1965). The word technology originating from the Greek techne, as observed by Shiner (2001), whereas the
Greeks had precise language to describe so many things, there was no precise concept of art or of technology in the modern sense. Embracing a wide range of
techniques and craft from medicine to carpentry, as with the Roman Ars, the
emphasis was more on human ability rather than a specific class of objects themselves.
Paint, canvas, page, and musical instrument all constituting the technological
and indeed does the human body from an evolutionary perspectivebut in the
modern era, the word technology has become increasingly synonymous, perhaps for
significant reasons of impact, with the digital realm and the associated information
revolution. Technology can be ultimately considered in terms of a spectrum from
analogue to digital, from physical to virtual. In the context of this writing, technology is referred to in the broadest sense of devices of implements used for the devel86
opment of artistic expression as tools that mediate how creative activity occurs (Burnard, 2007).
Art, technology and craft
As observed by Anati (2009), it is through the archaeology of art that we are able
to study the most ancient forms of artistic creativity and therefore of human creativity itself. The archaeological evidence for the ubiquity of artistic practice in all
human cultures is clearly significant and whilst the record of human artistic creativity is fragmentary (Bell, 2007)with the majority of artistic expression and decoration being lost through biodegradation and the ephemerality of momentthe
records of what remains are precious and extraordinary.
Debate continues about the interpretation of ancient human art with particular
uncertainty about the point of emergence of truly non-utilitarian decoration
(DErrico, 1997); with difficulties inherent in determination of characteristics of
behavioural modernity (Henshilwood & Marean, 2003). Zilho (1997) identifies
dating of human decorative ornaments to approximately 73,000 BCE and figurative art to 30,000 BCE, which includes examples demonstrating clear consideration of proportion, symmetry, form and the cognitive expression of mythology
(Bell, 2007). The origins of art will most probably remain subject to speculation as
the power of art remains a mystery (Funch, 1997), but the power of art as an
agent of social and political manipulation is clear. Inferences can be drawn for
how tool making emerged and gradual refinement led to increasing sophistication
of craft but as observed by Bell (2007), whatever the biological motivation behind
such actions, it shows that attraction to the strange, the bright and the shapely is a
common possibility in many visual systems.
In all key respects, the art is inherently technological. Beyond exclusive focus
on human body, movement and voice, the vast majority of artistic practice involves
some manipulation of materials using increasingly more sophisticated secondary
objects and devices. Perhaps fulfilling more utilitarian function, the invention and
development of tools reveals glimpses of the same cognitive insights that drove the
development of artistic expression. Indeed, an aesthetic sense of possibility or
drive towards manipulation that resulted in the refinement of cutting tools and
arrowheadsthemselves objects of symmetry and beauty as well as functionalitymay indeed have emerged through more artistic processes of fashioning or
altering. The broad scope of history in the arts is littered with technical innovation and wider impact on scientific understanding. From incremental change in
painting to the incredible sophistication, codification and mechanisation of music, a
symbiosis between tools and techniques has evolved over certainly tens and most
possibly hundreds of millennia.
87
Playing with technology

All art is a consequence of solutions being found in precisely how to deal with the
challenge of tools and technologies. Interaction with and manipulation of natural
materials being closely related to the earliest recorded forms of artistic expression,
the arts provide a dynamic record of adaptation, confrontation, experimentation
and innovation. Recognising the incredible accumulated and aggregated creativity
of modern digital technologieswith most people who attempt to apply these
technologies for creative ends having played no part in their developmentthe
question becomes more related to how to work, how to think, and how to do.
Echoing Picassos famous comment that we are all born artists, the trick is to
remain an artist as we grow up, Wolff (2009) is amongst many to advocate the
power of play in developing creative ideas. Amabile (1996) devotes some considerable space to the discussion of play and playfulness in her key text Creativity in
Context and identifies significant psychological and educational research including
Piaget (1951), Bruner (1972), Lieberman (1977), and Sutton-Smith (1972) that
support the same view. Recognising that not all play is creative, Amabile also cites
Gordon (1961) in arguing that all creativity nevertheless contains play, and that a
focus on play improves fluency, flexibility and originality. Indeed, as discussed by
Johnson (1981), the possibility of transforming ideas through adoption of different
personas or identities (inherent often in the act of play) is key to developing more
imaginative and more valuable ideas. Play is fun, and as Einstein famously said,
creativity is intelligence having fun.
French composer and sound engineer Pierre Schaeffer, who pioneered the application of sound recording as an art form through the emergence of musique concrte
from the 1940s, was an advocate of play (or jeu) as the basis for approaching technology
creatively. Whilst equally adept at the development of bespoke technological devices to
achieve specific creative ends such as with the phonogene for manipulating tape loops
(D'Escrivn, 2012), Schaeffer, like many contemporaries, is perhaps more well
known for approaching existing sound recording technologies in unusual or even
subversive ways.
The concept of play here for Schaeffer was necessary given the novelty and idiosyncrasy of the experiments. The improvisational and playful experimentation was
designed to sustain interest through the creative process. Whilst most composers
and indeed many artists can identify periods of difficulty or struggle in the completion of a creative process, dealing with new tools and technologies can present
more opportunity for frustration than familiar, or tried and tested techniques. As
such, whilst focused technical refinement is a significant facet of Schaeffers work,
the principle focus remains open and experimental play. With the intention of
doing things with machines for which they were not principally, or indeed at all
88
designed, the unexpected is the only thing that can be expected. No play is predicated on reaching a specific outcome but is more profoundly rooted in the moment
-to-moment operation of adaptable procedure. After all, whilst creativity may be
achievable through planned activity, originality will only ever be the achievement
of the unforeseeable.
Echoes of the same sensibility can be identified through the many other adaptations or interventions with technology both within the artistic sphere and in other
contexts. The principle current application of samplers, vocoders, drum machines,
and turntables in music, for example, all deviate significantly from their original
designed intentions thanks to experimentation and play by users and practitioners.
The arts are fundamentally predicated on the realisation of often loosely defined
end goals and anticipated deviation in creative process and direction. Indeed, as
observed by de Bono, memory systems can not be creative except by mistake (1992, p. 37) and as cartoonist Scott Adams famously said, Creativity is
allowing yourself to make mistakes. Art is knowing which ones to keep.
In any process of applying technology in the pursuit of artistic expression, be that
in the digital arts, or indeed traditional craft and physical interaction with materials, there remains a barrier between intention and expression in the resources being applied. Technology most certainly has the capacity to disrupt or to distract in
ways counterproductive to creative endeavour, but the journey of refinement in
digital tools is one operating at a faster and more significant rate that any other
comparable human technology and the accumulated experimentation involved in
the decoding of the products of engineering is so diverse and increasingly interconnected so as to become almost organic. The barriers will continue to fall. Art,
technology and imagination share an increasing potential to extend realities, experiences and the fundamental meaning of creativity, practice and expression.
Perhaps, as Terry Pratchett said, Its still magic even if you know how its
done (2005).
Correspondence
Chris Wilson & Michael Brown
Creative Technologies Research group,
School of Technology.
Faculty of Arts, Design & Technology,
University of Derby,
Derby, United Kingdom
Email: c.j.wilson@derby.ac.uk. Email: m.brown2@derby.ac.uk
89
Authors Brief bios

Chris is Senior Learning and Teaching Adviser for the Institute for Learning Enhancement and Innovation, and senior academic in the Faculty of Arts, Design &
Technology of the University of Derby in the UK. A classically trained musician
and practitioner in the technological arts with over seventeen years experience of
teaching in higher education, Chris has presented and published widely on the
subjects of creativity, artistry, technology and education, and is an active member
of the American Creativity Association, associate and Fellow of the Higher Education Academy, principle researcher of the Creative Technologies Research Group,
and associate of the Digital and Material Arts Research Centre in the UK.
Michael is Senior Lecturer in Music and Programme Leader for the BA (Hons)
Popular Music with Music Technology degree in the Faculty of Arts, Design and
Technology at the University of Derby, UK. He holds diploma's in both Art and
Music, a BSc (Hons) degree in Software Engineering, Mathematics and Music, and
Masters degree in Contemporary Composition which combine to fuel his interest
in computer creativity. He is a principle researcher for CTRG (Creative Technologies Research Group) with over twenty five years of teaching experience in the FE
and HE sector, and an active digital artist, virtual art practitioner, composer, musician and sound designer with international professional experience in media production. As well as maintaining his professional role, he is an active member of the
ACA (American Creativity Association), is published and has presented his research in multimodal creativity internationally.
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UK.
de Bono, E (1992) Serous Creativity: Using the Power of Lateral Thinking to Create New
Ideas. Harper Collins Publishers.
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93
CASSANDRA COSTE & TARA GREY COSTE
THE CULTURALLY COMPETENT CREATIVE IN

COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS
In this age of ever increasing global connectivity, it is long past time that our examination of creativity takes into serious account the very powerful effect of culture on our thinking and problem solving. Too long have studies of creativity simply looked at pieces and parts of the creative process without much regard for the
complexities, particularly the cultural complexities, of the environment within
which this process must play out.
Culturally Complex Environments
Culturally complex environments occur when bodies and minds enter into spaces
where they encounter bodies and minds different from their own. Put into simple
terms, there is a cognitive disruption because someone elses appearance or behavior is making you pause. Something does not conform to your idea of social norms.
In todays world, there are very few spaces that do not fit this criterion. The places
in which we exist have become quite diverse, as people take advantage of advances
in travel and communication and create cultural identities that are wholly unique.
Unfortunately, studies on cultural differences and creativity have been limited, as
they often look at binary relationships or generalizations that are not terribly comprehensive (Hennesey & Amabile, 2010). This is clearly insufficient as cultural
categorizations with rigid boundaries are inherently exclusive, leaving a vast number of identities outside of the borders. However, in terms of creativity, the classifications themselves may not be especially important. While awareness of the many
areas where differences arise is necessary, what is crucial is an interpretive framework that allows a person to process and utilize diversity as a tool for creative
thinking (Coste, Coste, & Fish, 2013).
Diversity is a term regarded in most fields as positive. In the biological sciences,
diversity of individual entities accounts for the basis of evolution and Darwins
survival of the fittest. The areas on the borders of ecosystems contain the greatest
amount of biodiversity. Known as the edge effect, new and unusual happenings result from the overlap of ecosystems. Although boundaries and borders imply that
there is a distinct beginning and end to an area, the falsity of this notion is omnipresent. As another example, let us look at the edge effect as it occurs in societies.
Nation states are lines drawn in modern times to contain people, a phenomenon
only present in recent history. Those who live on the border of two nations en94
counter the dilemma of finding a sense of self when functioning within two cultures concurrent existence. It is not that the hybrid culture is invalid, but rather
that it is a bastardization of both culture A and culture B, which means that border
identities are unlikely to fit neatly into a box of predefined categories.
The observation of this anomaly in cultural studies resulted in the genesis of
border theory. An emerging challenge, resulting from the diminishing boundaries
of nations and the rise of the cultural nomad, is that society as a whole now exists
in a border culture of sorts. Might this greater social diversity act as a catalyst for
creative thinking? Can the feeling of being other function not as a thing to overcome, but as a cognitively distinct space? Arguably, encounters with the culturally
unfamiliar, and the need to reorient, could make for the most possibility saturated
environments because they necessarily break the status quo.
For the purposes of our discussion, culture should be understood as the way
individuals orient themselves to the spaces and people surrounding them. It is the
shared part people refer to when they define culture as a shared set of beliefs and
values. Ahmed (2006) writes about orientation as being situated in a space, history,
and (of particular interest in terms of cultural complexities) disorientation. Disorientation, to be not oriented, may sound lost or lacking, but these are instances of
rich cognitive possibility. These are moments in which you lose one perspective,
but the loss itself is not empty or waiting; it is an object thick with presence (Ahmed, 2006, p. 158). Thus, the way we respond to disorientation is up to
us. In reorienting, we might end up facing an entirely new direction. Jill Johnston,
a critic for The Village Voice, observes that the solution to the problem of identity
is, get lost (1998, p. 148). Similarly, the solution to the problem of conventional
thinking may be to become disoriented.
The cognitive and physical space of creativity must allow the individual to get
lost and to come back changed. As a caution, however, Ooi and Stber (2011)
argue that creativity can be viewed as destructive or destabilizing when it appears
unmanageable. Thus, disorientation on its own does not produce desirable outcomes unless it is channeled, managed, into productive creativity. Ooi and Stber
note that creatives who thrive in their environments are those that are culturally
vibrant, tolerant of diversity, and technologically advanced (2011, p. 114). We
suggest that creatives need less training on generating and recognizing difference
and more knowledge of how diversity needs to be harnessed to achieve full creative potential.
Research on negotiated cultural difference usually focuses on overcoming diversity; lacking in these discussions is how culturally complex spaces can act as a catalyst for new outcomes. The trick to developing a setting that is producing measurably enhanced creative productivity is in nurturing the right environment to foster
this borderland, where unique experience is almost certainly without fear or
hostility. Pluut & Cureu (2013) examine the role of demographic diversity on
95
collaborative creativity, and while they hypothesize that exposure to diversity in

life will have a positive impact on collaboration in diverse groups, they find that it
is actually dependent upon a preexisting openness to diversity (p. 22). The authors suggest that the best way to achieve this openness is through focus on decategorization and re-de-categorization rather than overgeneralization or oversimplification. Pluut and Cureu use the term diverse mindsets which calls for
consistent open-mindedness rather than simple knowledge of common differences.
If diversity in a group does indeed bring about more complex and creative outcomes, then how do we craft the mind most open and prepared for these spaces?
Further deconstructing the notion of cultural complexity at its most basic level,
Gupta and Ferguson highlight the fact that the distinctiveness of societies, nations,
and cultures is based upon a seemingly unproblematic division of space, on the fact
that they occupy naturally discontinuous spaces (1992, p. 6). On the other hand,
there is a large body of work that questions what this means for those who occupy
the borderlands of these constructed boundaries, and as was argued earlier, we all
find ourselves in borderlands at some point or another as citizens of the global
community. One way that Gupta and Ferguson explore this reality is to avoid describing the human condition as occupying borderlands, but rather use a concept
taken from Edward Said that brands new identities of homelessness as a way to
capture the falsity of unchallenged collective identities. However, this positioning
assumes an ability to detach from cultural constructions, when it is much more
realistic to accept that there exists a continuous dialogue between multiple collective identities, the discussions of the borderlands.
By resisting assumptions in these hard to pinpoint blurred spaces, one can
achieve the open mindedness, the diverse mindsets that Pluut and Cureu identify as a marker of successful utilization of collaborative creativity. Gupta and Ferguson assert that the borderlands may be the new normal locale of the postmodern subject (1992, p. 18). How does the diversification of spaces affect creativity?
Clearly, creativity should thrive on the lessening of restrictions and on challenging
set ways of living. However, Pluut and Cureu find that the diversification alone
does not guarantee creativity, and Gupta and Ferguson warn that ideas of difference can become even more distinct when examining culturally complex spaces.
It would seem that we must break down our explanation of borderlands further. To do this, an oriented perspective on border theory is particularly helpful.
Traveling through the history of border theory, we stop at Renalto Rosaldos
(1993) book Culture and Truth in which the ideas of culture and borderlands are
presented in terms of fragmentation, and contestation (as opposed to the exclusivity of shareability, coherence, and uniformity) (as cited in Lugo, 2005, p. 47). Let
us look further at the term coherence. Coherence is defined by Merriam Webster as
is detailed below:
Coherence: the quality or state of cohering: as
96
a: systematic or logical connection or consistency

b: integration of diverse elements, relationships, or values
Thus, to be anti-coherence means never becoming completely comfortable. It is
about appreciating the discomfort or disorientation. The most powerful potential
comes not when a creative becomes acclimated and unphased by difference, but
when the disarming nature of diverse thinking and behavior inspires new thought.
Although Lugo acknowledges that the emergence of border theory is historically
situated and is not inherently more correct than looking at the patterns of communities, border theory does lend us a contestation of our current approach to culture, and disorients us yet again.
As we see it, culturally complex spaces, explored through the lens of border
theory, can be the impetus to think of and situate disorientation and creativity as
beneficial partners. In his New York Times article How Nonsense Sharpens the Intellect,
Benedict Carey (2009) alludes to how disorientation can be the catalyst for creative
thought. Careys article is derivative of the work of Travis Proulx. In Connection
From Kafka, Proulx and Heine (2009) conducted a study that had participants in one
of two conditionsone that read a nonsensical story and one that did not; subjects
in both conditions were asked to find patterns in strings of letters. Those who read
the nonsensical story found patterns significantly better than the control group,
leading to the conclusion that disorientation can be beneficial for creative thought.
Broadening the topic and the theory behind it, Proulxs (2009) The Feeling of the
Absurd recounts historically the significance and fascination with the absurd,
whether in literature, psychology, or other disciplines. Throughout these writings, there is a consistent finding that the deviation from the expected causes one
to try and fill in the blanks and return the space to one of sense. Moreover, this can
be extrapolated to other tasks at hand, because whatever experience is the source
of senselessness, the same unique arousal state evokesa feeling of the absurd (2009, p. 230). This is why a disorienting story can help one find sense in a
string of letters. Similarly, a diverse setting of people with atypical behaviors and
thoughts will violate our own comfort and can help us discover new channels of
creative thought.
The Culturally Competent Creative
Given that culture plays such a strong role in our thinking, it is fortunate that talk
of culture is now gaining some traction in the creativity literature. For example,
Tsai (2012) describes creativity as a convoluted phenomenon and speaks of the
exertion of culture on creativity (which must also work in conjunction with historical, societal, and individual factors). Neelands and Cho (2010) talk about an
English model of creativity and of the cultural politics of an idea. They argue that
the current positioning of creativity in policy discussions reconceptualizes creativ97
ity as a vehicle to address larger socio-political and economic agendas. Farid

(2011) speaks of creative youth who are continually dissatisfied with their reality, a
dissatisfaction that leads to a reformation of their life cycles. He explores the interactive relationship between creative youth and their type of life, examining the
nature of their cultural and social backgrounds and the social and political challenges of their existence.
Futhermore, Glaveaneu (2010) argues that understanding creativity means understanding the varied sources of complexity that contribute to a creative event.
He states that creativity is simultaneously individual and cultural because individuals themselves are cultural beings. As a consequence, creative expression is also a
form of cultural expression and, ultimately, one of the most illustrative forms of
cultural participation: engaging with cultural artifacts to produce new cultural
artifacts, employing culture to generate culture (p. 48). Finally, Glaskin (2011)
argues that creativity is the encultured work of memory (p. 44).
This emphasis on the importance of culture during the creative process must
not be ignored. In fact, recent studies are showing that facility with the cultural
aspects of ones environment is quite critical. For example, Pishghadam & Zabihi
(2011) found highly significant correlations between creativity and social competence, social solidarity, literacy, cultural competence, and extraversion. In fact,
regression analysis of their data showed that a combination of cultural competence
and social solidarity was the best predictor of creativity, explaining 25% of the
variance in subjects creativity scores.
Cohens (2012) work gives us another look at the fit between individuals and
their surroundings, the interplay between creativity and person, culture, and environment. Obviously, a creator must be aware of cultural values and not overstep
these boundaries for work to be accepted. However, Cohen goes beyond a simple
exploration of acceptance finding to posit a scenario in which the individual adapts
to external conditions, but that adaptation can also mean moving from one environment to another more suitable, or even forcing the environment to adapt in
response to creative efforts. Obviously, culture impacts creativity by limiting acceptable boundaries, but it also provides the artifacts used in creating. Cohen argues a developmental continuum of adaptive, creative behaviors suggesting a shift
from individual adaptation to the environment to adaptation by the world to the
individual (p. 4).
Thus it is that we must now think of the creative process not in terms of pieces
and partswhat creativity facilitation tool is best, what managerial style best enhances creative potentialbut in terms that seriously take into account the cultural complexity that we all must function within. As Hokanson & Karlson (2013)
state, we must speak of the necessity of developing rich knowledge so as to persevere in the face of challenge. This does not mean simply more knowledge but
rather better knowledge. In this era is which technology has made information
98
much more accessible, we must also contend with the fact that the information we
receive may be much more homogenized. Hokanson & Karlson (2013) argue that
creativity and grit will be the distinguishing character strengths for the global
workforce of our new knowmadic world.
Bilton (2010) notes that perception of creativity has shifted from that which is
deviant to that which is manageable in mainstream management theory and practice. He argues that the individualistic heroic model of creativity is being replaced
by a more collective structural model that highlights the systems and infrastructure around individual creativity rather than focusing on one persons raw talent.
And this is good news. It is only when organizational infrastructures enable creativity and celebrate difference that the sparks found on the borderlands of culture
can ignite and stay lit.
Correspondence
Tara Grey Coste
Leadership Studies
University of Southern Maine
51 Westminster St.
Lewiston, ME 04240
207/753-6596 (work phone)
207/415-4636 (mobile phone)
207/753-6555 (fax)
tcoste@usm.maine.edu
Cassandra Coste
MSW Program Services - Practice Area
NYU Silver School of Social Work
1 Washington Square North, Rm 406
New York, NY 10003
212/998-5935 (work phone)
207/671-8315 (mobile phone)
212/995-4173 (fax)
Cassandra.Coste@nyu.edu
Authors brief bios
Tara Grey Coste is a Leadership and Organizational Studies professor at the University of Southern Maine. Her work focuses on refining the training processes that
enhance creativity in teams and on teaching business professionals techniques to
99
enhance their leadership abilities in multi-cultural, multi-national environments.

She is a Colleague of the Creative Education Foundation, Leader at the Creative
Problem Solving Institute, Visiting Scholar at Singapore Management University's
Wee Kim Wee Centre for Cultural Diversity in Business, Co-Founder of the International Forum of Creativity Organizations, and Past-President and Director of
Communi cati ons of the Ameri can Creati v i ty Associ ati on.
Cassandra Coste is a graduate of New York University's Social and Cultural Analysis Department with a degree in Latino Studies. She works with families struggling
with cross-cultural issues in both clinical and research settings. More specifically,
her research interests include counseling and health education for the Latino and
LGBTQ populations. She works for New York Universitys Silver School of Social
Work where she is currently working with faculty on a study on the relational
aspects of female injecting drug users. She is also engaged in research on the effects
of cultural influence on acceptance finding in the creative process.
References
Ahmed, S., 2006. Queer phenomenology: Orientations, objects, others. Durham, NC:
Duke University Press.
Bilton, C., 2010. Manageable creativity. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 16
(3), pp. 255-269.
Carey, B., 2009. How nonsense sharpens the intellect. The New York Times, 06 Oct.
p. D1.
Cohen, L., 2012. Adaptation and creativity in cultural context. Revista de Psicologa,
30 (1), pp. 3-18.
Coste, T., Coste, C. and Fish, G., 2013. Culturally competent creativity, creative
process in context. Creativity & Human Development, [e-journal] 1 (2), Available at:
<http://www.creativityjournal.net/index.php/contents/ articles/item/148culturally-competent-creativity-creative-process-in-context#.Ud7AOW0snIV>
[Accessed 26 July 2013].
Farid, S., 2011. Creative adults and socio-cultural challenges: Sociological study in
Egypt. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 3 (2), pp. 227-237.
Glaskin, K., 2011. Dreams, memory, and the ancestors: Creativity, culture, and
100
the science of sleep. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 17, pp. 44-62.
Glaveaneu, V., 2010. Creativity as cultural participation. Journal for the Theory of
Social Behaviour, 41 (1), pp. 48-67.
Gupta, A. and Ferguson, J., 1992. Beyond culture: Space, identity, and the politics of
difference. Cultural Anthropology, 7(1), pp. 6-23.
Hokanson, B. and Karlson, R., 2013. Borderlands: Developing character strengths for
a knowmadic world. On The Horizon, 21(2), pp. 107-113
Hennessey, B.A. and Amabile, T., 2010. Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 61,
pp. 569598.
Johnston, J., 1998. Marmalade me. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Lugo, A., 2005. Reflections on border theory, culture, and the nation. In: C.
McCarthy, ed. 2005. Race, identity, and representation in education. New York, NY:
Routledge. pp. 43-57.
Neelands, J. and Cho, B., 2010. The English model of creativity: Cultural politics of an
idea. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 16 (3), pp. 287304.
Ooi, C. S. and Stber, B., 2011. Creativity unbound: Policies, government and the
creative industries. Culture Unbound: Journal of Current Cultural Research, 3, pp. 113-117.
Pishghadam, R. and Zabihi, R., 2011. Social and cultural capital in creativity. Canadian
Social Science, 7 (2), pp. 32-38.
Pluut, H. and Cureu, P. L., 2013. The role of diversity of life experiences in fostering
collaborative creativity in demographically diverse student groups. Thinking Skills and
Creativity, 9, 16-23.
Proulx, T. and Heine, S. J., 2009. Connections from Kafka: Exposure to meaning
threats improves implicit learning of an artificial grammar. Psychological Science, 20(9),
pp. 1125-1131.
Proulx, T., 2009. The feeling of the absurd: Towards an integrative theory of sensemaking. Psychological Inquiry, 20(4), pp. 230-234.
Tsai, K., 2012. The interplay between culture and creativity. Cross-Cultural Communication, 8 (2), pp. 15-20.
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10
TERRI ZOBEL
EMPOWERING FUNCTIONAL CREATIVITY

THROUGH CREATIVE LIFETIME LEARNING
ENVIRONMENTS
Functional vs. Aesthetic

When we think about creativity, images of beautiful artwork and great classical
musicians often come to mind. This type of creative output provides tremendous
aesthetic value to civilization. Another type of creative output that benefits society
is evidenced in novel, useful products that serve a function. Through the development of practical devices, processes and systems, functional creativity (Cropley &
Cropley, 2010) solves the problems of humanity and expands domains to transform our world.
Functional creativity is the power behind the global economy. Creative ideas
lead to novel, concrete solutions that are developed into innovative products and
processes, which become enterprising ventures. The value of functional creations
is not just in business, production and technology. These problem-solving creations address human social, environmental and political issues.
Creativity has three key ingredients: 1) novelty; 2) usefulness, relevance or
appropriateness to a task; and 3) produces personal expression and/or societal
improvement. Creations that provide purely aesthetic value are frequently solo,
artistic expressions. Functional creations require a combination of divergent and
convergent thinking skills as well as the ability to resist premature closure and the
ability to close and reach completion. Some individuals are capable of excelling at
these diverse abilities; however, building high-performing teams is often more
expedient.
Functional creativity can be viewed as an interactive four-stage, non-linear
process that is intertwined with high levels of communication and testing for feedback from scientists, technologists, domain and subject matter experts, investors
and, of course, the market. These stages are often repeated in a looping fashion as
individuals and teams solicit and receive feedback, revisit previous stages, and integrate knowledge gained into further iterations of concepts and products. Market
and domain acceptance either provide or withhold the public acceptance and vali103
10
TERRI ZOBEL
dation of whether the new offering is creative and timely (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
The four stages include:
Createproblem is identified and a selection of strong potential solutions are conceptualized

Elaboratethe solutions are expanded upon and vetted for feasibility
Pivotin response to the elaboration and vetting, some ideas are
eliminated, some pivot, and a final idea is identified as the solution for
development
Adaptsocietal adoption through market entry of new products/
processes
The outcomes of the functional creativity process are realized in three distinct
elements.
Creative Knowledgeideas and concepts are formed and elaborated

upon for potential new products, devices, processes, etc.
Innovative Products/Processes/Systemsthese concepts are developed into real products and/or process improvements
Enterprise/Entrepreneurshipinnovative products and processes are
integrated into domains and enter the market for trade, barter and/or
monetization.
Societies need active markets to progress. We will never reach a point where every
idea becomes a successful new venture; so the market feasibility should be tested
early and repeatedly with each new development to ensure that human and capital
resources that are being applied to the fruition of this idea are utilized appropriately. The vetting that occurs in the ideation stage is very important so that time
and resources are not wasted, particularly in already distressed economic climates.
We must be particularly cognizant that ideas that are funded with government
grants and subsidies that never reach the market successfully are actually a net
drain on societal wealth and opportunity. Of course, there is the educational value
of developing the creative entrepreneur for future success, but that, unfortunately,
doesnt decrease the global debt in the near future. Respectful and ethical practices, not just financially opportunistic ones, must be instilled to sustain the earth,
individuals and future societies. Ideally, countries across the globe should take a
socially responsible approach in their utilization of resources by deciding on the
best opportunities to pursue in the most efficient and honorable manner.
104
Raising Awareness
Many homes, classrooms and organizations do not foster cultures of creativity; and
without practice and an intentional investment of time and resources, future generations may not be prepared to create, elaborate, pivot and adapt in the face of
this ever-changing world. Parents and teachers are often so concerned with test
scores and conforming behavior that they do not realize that their children may not
be learning to think, just to repeat.
Raising awareness of the need to cultivate creative thinking skills in children, in
young adults, in adults, in homes, classrooms and workplaces is a great first step.
Although this need may be apparent to researchers and educators, we all have a
responsibility to communicate this and campaign for reform. Creativity must be
seeded through all aspects of our educational curriculum and steps taken to combat
the effects of formulaic and other current teaching practices that intentionally or
unintentionally suppress creativity. Success measures must be revised. Awareness
to the masses is important so that interested parties can be advocates for change
and ambassadors for establishing creative cultures for personal expression and societal improvement.
Start with the Children
Creativity is revealed in many levels ranging from mini-c or personal creativity, to
little-c or everyday creativity, to Pro-C where professionals may begin to emerge
as leading creators, and finally to BIG C (Ward & Kolomyts, 2010)the eminent
creators such as Einstein, Mozart, Cezanne and Steve Jobs. Expecting all children
to become BIG C adults is unrealistic; but we can expect all to perform creatively.
It is a healthy part of everyones life to survive and evolve, showing our potential
for originality and meaningfulness in work and play.
Creativity requires nurturing, practice and time. Many children have very busy
schedules, leaving limited free time to stretch and explore their worlds independently, imaginatively, and creatively. People need some completely unstructured
time to experience their worlds with no expectation of performance or deliverable.
Parents who experience life fully and provide opportunities for children to
travel and experience the world, offer learning experiences that promote skill
development and accomplishment, and enable overall supportive home environments and stimulating childhoods are more likely to raise children who become
adults who attain creative achievement. Children who witness parents in flow
states (Csikszentmihalyi, 2003) and who practice creativity learn to be creative.
Prodigies are not born as developed creative geniuses; they come from cultivation,
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practice and parental involvement (Howe, 1999). Incorporating youth into our
worlds in a more holistic manner with kindness and patience, instead of filling all
of their time with structured activities, would provide opportunities to model
creativity in preparation for real-world adult life. Asking children for input in
solving everyday problems can lead to valuable discussions and teaching opportunities.
It is important that we nurture the inner creator in each and every child. Television does not accomplish this goal; however, if you must watch TV, do it mindfully. People who make program selections that contribute to growth, dissect the
programs with children to identify the plot and analyze the characters, and turn the
set off when it becomes a waste of time have been shown to perform better on
creativity tests (Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Hosting birthday parties that
give kids a chance to build something and routinely taking the rigidity out of play
by allowing kids to mix and match game pieces and toys, as they are individually
inspired, and praising individuality rather than conformity fosters confidence.
Since J. P. Guilfords 1950 Presidential Address to the American Psychological
Association, which implored psychologists to study issues of creativity, substantial
work has been done to bring creativity to the classroom (Smith and Smith, 2010).
Creativity is valued by teachers as a general rule; however, it often get pushed
down on the list due to time constraints, opportunity costs and tradeoffs that are
necessary to complete the requirements of current curriculums. Additionally, in
our quest for peaceful, mainstream classroom environments, we medicate the
outliers with Ritalin to avoid disruption, which may contribute to the decline of
those young minds ability to elaborate on their ideas (Runco, 2010).
Classrooms are conducted using IRE methodology (initiate, respond, evaluate).
Although it is easier for teachers to teach for memorization and recall, children
must be prepared to lead the world and should be trained to conceptual combine
concepts, generate and explore ideas, develop analogies and communicate their
thoughts. Emphasis should be placed on incorporating 1) open-ended questions
that have multiple answers, 2) more play and fewer rules, 3) more imaginative
solutions; not considering only what is practical, 4) ambiguity tolerance, 5) accepting mistakes as failing forward, 6) stepping outside of ones own areas of experience, 7) the belief that everyone is creative.
If children practice creativity, they will learn to be creative. In short, we need to
train our children to think, not just to parrot back the single correct answer.
Creative teachers will help produce creative students. Changing the way we
measure success in the classroom will be necessary. Minimizing the emphasis on
standardized test results will allow teachers to stop teaching to the test and use the
time to provide opportunities for students to express their creativity through projects and activities, etc.
Exposing teachers to creativity research and providing training for implement106
ing creative curriculum will enhance classroom and lifetime experiences. Ultimately, parents, governments and higher educational environments must support
this so that everyones goals align to praise individuality and place less value on
conformity.
Leaders, Teams and Cultures
Creative leadership is essential to support cultures of creativity. If parents, teachers and workplace leaders are squelchers, ideas that could lead to innovation will
be silenced. Establishing a culture that allows for failure without ridicule is paramount to creative learning environments. In the words attributed to Mother
Teresa, Kind words can be short and easy to speak, but their echoes are truly
endless. (Mother Teresa, n.d.). Without kindness, trust is impossible; without
trust, freedom of expression is stunted. Our competitive world makes this element
extremely challenging.
In a world where people are trained to provide the one correct answer, there
leaves little room for unconventional problem solving approaches. Setting up
space for the gray area to emerge, to be explored and elaborated upon, allows new
ideas to surface and grow. Great leaders motivate people to be the best they can
be, give permission to others to be creative and nurture a culture of creativity in
the family or organization. Allowing people to exercise control over their work
and play environments, to find and develop their talent, to encourage risk-taking
and to provide opportunities for fresh perspectives will help to seed a creative
environment. Stretching people and allowing them to find their own areas for
stretching without imposing too many rules that inhibit the ability to openly express ideas and become completely immersed in ones work is conducive to creativity. Avoiding too much specialization in employees and allowing for flexibility
and autonomy will help sustain happy workplaces, which will be strong contributors to the common good in our future world.
Children and adults should not just be given group work experiences; they
should be taught how to build creative teams. Steps for building teams and ground
rules/activities may include:
Identify necessary skill sets and recruit members to fill needs
When possible, take people out of their normal environment
Value all members through respectful listening
Use productive thinking to identify and solve problems
Exercise divergent thinking and connecting thoughts while deemphasizing fluency of idea production
Use flexibility and elaboration to progress original, unique projects
Recognize and teach that deep domain knowledge is necessary for

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eminent creations
Encourage diverse stimuli and playfulness
Limit unnecessary distractions
Focus on collective voice; do not allow an expert to surface
Avoid premature consensus
Be patient with ambiguity
Employ positive kindness; avoid negativity
Highlight creativity as a process rather than an outcome
Hypothesize, make assumptions, experiment, seek feedback, discuss,
reflect, act and repeat
Align goals; commit to initiatives; be accountable
Include everyone in discussions so the value of individual parts to the
whole are understood
Over-communicate
Avoid homogenous teams
Prepare for emotional and intellectual stress; agree to disagree
Switch roles during process or add new members to restore creative
tension
Each domain and each individual brings constraints to the creative process; however, the analogies and combinations that are made that frequently lead to creative
products are formulated through the same process of remembering and connecting
knowledge, regardless of the individual or specific domain.
We do not know where the combinations that produce creativities will occur or
by whom. The unexpected power of creativity is a result of two previously unrelated ideas or concepts finding a connection that turns into something unique and
purposeful. There is a continuum of creativity that ranges from incremental adaptation to radical aha moments. The staying power lies in the incremental progress. Creativity often occurs through the matching of old knowledge to new information and interaction across domains. Therefore, social contact and communication with others, particularly with experts from other domains with alternate
skill sets, can provide an environment for insight to occur. Diversity with opportunities to share is key to these interactions.
Lubart (2010) discusses various findings relating multi-cultural experiences to
creativity. Exposure to multiple cultures and alternate languages enhances knowledge and can foster openness to new ideas through differing viewpoints and interpretation of subjects. Bilinguals have been shown to perform higher on divergent
thinking exercises. Societies that are located close to contrasting cultures tend to
show higher creative output, as do those with multiple political parties. Multicul108
turalismexposure to several culturespositively relates to creativity. Cultures

that place value on creativity will out-perform those who do not.
Schools and organizations that have multiple cultures represented should embrace this diversity by incorporating culture sharing into their creative learning
environments. An interesting way to do this is to have group members develop a
story that depicts their cultural differentiation in an entertaining, elementary style.
This can be a great exercise to equalize the playing field in a very interesting way
and open the door for follow-up discussions.
Establishing creative learning environments need not include traditional reward
incentives. Intrinsic motivation has been described as a personal passion for ones
work, like a deep love that has no boundaries or conditions around ones devotion
of time, energy and commitment. This emotional high feeds itself by more time
and effort, and the reward is the internal satisfaction that the work itself provides.
Intrinsic motivation is evidenced throughout the creativity process, and is specifically noted as the motivation in the early problem identification and ideation stage.
Extrinsic motivation is the term we use for external rewards, such as fame and
fortune, that validate that the hard work is worthwhile to others. According to
Collins & Amabile (1999), there are two types of extrinsic motivators: 1) synergistic extrinsic motivators which provide information and help the person complete the task while working in synergy with the intrinsic motives; and 2) nonsynergistic extrinsic motivators which lead to feelings of being controlled and are incompatible with intrinsic motives. Intrinsic motivation can be enhanced by extrinsic rewards as long as there is synergy and passion for the project.
Csikszentmihalyi (2003) describes the phenomenon of flow and soul, both
within individuals and within organizations. The personality of individuals and
organizations who achieve flow is described as the existence of soul, when a system uses some of it surplus energy to reach outside of itself and invest it in another
system, becoming in the process a stakeholder in an entity larger than itself (pp.
145). Allowing one to explore and work in areas that are interesting leads to flow
and is the greatest reward. If we used all of our energy simply to take care of our
own needs, we would not grow. Soul and motivation allow for transformative
change.
Take Time to Save Time
We should strive to consciously take time to cultivate lifetime learning environments with opportunities to explore interests and develop creative thinking and
implementation skills. This will save time and resources when selecting projects to
develop into novel, useful, outcome-oriented, functional creations that will advance the world appropriately. Applying creativity research to educational environments can lead to a cultural shift that includes opportunities for people of all
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ages to exercise and practice creativity, develop idea generation skills, learn to
avoid premature closure, adjust perceptions of risk and tolerate ambiguity. Combining these abilities with hard work, ethical approaches, intrinsic motivation and
exposure to other domains and cultures will help soulful creatives evolve to the
next level, as individuals and societies.
Correspondence
Terri Zobel
222 Cedar Avenue
Pitman, NJ 08071
USA
Tel: ++1-856-589-7136
Email: terrizobel@gmail.com
Authors brief bio
Terri Zobel is Director of Programs and Services for the Laurence A. Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship at Drexel University. As Director, Terri Zobel combines extensive skills in program development and delivery, business start-up and
ownership, business management, customer relations, marketing, sales and
communications to assist students, aspiring entrepreneurs and emerging companies
in their entrepreneurial endeavours. Since her arrival, the Baiada Institute has enjoyed unprecedented growth and success. Terri has held positions in management,
training and sales in industries as diverse as higher education, plastics manufacturing, floor covering distribution, retail and food services. Previously, Terri was
founder and owner of McIlhenney Variety and was responsible for all functions of
the business from startup to expansion. Under her leadership, McIlhenney
Variety grew to two locations. Terri's enrollment in Drexel Universitys MS Creativity and Innovation program has increased her passion for educational environments
that
foster
creative
achievement.
References
Collins, M. A., & Amabile, T. M. (1999). Motivation and creativity. In R. J.
Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 297-312). New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Cropley, D., & Cropley, A. (2010). Functional creativity: "products" and the
generation of effective novelty. In J. C. Kaufman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The
Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (pp. 301-317). New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M, (1999). Implications of a systems perspective for the study
of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 313-335). New
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003). Good business: Leadership, flow and the making of meaning. New York: Penguin.
Howe, M. J. A. (1999). Prodigies and creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 431-446). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kubey, R. W., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Television and the quality of life, how
viewing shapes everyday experience. Hilsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lubart, T. (2010). Cross-cultural perspectives on creativity. In J. C. Kaufman &
R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of creativity (pp. 301-317). New
Mother Teresa. (n.d.). goodreads. Retrieved from http://www.goodreads.com/
author/quotes/838305.Mother_Teresa
Runco, M.A. (2010). Divergent thinking, creativity, and ideation. In J. C. Kauf
man & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (pp. 413-446).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, J., & Smith, L. (2010). Educational creativity. In J. C. Kaufman & R. J.
Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (pp. 250-264). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Kaufman, J. C. (2010). The Cambridge handbook of creativity.
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Ward, T., & Kolomyts, Y. (2010). Cognition and creativity. In J. C. Kaufman &
R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (pp. 93-112). New
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11 DENNIE L. SMITH
BLENDING CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Introduction
This paper is organized around the construction of a kaleidoscope, application of a
problem-solving model, and the intersection of the two concepts to enhance creativity and discovery of new knowledge. An analogous process of transferring information or meaning from the physical construction of a kaleidoscope to a 5-step
problem solving model is described to illustrate how blending, or associations with
dissimilar objects or processes, can lead to the generation of new mental content
and solutions to problems in accomplishing goals.
The theoretical underpinnings for using problem solving models to enhance
creativity and stimulate the discovery of new knowledge are well established.
According to Gordon (1973), invention or the discovery of something new can be
facilitated with a formal problem solving approach. In addition, core literature in
the fields of psychology, education, and applied sciences maintains that the nature
of the creative process does not vary with the subject domain and can lead to the
discovery of new relationships, products, and processes through the use of a variety of problem solving models. Related to this knowledge, cognitive psychologists
have firmly established creativity as a basic aspect of learning in all content domains
(Glover, Ronning, & Reynolds, 1989). In particular, the use of metaphors in various fields enhances the creative and discovery process and helps problem solvers
understand unfamiliar problems by juxtaposing them with known situations
(McCallister, 1994). An investigation between factors of creativity and factors of
metaphors indicated that metaphors play an important role in design creativity in
many fields (Bilchev & Parrnee, 1995; Casakin, H. (2007); Duit, 1991).
In general, a metaphor is a comparison between objects, actions, or concepts to
which it is not literally applicable. This paper describes how a problem-solving
model can be used in the construction (creation) of a kaleidoscope and how metaphors that are derived through the process can enhance the ability to solve problems and expand creativity.
Kaleidoscopes
Sir David Brewster is credited with inventing the kaleidoscope in 1816 and
explicating a number of physical laws related to the behavior of light (Brewster,
1817; Groth, 2007). A kaleidoscope can be made out of a variety of materials,
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objects, and mirror configurations to make colorful and complex designs that entertain the visual senses when held to the eye and turned by hand (Baker, 2001;
Heard, 2012).
The elements of a kaleidoscope include five components: barrel, eyepiece, object cell, object cell housing, and the mirror system. Although the construction of
a wooden kaleidoscope narrows the choice of materials, the first decision involves
the selection of wood. The softer woods (e.g., western cedar, birch, poplar) or
hardwoods (walnut, oak, cherry) will determine special techniques for making and
finishing the kaleidoscope. A lathe is used to drill a 1 and inch hole in a block of
wood to make the barrel to hold the mirror system. The mirror system consists of
an equilateral (equal sides) or an isosceles (two equal sides) triangle and can be
constructed with three mirrors or two mirrors and a piece of flat, black glass. The
isosceles triangle kaleidoscope contains two 8 inches by 1 and 1/8 inch mirrors
with an 8 inch flat black glass. The mirrors and black glass are placed face down
and taped together to form a triangle that slides into the barrel. Light passing
through the object cell and traveling down the mirror creates the image when the
viewer looks through the eyepiece. The eyepiece is made by drilling a 1 inch hole
in another 2 inch diameter block of wood that will fit over the barrel. The eyepiece has a 3/8 inch hole in the end to look through the kaleidoscope. The object
cell housing is then made by drilling a 1 inch diameter hole in another 2 inch
diameter block of wood. Additional care is taken to drill 1 inch hole in the end
of the housing to hold the object cell. The object cell is made by using a small 1
inch plastic cup filled with beads and other small objects, filled with mineral oil,
and sealed with super glue. The wood components of the kaleidoscope are sanded
with 400- grit sandpaper and finished with five coats of lacquer. The final assembly
involves the insertion of a keeper wire in a small groove on the barrel to hold the
object cell housing for turning. Silicone sealant is used to hold the mirrors in the
barrel and hold the eyepiece on the barrel. The kaleidoscope is now ready for that
ah ha moment when one looks through the eyepiece and views the changing image in the object cell when the barrel is turned.
Throughout the process of construction, there are several opportunities for
problems to occur including: using the wrong speed of the lathe in relationship to
the wood and sharpness of the tools; mineral oil spilling over on the outside of the
object cell causing the super glue not to stick; the wood cracking from drilling
pressure, etc. Under any of these circumstances, the construction goal may need
to shift completely to repurposing the components and creating a candlestick,
wood vase, or paper clip holder.
Problem Solving Process
Creative problem solving is presented in scholarly literature in many forms
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(Lumsdaine & Lumsdaine, 1994-95). The processes for solving problems are used
informally and formally throughout all aspects of our lives and are generally used
from the moment we wake to when we sleep. Simple as well as complex problems
confront us daily with respect to our personal, work, and social lives. Many of
these problems are quick fixes, such as finding something, or can be long term, as
in addressing serious health issues. A vast amount of information is available on the
inter-net related to problem solving as evidenced by 15,300,000 hits recorded on a
recent web search of the topic.
The 5-Step Problem Solving Process (PSP) (Smith, 2013) described in this paper is relatively simple and can guide an individual or a group to find a solution to a
problem through five organizing questions: 1. What is the problem?; 2. Who is
impacted by the problem?; 3. How important is the problem?; 4. What are the
possible solutions?; and 5. How is the solution used to solve the problem? Not
only can the 5-step PSP guide the construction of a kaleidoscope but it also can
serve as a framework for the use of an analogous process that combines and compares concrete elements or creative solutions. The remainder of this article provides explication and an example of the 5-step problem solving model used in conjunction with kaleidoscope metaphors to demonstrate the usefulness to individuals,
as well as groups, in a multitude of areas of ones personal and professional life.
Applying the 5-Step Problem Solving Process
What is the problem?
A problem is an uncomfortable state of affairs and troubling to individuals or
groups. Problems present challenges that require changes in order to eliminate the
discomfort. Athough it may sound simplistic, one has to clearly identify the problem to initiate the 5-Step problem solving process. Often considerable time must
be used to examine the nature of the problem, its scope, and specific causes in
order to avoid an incomplete or faulty analysis that can lead to a flawed and frustrating solution.
For example purposes, we will consider Mary, a college engineering student
who is having difficulty managing her finances and having sufficient funds to pay
monthly bills that include her share of rent for an apartment and monthly tuition
installments. Marys parents have provided sufficient funds each month to pay her
rent, tuition, food, and small miscellaneous expenses. In the past, Mary had relied
upon her parents to provide for her monthly shortages, but she now has a sibling
who is starting college and will no longer be able to depend upon them to bridge
the gap.
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Who is impacted by the problem?
Conceivably, a problem could only impact an individual; however, it usually affects others also. In the work place, all stakeholders should be involved in problems that directly impact them. A family or other groups may have a problem that
requires attention by all of the members of the group in order to achieve satisfactory resolution. Given Marys problem of inability to manage her finances, let us
assume that the problem can be solved by the student. Thus, she must first acknowledge the problem, that it impacts others, and that it is within her control to
solve.
How important is the problem?
Problems come in many forms and their intensity is related to an individuals perception and the context of the issue. Although some individuals seem to be able to
handle problems better than others, it is necessary to specifically range problems
according to their perceived importance. Those judged to be intense and of high
importance to stakeholders often need to be addressed in an urgent manner. If
Marys finances as described above are not successfully managed, then her apartment friends, college status, and bill collectors could get involved. The problem
may become so intense that it distracts from her academic studies and long-term
goals of becoming an engineer.
What are possible solutions to the problem?
Possible solutions require gathering data and information from a variety of sources.
If a company is experiencing an increased number of returned products, data related to the customers and the employees who handled these returns are essential.
Research can reveal if others have experienced the same or similar problems and
perhaps, how the problem was solved. It is possible, also, to benefit from learning
about the unsuccessful solutions that others have tried. Brainstorming among directly involved constituents can also include the combination of solutions to arrive
at an innovation or new approach to the problem.
For Mary, our college student with a monthly financial shortfall, an initial step
in finding a solution would be an analysis of her previous months fixed and flexible
expenditures. The primary fixed costs would include her share of the rent and
prorated tuition. Other costs related to food, concert tickets, and the purchase of
new clothes would have financial flexibility. Possible solutions might include getting a part time job to maintain her college lifestyle, securing a loan, asking a relative to loan or give her money, applying for a credit card, or decreasing her spending to continue to work on her current goal of earning a college degree. Other
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options could involve changing her goals as Mary has talent in writing and singing
popular songs and opportunities for making music a full time career. Each of the
generated solutions would then be analyzed with respect to the impact on the
problem and Marys commitment to becoming an engineer by using a ranking and
plus-minus system to determine the best solution.
What is the plan for implementing the solution?
A detailed plan helps to identify the steps for the implementation of a solution. If
others are involved, there should be some means of assigning responsibilities and
monitoring accountability. The plan should be reviewed frequently to ensure that
all aspects of the plan are being implemented. Communicating the success of implementing the solution can be extremely useful to the perceptions and morale of
the stakeholders and can lead to future improvements and alternative solutions. In
our example, Mary chose to change her goals and to use her passion, musical talent, and opportunities as a paid lead singer in a band to develop a new direction for
her life. Mary made the decision in spite of contrary advice from her parents
(stakeholders) and will need to communicate her progress and accomplishments of
her goals to them as she changes career directions.
Blending Problem Solving with Kaleidoscope Construction
Construction of the kaleidoscope serves as a tangible object and process for thinking about and exploring various phases of the problem solving process. In the
preceding college student example, it is necessary to begin by thinking about questions that can be used to connect the abstract concept of Marys financial stability
to the concrete process of constructing a wooden kaleidoscope in order to build
the metaphors that will result in creative as well as practical solutions and outcomes. One such question might be How can constructing the kaleidoscope be
related to the financial situation of our fictitious student? This aspect of the blending process requires the problem solver to begin to look for similarities and differences and to construct metaphors that relate two completely different problem
areas while also forcing consideration of how successful outcomes can be achieved
given components of each problem. In our example, the construction of the kaleidoscopes main components demonstrates the interconnectivity of the parts in
order for it to work properly. In Marys situation, her various financial needs are
also interconnected and must be considered together in order for her to attain
solvency. Thus, a focus on the function of the kaleidoscope helps one to start
thinking about the financial situation in more than one way.
Looking through the kaleidoscope one sees various colors and design changes as
the housing of the object cell is turned to form new patterns. The metaphor here
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might be that Mary can make changes in her financial decisions to form new behavior. The kaleidoscope metaphor works well in suggesting that there are numerous
ways of solving the problem, including pursuing new goals (a musical career) as
noted in our example. The infinite number of images seen through the kaleidoscope suggests seeing things in different ways and generating new and possibly
multiple solutions. Another metaphor uses the steps (or necessary sequence) in
building the kaleidoscope as a comparison to establishing a plan for implementing
the solution(s). Finally, the silicon that holds the kaleidoscope together can be
compared to Marys developing a new financial plan for her new goals and sticking
to it, or perhaps exercising self-discipline or using an outside person or agency to
help monitor her finances. Radical changes in the overall design of the kaleidoscope
would require modifications in interrelationships of the components. The same
would be true in making significant changes in ones career goals or creating a new
product for marketing.
The author has used the kaleidoscope metaphor with groups for teaching about
and demonstrating the problem solving process outlined above. Participants have
opportunities to inspect the various components and experience views with several
types and sizes of kaleidoscopes during the sessions. They also view a short video
(Smith, 2013) of the construction of the kaleidoscope to help increase their knowledge about building and assembling the various components. These events are
followed by introduction and explanation of the 5-step problem solving process
along with examples to provide a structure for solving problems. The final activity
of the session involves participants identifying several problems that may be common among the participants, prioritizing the problems, and selecting several for
participants to apply the problem solving process and reach final conclusions about
which solutions might work best. A kaleidoscope(s) is available during the session
for stimulating metaphors and representation of various aspects of the problem or
the solutions.
Although this paper presented the construction of the kaleidoscope as a metaphor for blending creativity with the problem solving process, other metaphors can
certainly be used. For example, metaphors can be built around cars, windmills,
ships, rainstorms, football games, lawnmowers, clocks, making a cake, banquets,
the ecology of a pond, as well as many other possibilities. In addition to knowing
about the physical aspects and components of the objects being used for developing
metaphors, learning about the construction or other details about use of the objects
will enhance the metaphorical associations that can be used in the problem solving
process. The physical presence of the objects, models, and/or photos will also
impact the overall utility of the metaphor in serving as direct or indirect influence
on creativity and problem solving. Focusing on the process of constructing the
kaleidoscope takes peoples attention away from the problem and allows the possibility of the emergence of creative thought from the subconscious for forging new
118
associations that can result in new solutions to problems. The function of the kaleidoscope to produce many different views through the interconnectivity of the
components is a reminder that there are often a myriad of possible solutions and
creative approaches to solving problems when they are examined from multiple
perspectives for creative ideas.
Correspondence
Dennie L. Smith, Professor
Department Head Emeritus, Teaching Learning and Culture
Educational Administration and Human Resources
Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
Tel.: ++1 979 450 0830
Email: denniesmith@tamu.edu
Authors brief bio
Dennie L. Smith is a professor in the Departments of Teaching, Learning and Culture and Educational Administration and Human Resources at Texas A&M University. He professional experiences also include being a Department Head, Director
of a Family Business Center. He has published a number of articles in the area of
education related to simulation, creativity, technology, leadership and decisionmaking. His current research includes exploring the methodology for using iPads
and other tablets for teaching problem solving.
References
Baker, C. (2001) Kaleidoscope Artistry. USA: C & T Publishing, Inc.
Bilchev, G., and Parrnee, C. (1995) The Ant Colony Metaphor for Searching
Continuous Design Spaces. Evolutionary Computing Lecture Notes in Computer Science
993, 25-39
Brewster, D. (1817) Treatise On the Kaleidoscope [online] available from <http://
www.brewstersociety.com/brewster> [07 June 2013]
Casakin, H. (2007) Metaphors in Design Problem Solving: Implications for Crea
tivity. International Journal of Design 1 (2), 21-33
Duit, R. (1991) On the Role of Analogies and Metaphors in Learning Science.
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Science Education 75, 649672
Glover, J., Ronning, R., and Reynolds, C. (1989) Handbook of Creativity. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage
Gordon, W. (1973) The Metaphorical Way of Learning & Knowing. Boston: Porpoise
Books
Groth, H. (2007) Kaleidoscopic vision and literary invention in an Age of
Things: David Brewster, Don Juan and A Ladys Kaleidoscope . ELH 74 (1),
217-237
Heard, W. (2012) Lets Make a Kaleidoscope [telephone interview by D. Smith] July
2012
Lumsdaine, E., and Lumsdaine, M. (1994-95) Creative Problem Solving. Poten
tials, IEEE 13, (5), 4-9
McAllister, H. (1994) Common Sense Problem Solving and Cognitive Research [online]
available from <http://www.hawaii.edu/suremath/cognitive.html> [24 March
2013]
Smith, D. (2013) Decision Points: Hot Issues with Technology in Higher Educa
tion. The Department Chair Journal: A Resource for Academic Administrators [in press]
Smith, D. (2013) Making a Kaleidoscope with Wood: Solving Problems Along the Way
[online] available from Youtube: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=lwx4hhj9Rjw>
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VALERY KEIBLER
THE TRANSFORMATIONAL DECISION TO BE A

CREATIVE
Abstract
Historically, a person labeled as creative had artistic inclinations; however contemporary creative individuals (Creatives) are typically not tied to the arts and can
be found in a wide variety of fields including STEM subject areas. Creativity has
also been tied to economic success and interest in developing Creatives in various
disciplines and understanding how one becomes a Creative has broad application.
While humans typically have many different areas of interest, research has found
Creatives often have specific, self-identifiable areas in which their creativity flows.
Since creativity is not developed in every interest area, this selective application of
creativity may indicate a transformational decision to be a Creative. Creatives act
upon their thoughts in unique and original ways in spite of risk factors using intrinsic motivation, metacognition, and self-leadership. The grounded theory based on
this model of intentional decision is the ME-Zone Theory. It is the researchers
hope that promoting awareness of the ME-Zone can positively impact the intentional and self-directed development of Creatives. By using best practices of developing mentoring relationships and furthering self-leadership skills, nurturing
creativity in individuals across all subject areas can be encouraged and fostered.
Introduction
Past studies have investigated Creatives from both inside the individual (e.g. their
individual personality traits, intrinsic motivation) and factors outside the individual
(e.g. organizational leadership, educational training). Generalized findings from
these studies indicated that creativity is not a single facet of ones personality nor
has a methodology emerged to allow creativity to be instilled into individuals by
others. Regardless of research findings we see evidence that individuals continue to
become Creatives as they follow their own callings. Perhaps by better understanding what it is like to live as a Creative, their awareness of being creative, and their
thoughts regarding their own creativity, we can gain insight into their experience
of acting and thinking in creative ways thereby transforming themselves into Crea122
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tives.
Creativity is not just artistic
A first step in studying creativity is to define the term. Society uses the term
creativity to apply to a wide range of fields including IT, science, math, engineering, finance, and management. Evidence of this can be seen by searching listings for
job openings using the term creativity and perusing the thousands of job listings
that appear with very few being exclusively in the field of art. This activity of
searching job listings also highlights the essential need which exists for Creatives in
the workforce. As economists and business leaders have noted, Creatives have
become a key element in many companies economic success (Florida 2012), are
catalysts to organizational adaption (Reiter-Palmon 2011) and has been credited
with being synonymous with economic productivity (Grierson 2011).
Factors for Individual Creativity
Creativity can be observed as a demonstration of behavior, but the impetus for
creativity has been studied as a cognitive function. Research has identified several
areas which must be addressed by Creatives: they must be willing to take risks to
develop their creativity (Kaufmann & Sternberg 2007), they must trust in their
own ideas (Wright 2010), and typically they demonstrate self-leadership, intrinsic
motivation and self-determination (Deci & Ryan 1985), and can also use metacognition and reflective thinking. The quality of original ideas can be influenced by the
Creatives positive attitude (Grawitch, Munz, Elliott, & Mathis 2003) as well as
the relationships (Grant & Berry 2011), leadership (Zhang & Bartol 2010), and
culture (Wilpert 2005) provided to them in both work, home, and school. While
this is not an exhaustive list, Factors for Individual Creativity (FIC) as referenced
later in this paper include risk, self-trust, self-leadership, intrinsic motivation,
metacognition, and positive attitude. Additionally, it has also been found that the
emergence of creativity is often uniquely tied to specific domains and specific individuals. With notable exceptions such as Leonardo daVinci or Benjamin Franklin, a
person who is a creative producer in one field is seldom a creative producer in an
unrelated field (Snow 1986). This connection between domain identification and
creative awareness had been personally experienced and also observed by the researcher; a connection that appeared to be a beginning point for individual creative
awareness and self-leadership in creativity development.
Methodology
Seeking to gain more understanding into the transformation of individuals into
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Creatives, this study investigated the process used by individuals to identify potential fields in which to be creative and personal self-realization of the emergence of
unique creative activity. This type of personal insight is best captured by a qualitative study in which interviews and observations made by a researcher are collected
and analyzed to better understand the individuals decisions to be Creatives. A
grounded theory design was used to organize the research process into an initial
interview, analysis, and understanding followed by a two more cycles of interviews, analysis and understanding. This cascading design allowed for hand coding
of data, and axial coding of data to reveal a theory. This theory was then tested
with two final participants to allow generalization of the theory to a larger population.
Participants
Although the decision to be a Creative is not isolated to a particular age group, the
participants for this study were between the ages of 18 and 20; an age group where
reflective thought and self-realization is stressed due to college and career path
choice decisions. Each of the ten participants had exhibited behavior that was
noteworthy due to creativity; awards for judged work in the arts and commendations for novel science and research excellence. The participants were purposefully selected to represent Creatives in various fields of study (including art, music,
science, information technology, business and engineering) to allow the researcher
to generalize the findings to a wide range of subject areas. As a test for trustworthiness and credibility, a rough draft of the transcribed interviews and the researchers insight gained from the interviews were provided to each participant.
This member-checking arrangement allowed the researcher to be confident that
the data correctly represented the participants intent and meaning.
Although this paper uses the term creativity and Creative to identify these
participants, a portion of those interviewed did not feel that these terms were appropriate descriptors. Several noted that their interests were not in the arts and
they felt that creativity was arts-biased and therefore did not describe them as
well as innovative or original. For these participants, the researcher opted to
substitute the term original thinking for creativity during their interviews. As
previously discussed, contemporary use of the term creativity seems to extend
past the arts into all fields, but as a comfort for these participants, the option of a
substitute label for creative was incorporated in the interviews.
Recognition of Areas of Creativity
By evaluating the participants individual journeys to becoming Creatives, the researcher found prominent similarities regarding their awareness of their own crea124
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tive inclinations in specific interest areas. When asked about their use of creative,
innovative, or original thinking, the participants directed the conversations toward
their unique interests and included their thoughts and accomplishments where they
had creative successes. Without the researcher knowingly prompting or directing
the dialogue, the participants had self-identified Areas of Creativity (AOC) and
continued with stories of finding mentors, organizing resources, and finding their
own ways to thrive. Conversely when asked about other subject areas, participants
expressed frustration when they recalled being required to put effort into areas in
which they did not feel creatively gifted. In these Areas of Non-Creativity
(NonAOC), the participants recalled their under-performance or even avoidance
of the subject areas. In terms of school classwork, participants described their
experiences in AOC courses with positive overtones showing evidence of engagement, ownership, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and active learning while in
their NonAOC classes they conversely demonstrated disinterest and few successes.
The Decision
It was observed that these participants knowingly sought out opportunities to be
creative in specific fields or areas. Looking back on the FIC listed previously, each
of the participants took actions to become a Creative. Although no one stated that
they made a conscious decision to become a risk-taker (as is required of a Creative), their subsequent actions demonstrated that they were willing to take risks in
their pursuit of growing in their AOC. In secondary school environments, they
asked teachers for alternative assignments, challenged their peers to question their
thinking, or left traditional school settings to attend magnet-type schools in their
AOC. Outside of school settings they ventured on their own to find competitions
or experiences in which they could explore their AOC in self-determined capacities. They showed evidence that they were willing to trust in their own creative
powers, build support systems, and seek out opportunities to grow in their AOC.
The researcher observed that the transformational decision to be a Creative was
often a cognitive decision to follow a self-devised path which may not have been
voiced as a declaration to others.
Evidence of the Decision
If the decision was not voiced, what evidence supports the observations that they
made a decision? Participants stated that they found value in using creative thought
and were aware that they made conscious decisions to place themselves in environments where they could be creative. They realized their drive to be engaged in
particular fields or subject areas was different than others around them and the
need to satisfy their internal drive seemed to become a dominant influence in their
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lives. Interestingly, since these participants were all in an age group where peerinfluence is thought to be influential, these participants saw themselves as different
and did not consider themselves as having the same needs as their peers.
In school, Creatives who were engaged in AOC classes recalled that grades
were not a strong motivator for them, but found that the satisfaction or good
feelings they found in using their own creativity was a better reward. Unfortunately for education, most of the participants recalled that they created many of
their opportunities on their own time, outside of the classroom, because school
environments were not typically supportive environments for their creativity.
Expressed emotions also were indicators of the connections which developed
between participants and their identified AOC. Frustration was often mentioned
when participants were faced with required a right-or-wrong decisions in their
AOC since they frequently saw multiple workable solutions for a particular situation. They were less concerned with decisions in NonAOC; which gave further
evidence to their perceived differentiation between areas of interest and other less
important areas. Participants expressed their desire for control over their time and
effort in their AOC but were less engaged in NonAOC events. Participants expressed increased feelings of self-worth once they had been acknowledged as
achieving some level of success by using their creativity in their AOC, but not all
accolades were equally valued. Several participants stated that they only valued
feedback from others who they felt were knowledgeable in their AOC.
AOCs also were noted as catalysts for relationships between Creatives and others who they perceived as being interested in their success. Family members were
often seen as allies and Creatives valued them as supporters. Outside of family
connections, Creatives often conducted intentional searches for mentors who
could support their growth in their AOC through coaching, training, and modeling
behavior. Occasionally Creatives found that they outgrew mentors and reached
out to find other relationships which could help them grow in their AOC. Creatives also sought out peers who they felt were sincerely interested in the AOC and
would create a mutually beneficial team.
Analyzing their Awareness
The participants appeared to be aware of their specific areas of creativity and that
they acted in ways which allowed them to pursue their own unique calling, but
they differed in their understanding of the earlier identified IFC. While their actions and comments inferred their use of intrinsic motivation (IM), few referred
specifically to IM and others denied that they personally had much IM even thought
their experiences had demonstrated it. It was observed that many of these Creatives had adopted tactics to allow themselves to use their creativity, but were unaware of their cognitive practices. Their desire to be engaged in their AOC did not
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necessarily include the use of metacognition, or thinking about their thinking. In a

few instances during the interviews, the participants grew in understanding of their
own thinking and experienced ah-ha moments regarding their actions and their
own motivation. When these moments of awakening happened, the researcher
noted the heightened engagement and excitement that the participants exhibited as
they seemingly took ownership of the ideas.
While research has identified aspects of nurturing and encouraging creativity,
these participants who were living as Creatives were often unaware of the existing
knowledge about creativity. As evidenced by the brief interactions where new
information energized the participants and gave them new insight and ideas, it
appeared that Creatives and potential Creatives may benefit from awareness of the
IFC and other empowering information. For Creatives in the workplace, it seems
likely that they could benefit from understanding their fit within their organization;
a fit that researchers have equated to a small business entrepreneur (Sarri,
Bakouros, & Petridou 2010). When Creatives adopt entrepreneurial strategies
such as focusing on company goals, finding /using resources, and developing their
own support systems, they have been found to be more effective and satisfied.
Although this is published research, it does not appear to be widely known by individuals who might be more effective at using their creativity.
Discussion of the ME-Zone Theory
The process for making a transformation into a Creative as revealed by analyzing
the stories of the studys participants includes identifying areas of interest followed
by seeking out opportunities and resources to use creativity. The decision to be a
Creative seems to occur within the individual and then requires the Creative to
begin a navigational path through inherent risks that accompany the decision. Each
Creative has a unique journey which research cannot accurately predict, but as
evidenced by the discussions between the participants and the researcher, the findings from research can help Creatives devise strategies to be more effective actors
and thinkers. The ME-Zone Theory which resulted from the grounded theory
methodology from this study helps to explain the relationship of the Creative with
awareness of information and a call to action that can positively affect their growth
as a Creative. By presenting Creatives with the concepts of self-leadership, entrepreneurial skills, metacognition and the other known creativity factors, they can be
more effective and efficient in developing their creativity.
Another aspect of the ME-Zone Theory that was revealed in the study was the
responsibility and ownership that rests with the Creative. The individual is central
to the development of creativity; although incubator environments can be created
for encouraging creativity the effort and work must originate within the individual.
Beginning with an internal decision and self-recognition of the AOC, fulfillment of
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creative growth is the outcome of the Creatives engagement with the creativity
factors. The decision to become a Creative is transformational and the transformation is affected by the empowering information that the individual internalizes.
The ME-Zone Theory can promote awareness and understanding for all who
hope to create interest in creativity. Introducing the concepts of individual decisions and self-nurturing behavior may entice previously non-Creatives to use their
creativity with a potential outcome of increasing the number of Creatives available
to the workforce. For mentors and educators, the Me-Zone Theory can graphically
illustrate the ownership required of the Creative and explain their role as external
influences as opposed to the driving force. As a vehicle for awakening, educating,
and empowering, the Me-Zone Theory can be a tool for both Creatives and those
who work with Creatives and potential Creatives.
Conclusions
Creativity has a heightened awareness in our society and developing Creatives has
become an economic focal point. This study analyzed the stories of creative individuals and found that the development of creativity is a unique and personal experience that begins with a transformational decision to be a Creative and then
requires a self-directed path to nurture their own creativity. The findings from this
study have been accumulated into The ME-Zone Theory which presents a model
for Creatives to better understand their self-leadership roles and provide understanding and empowerment to the individual as the center of the creative process.
By better understanding the process of becoming a Creative, it is hoped that more
individuals are encouraged to investigate their creative callings.
Correspondence
Dr. Valery Keibler
Email: valerykeibler@gmail.com
Authors brief bio
Dr. Valery Keibler is both a Creative and a mentor to Creatives. Building on her
graphic design and marketing background, she currently is an instructor in the
humanities department at the Community College of Allegheny County and conducts ongoing research in encouraging and supporting individual creativity and
original thinking. She holds a PhD in Instructional Management and Leadership
from Robert Morris University and a masters degree in Industrial/Organizational
Psychology from Capella University. She can be reached through her website,
www.valerykeibler.com.
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References
Deci, E & Ryan, R 1985, Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.
Plenum, New York.
Florida, R 2012, The Rise of the Creative Class Revisited. Basic Books, New York.
Grant, A & Berry, J 2011, The necessity of others is the mother of invention:
Intrinsic and prosocial motivations, perspective taking, and creativity, Academy of
Management Journal, vol. 54, no. 1, pp.73-96.
Grawitch, D, Munz, D, Elliott, E & Mathis, A 2003, Promoting creativity in temporary problem-solving groups: The effects of positive mood and autonomy in
problem definition on idea-generating performance, Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 200-213.
Grierson, E 2011, Art and creativity in the global economies of education, Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 336-350.
Kaufman, J & Sternberg, R 2007, Creativity, Change, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 55-8.
Reiter-Palmon, R 2011, Introduction to special issue: The psychology of creativity and innovation in the workplace, Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts,
vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-2.
Sarri, KK Bakouros, IL & Petridou, E 2010. Entrepreneur training for creativity
and innovation, Journal of European Industrial Training, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 270-288.
Snow, R 1986, Individual differences and the design of educational programs,
American Psychologist, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 1029-1039.
Wilpert, B 2005, Psychology and design processes, European Psychologist, vol. 10,
no. 3, pp. 229-236.
Wright, M 2010, The secure preschooler: Nurturing creativity with courage,
wisdom with responsibility, Canadian Psychology, vol. 51, no.4, pp. 231-240.
Zhang, X & Bartol, K 2010, The influence of creative process engagement on
employee creative performance and overall job performance: A curvilinear assessment, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 95, no.3, pp. 862-873.
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CREATIVE TEACHING AND TEACHING

EXCELLENCE
Introduction
According to Bramwell, Reilly, Lilly, Kronish, and Chennabathni (2011), good
teaching is creative teaching (p. 228). Burnard (2012) believed that teaching per
se is a manifestation of creativity. She also emphasized that the role of teachers as
agents to catalyze this process of change requires a high level of professionalism and
expertise. To some extent, creative teaching does not necessarily mean introducing something new, but it means solidifying students ideas, attitudes, and beliefs,
that are already being formed and further maximizes the outcomes of teaching
excellence.
The practice of creative teaching is rooted in the humanistic philosophy grounds
that assume all individuals have the creative potential. Thus, educational efforts in
creativity by creative learning and creative teaching should be advocated (Esquivel,
1995). Jeffrey (2006) and Jeffrey and Craft (2004) suggested that creative teaching
and creative learning are highly correlated. In fact, Craft (2010) asserted that creative learning stems from creative teaching, which is characterized by a sense of
ownership, relevance, control, and innovation (p. 300). Indeed, the relationship
between teaching and learning is an interactive one between teachers and students,
and it requires both sides to be engaged and to shape this special discourse. Following this line of thought, Lin (2011) further proposed a framework of creative
pedagogy, which is an attempt to bridge creative teaching and learning.
The biggest difference between creative teaching and creative learning is that
the former concerns the pedagogy and the latter pertains to learning strategies.
The idea of creative learning, in fact, involves two elements: the acquisition of new
knowledge and the transformation of prior learning into new contexts (Mayer,
1989). How can a teacher help students focus on learning and transfer knowledge?
One possible solution is creative teaching. The essence of creative teaching entails
rekindling students curiosity, which somehow has been quenched in the conventional and standardized test-driven school culture. Creative teaching further provides students with teaching experiences that are rich, positive, and sustaining.
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The main purpose of this article was to survey related literature and promote creative teaching in the classroom, because it is argued that creative teaching is the
prerequisite of teaching excellence. This article discusses three topics. First, the
perspective of creative teaching is outlined. Second, modeling creative behavior is
described. Third, practical guides for creative teaching are suggested.
What is Creative Teaching?
Rinkevich (2011) defined creative teaching as a unique, customized, and meaningful exchange of knowledge among all individuals in a learning context (p. 219).
For Mayer (1989), the heart of creative teaching concerns instructional techniques
that enable [students] to transfer what they have learned to new problems (p.
205). Craft (2011) further pointed out that the focus of creative teaching is on
exciting, innovative, engaging, and often memorable pedagogy (p. 129). According to Sawyer (2010), creative teaching is an improvisational performance [that]
emphasizes the interactional and responsive creativity of a teacher working together with a unique group of students (p. 185). Similarly, Tanggaard (2011)
underlined the concept of creative teaching as being a creative teacher who is willing to experiment with new ideas and to take risks using other teaching approaches
to create best learning conditions for students. Tanggaard (2011) also contended
that the cornerstone of creative teaching is teaching itself. As he noted, teaching is
seen as a potentially creative and improvised activity, itself being the background
for continued change in the daily work of teachers (Tanggaard, 2011, p. 220). At
the basic level of creative teaching development is the connection of the learned
knowledge and the experienced context (Torrance, 1977).
A number of studies have identified several salient characteristics of creative
teachers, such as curiosity, risk-taking, independence, open-mindedness, humor,
self-confidence, flexibility, and aesthetic orientation (Burnard, 2012; Horng,
Hong, ChanLin, Chang, &Chu, 2005). Burnard (2012) suggested these personality
traits are connected to thinking styles, which include visualization, imagination,
experimentation, metaphorical thinking, reflection, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (p. 168). Moreover, Jeffrey (2006) identified four characteristics of creative
teaching: (a) innovation, stimulating new insights and leading change; (b) ownership, concerned for teachers own ideas or an adaption of others into teaching contexts; (c) control, having a certain autonomy and pace; and (d) relevance, the main
interest of teaching in meaningful learning to impact students. He underpinned the
consequence of creative teaching on how students experience this process and what
kind of creative agency is unleashed by applying this teaching context. Mayer
(1989) also suggested three key conditions for creative teaching: the presentation
of meaningful material, the intention of an active learning process, and the evaluation of students creative problem solving ability as learning outcomes.
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Therefore, creative teaching could be defined as a behavior that teachers demonstrate when they take action and consciously use certain tactics, sometimes departing from their comfort zone and confronting ambiguity, in order to challenge
themselves and their students to seek creative ways of learning. As outlined above,
it is believed that the combination of three important elements contributes to creative teaching. A three-ring model is proposed here to demonstrate that teachers
who are willing to practice creative teaching should gear toward at least three abilities to the task of teaching excellence. This model involves instructional tactics,
creativity, and task commitment. Teachers can use a variety of stimuli (tactics) to
inspire and encourage students to experience meaningful learning and develop
their creativity. At the same time, teachers themselves should use their creativity
abilities to effectively present material and communicate the content. Motivation
and teacher attitudes also play a crucial role in the presentation of the material to
students: Teachers need to be professional, responsible, and caring.
Modeling Creative Teaching
Without a doubt, teachers play a determining role in shaping students learning.
With regard to the promotion of creativity in the classroom, teachers not only
condition certain types of creativity through their teaching, but also through the
manner in which they talk about creativity (Tanggaard, 2011, p. 220). A number
of creative teaching strategies have been reported by the practitioners in the literature, such as storytelling and personification (Irvin, 1996), ideational codeswitching (Beghetto, 2007), creative writing (Monis & Rodriques, 2012), artbased and problem-solving approaches (Tanggaard, 2011), multimedia
(Buckingham, 2013), technology (Lamb & Johnson, 2010), synergies (ConwayGomez et al., 2011), and group discussion and brainstorming (Bezrukov & Cherepanov, 2012).
Specifically, Jeffrey (2006) observed teachers who employed creative teaching
techniques, and he noted three things about those teachers: They were innovative,
they enjoyed the process, and they invested time in their discussions with students.
Bramwell et al. (2011) also found that creative teachers are hardworking, confident, flexible, nonconforming, intuitive, knowledgeable, and passionate about
their work. Bramwell et al. believed personal intelligence, creative motivation,
and personal values are important shaping factors of individuals creative teaching.
According to a synthesis of qualitative cases studies, Bramwell et al. (2011) further
concluded that the creative teaching process stems from the interplay between
personal characteristics and the professional and personal communities around
teachers, and these processes in turn contribute to a variety of products, which
reflect teachers values and communities. To some extent creative teachers share
many similar personality traits with eminent creators (Barron & Harrington, 1981;
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Batey & Furnham, 2006), but the biggest difference between them is that creative
teachers have a high level of interpersonal intelligence and relationships.
Rinkevich (2011) argued that creative teaching is not done on a whim, but
instead involves hard work (p. 222). As a result, she suggested that the promotion
of creative teaching should start with a teacher preservice education and then reinforce this concept by attending professional developing workshops for frontline
teachers. Beghetto (2007) recognized the constraints of curricula and time for
students to express their creativity in the classroom. In fact, he asserted that constraints are complementary to creativity. According to his interpretation, the definition of creativity implies the role of constraint as being guided creative expression in a proper context.
Creative teaching, therefore, is not a strategy. Nor is it a skill, a curriculum, an
attitude, or any other single process. It is an outcome of subsets of those and other
processes acting in concert to expand and stimulate students learning. Creative
teaching may even be better thought of as various efforts (motivation, approaches,
supports from all stakeholders) by which processes operate on deliberation of content to produce fruits that are meaningful and favorable to students.
Practical Guides for Creative Teaching
Horng et al. (2005) conducted a qualitative study where they interviewed three
award-wining Taiwanese teachers. These teachers used three main creative strategies to gain the momentum to accommodate the challenges in the classroom: student-centered activities, multiteaching aids, and effective class management.
Horng et al. also found that the most important factors that lead to these successful
creative instructions involve three elements: belief in education, dedication to
education, and intrinsic motivations. Because teachers cultivate positive attitudes
toward creativity, deliberate tactics, and friendly creative learning ethos, students
are instilled with more creative thinking and are supported for creativity development.
Rinkevich (2011) recommended several creative teaching strategies: (a) adding
surprise events in the daily routine of the classroom to provoke unorthodox thinking, (b) beginning a class with a fact of day to promote lifelong learning, (c) incorporating the environment to the learning space to encourage students to explore
the world around them, and (d) providing an autonomy learning opportunity to
develop students strengths and interests. Iowa State Universitys Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (n.d.), for example, listed a series of creative
teaching strategies in its website: brainstorming, concept mapping, role-play,
storyboarding, decision tree, brain-sketching, reversal, fishbone, and the like. In
addition, with the use of analogical models, Mayer (1989) found that these creative
teaching methods are conducive to fostering students creative problem-solving
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skills (for more details, see pp. 207-208). In sum, these creative teaching strategies
center on ideational skills and on the rational process to expand and combine ideas.
In a sense, the rational process involves two stages: a divergent stage and a convergent stage. The former concerns the quantity of ideas, the more the better. Thus,
forcing different irrelevant elements and ideas is an attempt to generate novel and
unexpected relationships among ideas, thereby seeking unique perspectives of
problems. The latter pertains to the quality of ideas. This evaluation stage leads to
making a better choice within all kinds of possibilities.
Many scholars have underscored the importance of recognizing the variety of
students learning preferences and then adapting appropriate teaching strategies to
fit this variance in order to create an optimal learning situation for most students in
classes (Heimlich & Norland, 2002; Sternberg, 1997). Indeed, As Pratt (2002)
noted, there is no correct teaching method might be called good teaching. This
statement could legitimatiz the demand of creative teaching because the essence of
creative teaching is to ask teachers themselves to be brave and explore all possibilities. If this assumption is valid, then it should be acknowledged that there is no one
correct way but that there are many possible ways to better lead students toward
their career paths.
Stocktaking
One of the major advantages of creative teaching is based on the possibility of leading students to see a different world by challenging them to go beyond the framework of the standardized test and go beyond the existing paradigm, thereby exploring new or alternative perspectives of ideas and solutions. Most importantly,
teachers need to be successful in teaching, especially when they are faced with
solving dilemmas and are constantly improvising to handle daily-based classroom
scenarios. As Tanggaard (2011) wrote, teachers need to be creative (p. 230) by
acting as creative and reflective practitioners (p. 230). However, it is not an easy
task. In fact, Simonton (2012) admitted that teaching creativity is a difficult goal
and it demands teaching creativity creatively! (p. 220).
Creative teaching is an art (Gibson, 2010; Joubert, 2001). There is no fail-safe
recipe for teaching, but proper teaching should be suited for proper contexts. Indeed, the notion of creative teaching portrays a different picture in the classroom.
Teachers are viewed as experts and are granted creative autonomy (Sawyer,
2004, p. 12). The proverb, All roads lead to Rome, can be applied to education
because there are many ways to teach and learn, which can all lead to direct to the
ultimate goal of successfully achieving ones educational goals. As an educator, it is
ones responsibility to stir students potential, and the use of creative teaching
could justify this intention. The attitudes and values of teachers possessing toward
creativity may not only increase their repertory of skills but also impact students
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creativity development and learning (Lucas, 2001). It is hoped that this article
inspires educators and instructors to consider creative teaching, at any level,
thereby leading their students to favorable positions in this knowledge economy.
After all, the ultimate goal of creative teaching is to help students create something
new using creative learning strategies and creative problem-solving skills.
Finally, five important aspects of creative teaching should be noted: First, it is
not an extra task, but, it is an essential capability for teachers ongoing development. Second, it is not limited to special subjects, such as the arts, but can be integrated into all subjects. Third, it requires deep commitment, concentration, risktaking, and personal transformation from teachers. Fourth, it allows students to
have a more meaningful academic journey. And fifth, creative teaching is not a safe
activity; it can potentially be a threat to classroom management because of disruption and question of status quo resulting from the forces of change and personal
reorganization.
Correspondence
Kuan Chen Tsai
6900 Vandiver RD J205
San Antonio, TX, 78209
USA
Tel.: ++1 210 717 9593
Email: ktsai@student.uiwtx.edu
Authors brief bio
Kuan Chen Tsai is a Ph.D. candidate in organizational leadership from University
of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, Texas. His major research interests relate to
creativity and adult learning. He can be reached at the above email.
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WHAT YOU DONT KNOW CAN HELP: THE ROLE

OF UNCERTAINTY IN CREATIVITY
Introduction
Certainty equals death for creative process: quests ended before they are begun,
imagination constrained, possibilities undermined. So why do we feel compelled
toward certainty when creativity is fueled by the uncertainty inherent in taking
risks and making mistakes? Explanations might include the structure of our ancestral brain (fear of the unknown), a psychological aversion to risk and loss (fear of
diminished status either materially or emotionally), and the bias toward right answers in our outcome-centric culture (fear of failure). Nevertheless, it is uncertainty that opens imaginal realms of emergent possibility. Akin to other complex
dynamic systems, creativity thrives on the informational disequilibrium that sparks
change and new development. This chapter explores the dynamics of creative
process, and proposes that uncertainty is a necessary condition for its generative
power to flourish. From this perspective, grounded in my own practice as an artist, various strategies are suggested for turning uncertainty to creative advantage-not just tolerating it, but cultivating uncertainty in order to enhance creative and
innovative potential. These non-methodical methods share the quality of deploying
attention in defocused, nonlinear and unexpected ways that facilitate creative
thinking across disciplines.
Uncertainty Anxiety
Knowing what doesn't work can be as useful as what does. But if people do
not perceive any "failure value" for projects that ultimately achieve no
commercial success, they'll become less and less likely to experiment [and]
explore. (Amabile, 1998, p.83)
From Pandora to Eve, to cats killed by curiosity, warnings are everywhere against
pushing beyond established limits. Such tales are compelling, in part, because they
reflect the evolutionary pedigree of fear. In the primitive brain, fear circuitry was
laid down first because survival depended less on reasoning than responding in140
14
DIANE ROSEN
stantly to perceived threats, including anything unfamiliar or ambiguous. Occasionally, this uncertain state gave rise to surprising spontaneous moves-- evasive,
less predictable flight patterns, for example-- perhaps the positive expression of a
primal impulse toward inventive/creative behavior.
Uncertainty-tolerance diminished as reason ascended to dominance. Although
many people claim to value creativity, they are fundamentally uncomfortable with
novel ideas and generally prefer what is familiar (Sternberg, 1997). Since originality by definition deviates from norms, the more original an idea is the greater the
potential for discomfort: fear of the unknown stalls creative tasks; fear of losing
status materially or emotionally stifles risk-taking; fear of making mistakes undermines authentic process.
The desire to minimize such anxieties in the workplace, studies reveal, can lead
to rejecting creative solutions even when they are the stated goal (Mueller et al.,
2012), particularly in corporate environments where success is often equated with
consensus, control, and predictability. Creative problem-solving however, inevitably involves conflict, risk and unpredictability. In fact it is precisely uncertainty,
the feeling of unsure footing in unfamiliar terrain, which mobilizes the imagination.
Just as a desire for security and certainty pulls us toward stability, an equally
strong attraction to exploration and novelty pulls us toward instability. In border
regions between the two, at the edge of chaos, the known and the unexpected
collide and generate new ideas. In this regard, creativity may be seen as a paradoxical unity of order and disorder, balance and disequilibrium, chance and design; in
short, an interactive chaotic system.
Uncertainty, Chaos, Creativity
Chaotic systems are open, evolving Each carries a far-from-equilibrium
energizing potential promising new organization, complexity, change, and
a chance for creativity (Richards, 2001, p.86).
The view that disorder and aperiodicity could be a source of order and complexity
in the natural world verged on mystical, until chaos theory revealed how these
qualities give rise to many of lifes rich, coherent variations (Gleick, 1987, p.300).
In chaotic dynamics, disorder triggers reorganization of information in non-obvious
ways. Thus the uncertainty entailed in conditions of chaos animates creative process, actually enabling the emergence of creative ideas and new work. Key themes
of this conceptual synergy between creativity and chaos are briefly summarized
below, using a 5P framework that I have updated from the original 4P model
(PERSON, PROCESS, PRESS, PRODUCT) by including PARTICIPANT-VIEWER, those
outside observers whose very act of observation brings about variations in meaning
141
that uniquely alter the creative PRODUCT:

Like many aspects of life, creativity exhibits sensitive dependence on initial
conditions, i.e. the PRESS of environment. Small perturbations can encourage or
hinder us (PERSON), resulting in widely divergent and unpredictable yet constrained outcomes. Where familiar connections and prior knowledge are destabilized, creative ideation can advance unimpeded by the demands of logic. Throughout the PROCESS, nonlinear trajectories of thought unconsciously tend toward regions of nascent linkages and ideas, freely exploiting aleatoric elements. Within
this liminal space of bounded instability, chance and intentionality co-determine
unforeseen results. Creative PRODUCTS emerge over time from an autopoietic
dialogue, transcending inert artifacts honed in a linear way as new developments
arise from feedback and self-organization: evolving idea/product responds to artist,
artist to evolving product. A cumulative portrait of trajectories and iterations,
the finished state settles in two strange attractors that reflect intuitively suitable recombinations: the fundamental pleasures of novelty and fitness. Meaning and
value, not necessarily inherent in the work, are formed reciprocally between a
PARTICIPANT/ VIEWER and PRODUCT.
For purposes of our larger discussion, the creativity-chaos analogy bears fruit
insofar as it suggests that uncertainty galvanizes the creative process, making it an
essential condition for all forms of creativity.
Uncertainty Advantage
If habit is the great deadener, then uncertainty is the great enlivener
(Dilks, 2008).
A generalized urge toward exploration is contained in all mammalian brains, part
of our evolutionary legacy that neuroscience identifies as a primal cognitiveemotive SEEKING/ Expectancy circuit (Panksepp, 2005, upper case in original).
This neurodynamic system, really a combination of emotions including curiosity,
expectancy and interest, seems to generate a psychological state of invigorated
and generalized engagement with the world at large (pp.48-9) not unlike the optimal creative state known as flow. Evidence further indicates that SEEKING may be
its own reward, more associated with process (anticipatory desire) than product
(consummatory reward), suggesting that the ancestral urge to explore and investigate was not damped but driven by uncertainty. In a similar vein, studies by
Zenasni, Besanon and Lubart (2008) show a significant and positive correlation
between creativity and tolerance of ambiguity. They conclude that the ability to
accept anxiety provoked by new situations empowers intrinsically motivated exploration of novel, unusual or complex stimuli (p.62). Here, art and science overlap.
142
14
DIANE ROSEN
Most artists experience chance, ambiguity and uncertainty as leverage for their
creative process. For example, consider this description by Stravinsky:
An accident is perhaps the only thing that really inspires us. A composer improvises aimlessly the way an animal grubs about, yielding to
a compulsion to seek things out So we grub about in expectation of
our pleasure. Suddenly we stumble against an unknown obstacle. It
gives us a jolt, and this shock fecundates our creative power (2003,
pp.55-6).
Creative process, though rooted in subject-knowledge, requires periods of
aimless internal wandering. Supporting this concept, Smallwood and Schooler
state that mind wandering may be the source of sudden aha moments, insights
seemingly appearing out of the blue, because it shares important similarities with
incubation processes related to creativity(2006, p.956). Defined as a shift or drift
of attention away from a primary task toward internal information, mind wandering addresses more remote goals that have eluded solving. Mason et al. conclude
that such wandering from current goals may also be functionally significant because
SIT [stimulus-independent thought], as a kind of spontaneous mental time travel,
lends a sense of coherence to ones past, present and future experiences(2007).
Liberated and adrift in this turbulent phase space of what was, is, and could be, the
imagination weaves new realities from the tension of opposites. A wandering mind
is nowhere and everywhere, has a goal yet strays, has no single way and therefore
access by all ways to emergent ideas.
Many ancient teachings endorse such wandering as a path that complements
reason. The legendary Zen koan-- What is the sound of a single hand?-- uses paradox
to demonstrate inadequacies of logical reasoning and provoke enlightenment in
other ways. After all, the sound of a single hand cannot be heard with the ear.
Quite apart from seeing, hearing, perceiving and knowing, [insight is attained]
where reason is exhausted and words are ended (Seo, 2010, p.7). Foreshadowing
the neuroscience, this eighteenth century teaching riddle ascribes to the unfettered
mind the means to intuitively store, access and transform raw knowledge into new
understandings that often arise from the paradox of balanced antinomies.
Contemporary scholars concur that imagining in paradox spurs creative leaps.
In his seminal research on eminent creativity in the arts and sciences, Rothenberg
proposed that the capacity to actively conceive of two or more coexisting opposites or antitheses, what he termed Janusian process, is the foundation of all creative thinking (1979, p.138). Janus, the two-faced Roman god of doorways, beginnings/endings and transitions after whom the process is named, perfectly embodies the ambiguous nature of creativity. Always looking simultaneously forward and
back, he reminds us that beyond the limiting dichotomy of either/or there exists
143
a far more expansive both/and perspective, one that engages paradox to transcend linear thinking.
Paradox, because it ruptures habitual associations and facilitates exploration of
fresh, unlikely connections, is an ongoing focus of creativity research. A 2011
study by Miron-Spektor et al., examined how paradox drives creativity in organizational behavior. They demonstrated that paradoxical framesmental templates individuals use to embrace seemingly contradictory, non-rational statements or tasksimplicitly activate a sense of conflict that stimulates complex
integrative thinking, and enhances creative/divergent thinking (p.238).
Similar results were attained in research comparing two investment banks with
different uncertainty-management styles: the organization that amplified employees uncertainty fared better than the one attempting to reduce it (Michel 2009).
These seemingly counterintuitive findings suggest that an atmosphere of increased
uncertainty minimizes reliance on routine, thereby promoting effective problemsolving in complex, rapidly changing circumstances. Additionally, the study indicates that people are generally more successful at certain complex tasks when they
know less, i.e. venture beyond their expertise; that switching roles stimulates
flexible, multi-dimensional thinking; and that incorporating contradiction in problem-solving leads to more creative solutions.
Not surprisingly, a recent survey of CEOs by IBMs Institute for Business Value
reported creativity as the most valued corporate leadership competency (Kern,
2010). Moreover, creative disruption was seen as vital for enterprises wanting to
foster more innovative leaders: disrupting the status quo, disrupting existing business models, disrupting the emphasis on stability that can paralyze decisionmaking.
In academia as well, there is growing interest in pedagogy that proceeds at least
in part by indirection, unpredictability and not-knowing (Irving 2001, Dilks
2008). Recognizing the power of uncertainty to stimulate creative cognition, educators have begun to include non-methodical methods that destabilize standardized
information and dislodge pre-conceived ideas, encouraging exploration of those
experiences that set us off-balance. Even the staid discipline of engineering acknowledges that, along with technical skill, students must be able to see the familiar as strange, and the strange as familiar on a regular basis, without rushing to a
single correct solution (Stouffer et al., 2004).
Cultivating Uncertainty
At once it struck me, what quality forms a Man of Achievement--- NEGATIVE CAPABILITY, when man is capable of being in Uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact and reason. John
Keats (in a letter, 1817)
144
14
DIANE ROSEN
Domain-knowledge supplies necessary raw material but is not sufficient for creativity, which depends heavily on heuristics or the way knowledge is combined. If
creativity is about surprise, not predictability, and is fueled by its very indeterminacy, how might we develop those conditions that allow creative capacities to flourish? The following interactive approaches use uncertainty to increase creative potential:
1. REFOCUS ON PROCESS. Approach creativity as a fluid, open process instead
of a fixed quantity of innate talent. Visualize process not results, exploration of
new paths not exploitation of past success.
Transcending context. Think trial and error, make informed

guesses; build on unforeseen turns, learn from/use mistakes.
Chance/ accidents. In the arts and sciences alike, one heuristic can
breach the barrier [of the simply unthinkable]: chance, which by
definition is indifferent and beyond taste, habit and value. Harnessing
chance as part of the creative process can therefore vastly enhance the
probability for [something] truly original (Prager, 2012).
Wandering. To reignite stale thinking, turn to other interests unrelated to a current problem, allowing solutions to incubate and surface
later.
Playing with perspective, content, context, forming analogies, generates abundant alternatives (divergent thinking); logical (convergent)
thinking subsequently tests and refines.
2. HEIGHTEN UNCERTAINTY: MAKE THE FAMILIAR STRANGE.
Multiple perspectives. Incite imagination by disrupting what is

expected, exploring unexpected points of view. Modify, reverse,
rearrange, recombine, re-contextualize information; experiment;
intensify ambiguity with mysteries, puzzles. Challenge traditional
thinking, e.g. Could this not be true?
Conditionality. The world is everywhere in flux, defying notions

of unconditional truth. Using probability statements encourages
creativity by leaving information uncertain, therefore more available
as creative fuel when contexts change. Langers study of creative
uncertainty and probability statements presented an unfamiliarlooking piece of clean rubber to subject Group 1 as fact: This is a
dogs chew toy. Group 2 heard a conditional formulation: This
could be a dogs chew toy. When told they urgently needed to correct forms previously completed in pencil, only subjects introduced
145
conditionally to the rubber object thought of using it in the nonobvious way as an eraser (1989, p.120). Merely shifting from absolute statements to conditional mode led to more flexible thinking.
Counterfactuals ask what-if, shatter fixed mindsets, upend obvious scenarios, disrupt conventional understandings and branch into
new ones. Imagine extreme impossibilities then identify conditions in
which they might be realized.
Paradox. As described above, oppositional pairings liberate the
imagination, spark insight. A classic example is Einsteins development of relativity theory from the contradictory formulation of being
in motion and at rest at the same time.
Non-sense. Surreal juxtapositions of apparently unrelated elements,
e.g. images (Ernst, Magritte, Dali) or narratives (Kafka, Beckett),
violate logical expectations, subvert familiar associations, and prime
us for seeing novel, nonlinear connections. Use improbabilities; frame
open-ended, provocative questions; structure tasks only enough to
give directional clues.
Role-play in varied, decentralized, even opposite responsibility
fields brings fresh eyes to existing problems, promotes multiplicity,
flexibility, originality, encourages experts to leave their information
silos and see things in new ways.
3. REFRAME UNCERTAINTY. Cognitive reappraisal/reframing alters context

or message around fear-inducing stimuli to modify emotional response. Since
uncertainty-avoidance is not an option for creativity, practice resetting the
narrative from Creative Uncertainty = anxiety/judgment/risk/loss = BAD, to Creative
Uncertainty = advantage/exploration/inspiration/opportunity = GOOD.
Conclusion
Uncertainty enables us to learn from contexts of ambiguity and turn unpredictability to creative advantage. Without the frisson of uncertainty, there is no creativity.
By non-methodical methods of chance, play and risk, through questions, contradictions and approximations, we wander, disrupt, deconstruct, and reconstruct
countless fragments of memory, imagination, reason and emotion. In this errant
process and its infinite emergent possibilities, creativity mirrors ambiguities of the
human condition itself.
Uncertainty, then, is a vital transition state, a portal and porous space that privileges creativity. Like Janus double gaze, a doorway forever leading both inward
and outward, creativity has no wrong side and no single right side. Yielding en146
14
DIANE ROSEN
tirely to the pull of instability/uncertainty may fail, of course, because novelty for
its own sake ignores usefulness. But yielding too soon to the pull of stability/
certainty will always fail creatively because habit stifles innovation. Heuristics that
engage with ambiguity, multiplicity and change equip us to see, and make, the
world anew. Whether corporate or personal, academic, scientific or artistic, this
open-ended stance draws freely on mutually informing, information-rich spectra in
any domain. Choosing to live the questions and embrace uncertainty deepens our
creative capacities as seekers, imaginers, and innovators. For creativity, the only certainty is uncertainty.
Correspondence
Adjunct Instructor
RCC State University of NY, USA
Tel.: Studio 001 845 358 8008
Email: curiositymatrix@gmail.com
www.rosenart.net
Authors brief bio

Diane Rosen, an artist, writer and educator, has an MA in English Education from
Teachers College Columbia University, and studied painting at New Yorks Art
Students League as well as lcole des Beaux Arts in Paris as the recipient of a
French Government Fellowship. An elected Master Pastelist of the Pastel Society
of America Rosen widely exhibits her award-winning artwork, which has been the
subject of articles in such journals as American Artist, The Pastel Journal and Pure Color:
The Best of Pastel. Her research interests center on creativity across disciplines, a
universal capacity for generating fresh perspectives from collisions between the
known and the unpredictable. She has taught Studio Art and English at both secondary and University levels, and in 2007 was awarded the Walter Sindlinger prize
for Excellent Writing in the Field of Education by Columbia University Teachers College. Her recent publications include: Bringing Inquiry In: A Curriculum Guide, SPI
Teachers College Columbia University 2010; The Curiosity Habit chapter in
Perspectives on Creativity2e3h of Educai984 114 437.64 613.63 reW* nBT/F13 10.08 Tf1 0 0 1 34.07 283.99 Tm0 g66G[(Pe)5(r)-4
147
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Michel, A. and Wortham, S., 2009. Bullish on Uncertainty: How Organizational Cultures Transform Participants. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Schuldberg, D., 1999. Chaos Theory and Creativity, pp.259-272. In M. Runco &
S. Pritzker, eds., Encyclopedia of Creativity Vol. I, San Diego: Academic Press.
Seo, A.Y. and Addiss, S., 2010. The Sound of One Hand: Paintings and Calligraphy by
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Sternberg R.J., O'Hara L.A., and Lubart T.I., 1997. Creativity as Investment.
California Management Review, 40(1), pp.8-21.
Stouffer, W.B., Russell, J.S., Oliva, M.G., 2004. Making The Strange Familiar:
Creativity and the Future of Engineering Education. American Society for Engineering
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149
NOTES
150
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Creativity:

Process, Product, Personality,

KIE Conference Book Series

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE, RIGA, LATVIA, 22

Knowledge, Innovation and Enterprise

Creativity: Process, Product,

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

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2013 KIE Conference Books:

2013 International Conference on Knowledge, Innovation & Enterprise

Creativity: Process, Product,

KIE Conference Books

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

Strengthening the links in the knowledge, Creativity, Innovation

The Organising Team of the International Conference on Knowledge, Innovation

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO CREATIVITY: PROCESS,

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

of synthesizing music and art to enhance creative expression. Chimae Cupschalk

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

fluency, flexibility, originality,

Convergent or Critical Thinking

analyzing, synthesizing, reorganizing or redefining, evaluating,

Table 2a: Creativity Theorists and Their View of Creativity

Involves an interaction of three components:

The creative attitude requires the capacity

One who regularly solves problems, fashions

creative thinking are closely related in that

novel outcome" (Guilford, 1977, p. 161).

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

Table 2b: Creativity Theorists and Their View of Creativity

The co-developer (with E. P. Torrance) of

Emphasized that creative responses must be

Table 2c: Creativity Theorists and Their View of Creativity

Donald J. Treffinger, Scott G. Isaksen

Arguably the person whose work is most

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

Table 3: Assessing Creativity Data Sources

Behavior or performance data

Creative products, performances, or accomplishments from real-life creativity or

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

BF Goodrich (NYSE: GR)aerospace and defense

Chief Creative Officers

Ford Motor Company (NYSE: F)auto manufacturers

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

Gifted and Talented, University of Connecticut.

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

KIE 2013 Conference. http://skcie.org.uk/index.html

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

Stein, M. I. (1974). Stimulating creativity: Volume 1, Individual procedures. New

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

Treffinger, D. J. (1996). Creativity, creative thinking, and critical thinking: In search of

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

DESIGNING ELEGANT PROBLEMS FOR CREATIVE

Research on Nobel Laureates in science provides another example:

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

The element of VALUE or WORTHINESS is key to distinguishing an

CREATIVITY: PRODUCT, PROCESS, PERSONALITY, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY