Ecosystem

- Set of relationships between all the organisms and non living factors in a
particular area.
Forest Ecosystem
Trees, animals, micro-organisms, as well as water rocks, air and soil
Biome
- An area with a distinctive climate and vegetation.
(Tropical rainforest or arctic tundra)
- Contain different ecosystems.
- Usually cover a large area, spanning several countries.
Trophic Level
A position in a food chain or Ecological Pyramid occupied by a group of
organisms with similar feeding mode.
A stage in the food chain
Food Chain
Shows that way energy is transferred from a producer to a consumer.
Food Web
Show multiple food chains
demonstrate different energy flows through an ecosystem
Energy within a food chain.
As you go up the trophic levels in a food chain, the amount of energy at each
level is lost.
1) Less than 50% of sunlight is actually used in photosynthesis, some falls onto
areas where there are no leaves (trunk) and plants can only use certain
wavelengths for photosynthesis.
2) Only about 10% of energy stored by the autotroph is passed to the herbivores.
And 10% from the herbivores is passed on the carnivores.
- Not the entire organism is eaten (fur) and not all of what is eaten is used for
energy.
- Some energy is lost as waste.
- Consumers use some of the energy for movement and body heat-so it's not
passed on.
Nutrients within a food chain
1) Plants take carbon dioxide from the air and nutrients from the soil (nitrogen)
They use this to create plant material.
2) These nutrients get passed along the food chain through feeding.
3) When plants die, they decompose (by decomposers). Nutrients (nitrogen) are

returned to the soil.

4) Plants animals and decomposers all release carbon dioxide back into the air
through respiration.

Primary Succession
- Happens on land that has been newly formed or exposed. (E.g./volcanic
eruption)
1)Abiotic conditions are harsh, no soil to retail water. Seeds and spores are blown
in on the wind.
2) Pioneer species colonise (first sere) Specialised to grow in harsh conditions.
3) As the pioneer species die and decompose they change the abiotic conditions.
-forming basic soil.
4) New organisms can now grow, due to the less hostile environment. As these
die and decompose, the soil gets deeper and more nutrient rich.
5) Larger plants like shrubs can grow in the deeper soil, which retains even more
water.
Secondary succession
Happens on land that has been cleared of all plants, but soil remains (e.g./after a
forest fire)
-succession starts from a later sere, as the soil is already there.
-the pioneer species are larger plants, like shrubs.
Bare rock to woodland (Lithosere succession)
1) Pioneer species, (e.g. lichens) colonise the rocks-they can live with very little
water.
- Lichens break down the rock which releases minerals.
- The surface becomes uneven, helps to retain water.
2) As the rocks get more damp, mosses being to grow and weather the rock.
- Lichens and mosses die, forming soil.
3) As the soil deepens larger plants that need more water move in. (grasses,
ferns, herbs, flowering plants)
- The soil gets deeper as these larger plants decompose, forming humus.
4) Shrubs, ferns, small trees (rowan, birch) begin to grow.
- Outcompete the smaller plants, and become the dominant species.
5) The soil is need and rich enough to support large trees like Oak and Ash.
- These become the dominant species.
- Climax community is formed.
Fresh water (lake) to woodland (hydrosere example)
1) Algae and duckweed (pioneers) colonise the water surface.
- They die and sink to the bottom where they accumulate with other sediment.
2) The water gets shallower as sediments and decomposing plant material
accumulate.
- Aquatic plants move in. (elodea and starwort) plants are rooted to the lake bed
which trap more sediment.
3) Water becomes shallow, swamp and marsh plants move in (reeds, rushes)
- Generate a lot of leaf litter, forms a wet soil.
4) Larger plants (fern) and tree seedling (willow, alder) move in.

- Decrease soil moisture. Soil is no longer water logged.

5) The soil deepens and becomes drier as large plants die and decompose.
- This provides suitable condition for (oak and beech) large climax tree species
which become more dominant.

Climatic Climax
-the ecosystem is supporting the largest and most complex community it can.
-biotic and abiotic factors are in balance.
-it wont change unless the abiotic conditions do.
Plagio Climax
-Human activities stop succession or redirect it to a different climax.
1) Deforestation>get wood for timber/fuel/make space>Nutrients removed from
soil>Hardy plants (shrubs) grow
2) Animal grazing>Small plants/sapling eaten before they get a chance to
grow.>Fast growing plants (dandelions) and grasses. Few shrubs/trees
3) Clearance by fire> all plants destroyed>fast growing plants whose roots aren't
damaged by fire (heather)
4) Forestation>One species is planted and monitored (monoculture) >planted
pine forest
Ecological Niche
An organism's role in the ecosystem
- Its habitat, its food and its predators.
1) Plants growing in the cracks of wasteland and in gardens. Eaten by insects,
mammals and birds.
2) Woodlice living under paving stones. Eating dead plant material and being
eaten my mammals and birds.
3) Herring Gulls, living by dumps, feeding on human waste.
Urban sprawl
1) New developments destroy ecosystems (Taylor Wimpey/Hayes green irlam)
2) New developments can split up habitats from feeding areas in an ecosystem.
3) Air and water pollution, damages ecosystems.
- Water pollution reduces biodiversity, reduces food for birds.
4) People visiting rural/urban fringe disrupt wildlife
- Starting fires
- Vandalism
- Destroying wildlife (picking flowers)
- Dropping litter
- Fly tipping

North Yorkshire Moors: Heather moorland, Creation

- Used to be an oak forest.
- Up to about 5000 years ago people used it for food. People began to clear areas
to grow crops.
- 4000-2000 years ago, the remaining woodland was cleared.>reduced soil
quality>people moved on.
- Few plants were able to grow. Heather is a hardy shrub, flourished with little
competition
- 1000 years ago>sheep grazing>prevents other sapling from growing>reduced
competition.
North Yorkshire Moors: Heather Moorland maintained.
- National park. Careful maintained for economic/environmental reasons.
- Important habitat for rare plants(sundew, common spotted orchid) and birds
(Merlin, golden plover)
- Also used for sheep grazing and grouse shooting
- Without management would return to temperate deciduous forest.
- Moorland plants/animals would lose their habitat or leave.
- Controlled burning is the primary management technique. Sections are burned
in an 8-15 year rotation.
- Burning keeps the heather fresh with is best for sheep and grass and removes
less fire resistant plants.

Wasteland succession (Victoria Mill)

1) Mosses lichen grown on bare rock/rubble. Concrete.
- Extract nutrients from the bare mineral.
- Photosynthesise for energy
- Form a thin soil.
2) Flowering plants such as oxford ragwort move in.
- Germinate in cracks in the rock.
- Die and decompose producing humus, rich in nutrients.
3) Bigger, taller plants grow in the soil (Rosebay willow herb)
- Grass also grows at this sere
- Area becomes a weedy grassland, with plants like Japanese knotweed.
4) As soil thickens weeds and grass are replaced by shrubs and trees (sycamore,
rowan)
- Brambles that put roots deep into the soil also thrive.

Urban Gardens & Parks

-

Large variety of plants (grass, flowers, shrubs, trees)

lots of invertebrates (slugs, insects, bees)
Birds feed on invertebrates, and nest in trees and shrubs.
In garden ponds, aquatic insects, fish, and amphibians.
Mammals, live in or visit. (Squirrels, hedgehogs)

Sports Fields
- Dominated by grass. (Also daisies and dandelions)
- Invertebrates live of the plants (Insects, spiders, worms, butterflies)
- Birds visit to feed on seeds and insects.
Roads
-

Cars carry seeds to verges, exhaust fumes are rich in nitrogen>boosts growth.
Mowing reduced biodiversity.
Planting trees to reduce noise, increases biodiversity.
Supports invertebrates (insects and butterflies)
Birds nest in vegetation
Birds of prey hunt. (Kestrel)
Carrion birds (crows) Scavenge.
Verges used for animals to ravel and feed. (Wildlife corridor)

Railways
- Many different plants (oxford Ragwort, Clover)
- Patches of wetland plants (Rushes)grow (railway beds drain water from the
tracks)
- Hardy shrubs (gorse, Hawthorn, Brambles) Grow back quickly after getting cut
back.
- Wide variety of plants supports lots of different invertebrates.
- Food for birds
- Lots of mammals (mice, badgers, Hedgehogs) Fenced off, so rarely disturbed.

Introduced species
Exotic/ non native species.
1) UK deliberately introduced
- Middle Eastern wheat as a food crop 5000 years ago.
- American Mink for fur farming in 1920's
- Rainbow trout and Canadian geese
- Douglas fir, as a timber crop
- Japanese Knotweed psyllid to help remove knotweed problem.
- Grey squirrels as a curiosity (lead to less red squirrels)
2) UK Unplanned
- Oxford ragwort spread from being an ornamental garden plant.
- Escaped animals. Ring necked parakeets in Windsor and the south east
- Harlequin lady bird on African flowers.
Negative impact of introduced species
-

Out-compete natives. (Grey squirrels)

Native plants are damages. (Grey squirrels debark trees)
Canada geese ruin crops
Oxford ragwort is toxic to live stock
American mink eat native voles and birds
Grey squirrels carry fatal squirrel pox to reds

Mersey Forest (Ecological Conservation Area)

- Ecological Conservation Area
- Network of woodlands and green spaces in Cheshire and Merseyside.
- Managed by public, private and volunteer organisations. (7 local authorities, the
forest commission, community groups, companies)
- Includes habitats for a range of species. (Oak and pine woodland, grassland,
coastal salt marshes, coastal mudflats, rivers)
- People can enjoy it.
- Protects the local ecosystem.
- Preserving biodiversity.
- Brings money to the local area.
- The bluebell recovery programme. Stop the Spanish bluebell out competing
native ones.
- Green streets programme, community groups planting trees-brings
communities together.
Environmental benefits of the Mersey Forest
-

Protects woodland
Plants trees for habitats
800 hectares of non-woodland habitats
Reduction in air pollution (and water)
Reduces soil erosion and degradation
Wildlife Corridors are created.

Social Benefits of the Mersey forest

- 60% of the 1.5 million residents use the woodlands for recreation.
- Improving health.
- Environmental education.
Economic benefits of the Mersey forest
-

Boosted economy
House prices increased in St Helens by a total of 15million
Sustainable forestry has introduced 150 new jobs since 1994
Increase in tourism, recreation, and leisure bring money to the area.

Biodiversity importance
The variety of organisms living in a certain area
- Range of species helps to maintain ecosystem (insects pollinate plants, food for
mammals and birds) If one species dies whole ecosystem is affected.
- Helps ecosystems to adapt to changing physical conditions. (Climate change
may cause all species in a low biodiversity ecosystem to die, whereas if there is a
lot of biodiversity more chance of adaptation and survival)
- Creates feedback loops that in turn encourage biodiversity.
>increased soil fertility
>more plants grow
>more plants die
>decompose into soil
Fragile Environments
Ecosystems that are easily disturbed and can't adapt to change. Easily damaged
by human activities and changes in the natural environment
1)Coral reefs are sensitive to changes in water (temp/qual) They only grown in
salt water between 21-29 degrees c, if the temperature increases the reef is
bleached (as the coral cant provide enough nutrients for the algae living in it.
they get forced out, without them the coral doesn't get enough oxygen or
nutrients and so dies)
2)Polar environments
-Small increases can melt vast areas of ice, polar bears need the ice to hunt
seals. Without it they will die.
3)coastal wetlands
-sensitive to changes in sea level and sedimentation
-Changes destroy habitats and kill wildlife.

Managing fragile environment difficulties

Striking a balance between conservation and exploitation.
1) amazon crosses through nine countries- no management strategy for the
whole area. eg/ in brazil hardwood logging is illegal, but is still legal in many
other countries.
2)People lack the money and expertise to manage them properly as they are in
less developed countries. (Gabon/DRC)
3)Economies are dependent on resources from fragile environments. eg/bauxite
is the main export in suriname.
4)Less educated people don't see the need to conserve.
5)Introduction of non natives for food.
-Arizona, Tamarisk was introduced as a windbreak, it outcompetes native plants
and is a threat to the desert ecosystem.

Poaching in the serenghetti

1)1970-80s poaching of black rhinos for ivory and rhino horn let to only 2 being
left in the serengeti. More being introduced and bred in captivity
2) 1989 international ivory trade ban has helped reduce elephant poaching, but
it's still a big problem

Increasing population in the serengeti

1)Land conflicts
-land needed for grazing
-for settlements
-for growing crops
2)Natural habitats lost as a result of colonisation
3)Increased hunting.

Invasive species serengeti

1)mexican poppy outcompetes native plants making farming hard.
2)Canine distemper virus spread from domesticated dogs and killed 1/3 of lions.

Management serengeti
1)Monitoring the ecosystem, aerial wildlife surveys
-monitoring invasive species.
2)Disease monitoring and vaccinations. (domestic dogs vaccinated against
rabies and cbv)
-in1996 rinderpest was succesfully stopped from an outbreak
3)Controlled burning, to prevent wildfires
4)Conservation education projects in primary schools
5)Wildlife Management areas (WMA) community based conservation approach.
Communities work together to manage the wildlife, in return they are allowed to
use resources (sustainably)
-provide local peole with an income
-reduce illegal poaching (still a problem out side wma, 40,00 animals are killed
each year for food and others)
-elephant population increasing from 500 in 1990 to 2100 in to 2011
6)Tourism brings money.
-which goes back to pay for further conservation projects
-HOWEVER roads disrupt wildlife, airplanes and vehicles cause pollution,
problems of waste disposal attracting pests. Increased demand for water, can
lead to water shortages.

Threats to the amazon

1)Deforestation.
-13% of the original forest has been cleared
-cattle ranching responsible for 60% of deforestation between 2000-2005
-causes soil erosion, fires and loss of biodiversity.
2)Overexploitation.
-population growth leads to an increase in subsistence fishing and hunting
-2.2-5.4 million primates are eaten each year, slow to reproduce and many are
endangered.

Central Amazon Conservation Complex

established 2003 from 4 existing reserves
1)5 zones (total protection, buffer, sustainable use, rehabilitation, experimental
use)
-only researchers and authorised visitors are allowed in Jau national park
-quotas to limit hunting, fishing, logging
2) 2 SDRs (sustainable development reserves) where hunting and fishing is only
allowed for subsistence.
3)economic alternatives programmes have been set up
-gives local people an income for handicrafts, sustainable agriculture, tourism.
4)Education projects
5)Increase community involvement
-in mamiraua 60 communities take part in monitoring wildlife.

Success of sustainable development in the Amazon

1) CACC has protected the area from development
-no dams, pipelines, mines, or commercial logging
2)SDR's improve biodiversity
-black caiman population has increased by 100%
-pirarucu fish by 300%
3)Economic alternative programmes reduced poverty
-average household income increasing by 50-99%
-producers belong to Producer's association so they can sell what they make/
forest
4)Ecotourism brings money
-Mamiraua eco tourism lodge has been built. recycles waste and uses solar
power
5)Education and health improvements
-53% drop in infant mortality
-1800 children have had conservation classes

Difficulties in the amazon

1)Large understaffed reserves.

-150 employees and 100 volunteer guards, more are needed.
2)large area, makes it hard to maintain areas of total protection.
-only 4 permanent guards in Jau National Park, fishing and turtle poaching is a
problem
3)Population growth, stress on the ecosystem
-intensive hunting of manatees and monkeys
4)Deforestation at the edge of the CACC continues,
-fragmentation, animals can't get between areas.
-makes the complex more accessible to illegal activities.