Figue $
Given a complex number : =e, you should have done Exercise 6
of the preceding section, of at lesst thought about it. For future rele
tence, we now give the answer explicitly. We want to describe all com-
plex umbers such that w" = 2. Write
Then
weaver, Ost
If’ =, then "=r, and there is @ unique real number 1 0 such that
tr, On the other hand, we must also have
which is equivalent with
ing = 10+ 2,
where k i some integer. Thus we can solve for @ and get
0 2k
The numbers
manera, k=O, 6 ‘COMPLEX NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS a8)
fare all distinct, and are drawn on Fig. 6 These numbers , may be
‘described pitorally as those points on the citcle which are the vertices
‘of a regular polygon with m sides inscribed in the unit circle, with one
vertex being atthe point
% thom
Figue 6
ach complex number
is called 8 root of un
power is 1, namely
‘One of the major results of the theory of complex variables is to
reduce the study of exrtain functions, including most of the common
functions you ean think of like exponentials, logs, sine, cosine) to power
series, which can be approximated by polynomials. Thus the power func-
tion is in some sense the unique basic function out of which the others
fare constructed. For this reason it was essential to get @ good intuition
‘of the power function. We postpone discussing the geometric aspects
of the other functions to Chapters VIT and VII, except for some simple $4] LIMITS AND COMPACT sets "7
|, §3. EXERCISES
1. Let fc) fe. Descibe what f docs to the inside and outside of the unit
irl, and also what st does to points on the unit ce. This map scaled
Inversion through the nit cee
Describe fin the same manner asin Exercise 1. This map is
called reflection through the wnt cle
=<", Describe the image under f of the set shaded in Fig. 7,
ng those pointe x + iy with fax 4 andy > B,
“iy such that 1 and OS yom
+ iy such that 0S y 3 (no condition on xb
|, §4. LIMITS AND COMPACT SETS
Let a be 2 complex number, By the open dise of radius r > 0 centered
at 2 we mean the set of complex numbers such that
Fer the dd dis we we te condone ingen. We stat
Si eh epee tes ev pet hs spa
Sip ote i, deed by De Te ca ae dene by
a
mi U be a subset of the complex plane. We say that U is open if for
coy it tim thee a oes Den) cel tana one
fate’ wh tat thr die Dia) cna We hve
ised on open nF 18 ‘COMPLEX NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS os
®
Figures
[Note that the radius r of the dise depends on the point «As « comes
closer to the boundary of U, the radius ofthe disc wil be smaller.
Examples of Open Sets, The fst quadtant, consisting ofall numbers
“fy with x0 and y > 0 is open, and drawn on Fig. (2)
Figure 9
(On the other hand, the set consisting of the first quadrant and the
vertical ané horizontal axes as on Fig. 9(6) isnot open.
"The upper half plane by definition isthe set of complex numbers
pexsiy
with y > 0, Iti an open set.
Let $ be a subset of the plane. A boundary point of S is @ point &
such that every dise D(a,r) centered at a and of radius r > 0 contains
both points of $ and points notin S. In the closed first quadrant of Fig.
9(0), the points on the x-axis with x 2 0 and on the y-axis with y 2 0 are
‘boundary points ofthe quedrant
‘A point a is said to be adherent (0 $ if every dise D(a.) with r>0
contains some clement of S. A point « is said to be an interior point of S
if there exists a disc D(e,r) which is contained in S. Thus an adherent
point can be a boundary point or an interior point ofS. A set is called 98) Lists AND CoMPACT sets 9
closed if t contains al its boundary points. The complement of a closed
set.is then open.
The closure of a set S is defined to be the union of $ and all is
boundary points. We denote the closure by 5.
A set Sis said (0 be bounded if there exists a number C > 0 such that
KSC forallzins.
For instance, the set in Fig. 10 is bounded. The fist quadrant is not
bounded
Figure 10
‘The upper half plane is not bounded. The condition for boundedness
means that the set is contained in the closed disc of radius C, as shown
on Fig. 10,
Let f be a function on S, and let « be an adherent point of S. Let
w be a complex number. We say that
w= tim fl)
it the following condition is satisfied. Given € > 0 there exists 5 > 0 such
that f2@ and [z~ al <4, then
Ve) ~ wl <«
‘We usually omit the symbols 2 S under the limit sign, and write merely
tim fe)
In some applications we $ and in some applications, a S. 2» ‘COMPLEX NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS iro)
Let eS. We say that f is continuous ato if
lim fe) = fee,
‘These definitions are completely anslogous to those which you should
hhave had in some analysis or advanced calculus course, so we don't
spend much time on them. As usual, we have the rules for limits of
sums, products, quotients asin calculus
If.) (@= 1,2...) i sequence of complex numbers, then we say
that
ifthe following condition is satis:
Given € > 0 there exists am integer N such that if n NY, then
lnowlce
Let $ be the set of fractions In, with n=
Then
Let f/m) = 2,
lim :,=w ifand only if tim sl) =.
‘Thus basic properties of limits for n-+ co ate reduced to similar proper-
ties for functions. Nove that inthis case, the number 0 is not an element
ofS,
[A sequence (z,) is sad to be a Cauchy sequence if given ¢, there exists
1 such that if mn 2, then
Few <6
Write
Beet ite
Since
ental = Ve xO. WP
and
sy — al Slee
Dy Yul Slee
we conslude that {2,) is Cauchy if and only ifthe sequences (x,) and
{.) of real and imaginary parts are also Cauchy. Since we know that
real Cauchy sequences converge (ie. have limits), we conclude thet com-
plex Cauchy sequences also converge.
‘We note that all the usual theorems about Hmite hold for complex
numbers: Limits of sums, limits of products, limits of quotients, limits us) LMITs AND Compact sers a
‘of composite functions. The proofs which you had in advanced calculus
hhold without change in the present context. It is then usually easy 0
compute limits.
Example. Find the limit
lim
See
for any complex number 2
We 2=0, itis clear that the limit is 0. Suppose 2 #0, Then the
‘quotient whose limit we ate supposed to find ean be written
Hence the limit of the quotient is 2/t = 1
Compact Sets
‘We shall now go through the basic results concerning compact sets. Let
S be a set of complex numbers. Let {z) be a sequence in S. By a point
of accumulation of {2,} we mean a complex number v such that given €
(atways assumed > 0) thre exis infinitely many integers n such that
We may say that given an open set U containing o, there exis infinitely
many n such that 3,6 U.
Similarly we define the notion of point of accumulation of an infinite
setS. It is 8 complex number » such that given an open set U contain-
ing, there exist infinitely many elements of $ Tying in U. In particular,
1 point of accumulation of $ is adherent to.
‘We assume that the reader is acquainted with the Welerstrass-Bolzano
theorem about sets of real numbers: If $ isan infinite bounded set of real
rnbers, then S has a point of accumulation
‘We define a set of complex numbers $ to be compact if every sequence
of elements of § has @ point of accumulation in S. This property is
‘equivalent to the following properties, which could be taken as alternate
definitions:
(a) Every infinite subset of $ has & point of sccumulaion in S. 2 (COMPLEX NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS usa
(Every sequence of clements of $ has 2 convergent subsequence
whose limit isin S.
We leave the proof of the equivalence between the three possible
Aefnitions to the reader.
‘Theorem 4A. 4 set of complex numbers is compact if and only if i is
closed and bounded,
Proof. Assume that Sis compact. If Sis not bounded, for each posi-
tive integer there exists 2, ¢ 8 euch that
lel >
‘Then the sequence (z,) does not have 2 point of accumulation, Indeed,
if» is a point of accumulation, pick m> 2Jol, and note that |o| > 0.
‘Then
leg — 012 be — [ol 2 me — ol > To
‘This contradicts the fact that for infinitely many m we must have 2 close
ton. Hence § is bounded. To show $ is closed, let» be in its closure.
‘Given nm, there exists 2, such that
pole tym
‘The sequence (s,) converges to 0, and has a subsequence converging to
a limit in S because $ is assumed compact. This limit must be e, whence
eS and § is closed
Conversely, assume that § is closed and bounded, and let B be
bound, so [21S B forall :€5. If we write
roxtin
then x $B and |y| < B, Let (z,} be a sequence in 5, and write
2% tie
‘These isa subsequence (:,) such that (x,} converges to & real number
1, and there is @ sub-subsequence (z,,} sich that (),,} converges (0 a
real number b. Then
{n= Met Dead
converges to a+ ib and S is compact. This proves the theorem,
‘Theorem 42. Let S be a compact set and let S,>5;>~~ be a
sequence of nonempty closed subsets such that $. S,.,. Then the
imersecton ofall, forall = 1,2. 8 not emp. 0.8) LIMITS AND COMPACT SETS 2B
Proof. Let 2465,. The sequence {2,} has 2 point of accumulation
in S. Call it” Then v is also a point of accumulation for each sub-
sequence {24} with 2m, and hence is in the closure of S, foreach 1,
But Sis atoumed dosed and Bence ve, forall TRS proves the
‘Theorem 43. Let $ be a compact set of complex numbers, and let f be
4 continuous function on S. Thon the image of fe compact.
Proof. Let (1,} be a sequence in the image of J; so that
=) for 268.
‘The sequence {25} has 2 convergent subsequence (2), with a fir
S. Since f is continuous, we have
Hence the given sequence (w,} has @ subsequence which converges in
JS) This proves that f(S) is compact.
‘Theorem 4. Let S be a compact set of complex numbers, and let
FSR
be a continuous function, Then {has a maximum on S, that is, there
‘exists 0S such that fle) S fe) forall 26S.
Proof. By Theorem 43, we know that f{S) is closed and bounded.
Let b be its least upper bound Then b is adherent to JS}, whence in
$15) because (5) is closed. So there is some veS such that fle) = b.
‘This proves the theorem
Remarks, In practice, one deals with a continuous function f:5—+€
and one applies Theorem 44 to the absolute value of f, which is also
‘continuous (compesite of two continuous functions
“Theorem 45. Let S be a compact set, and let f be a continuous
{function on $. Then f & uniformly continous, Le. gen ¢ there exists 5
‘uch that whenever 2, w 6 S and 2 — | < 8 then If) flv)] <€
‘Proof. Suppose the astertion of the theorem i false. Then there exits
«and for each m there exists a pair of elements ,, 6S such that
lep— ml < tn but Lfle,)— fm) >« ™ ‘COMPLEX NUMRERS AND FUNCTIONS na
“There ie an infinite subset J, of positive integers and some ve such
that 3)-+0 for n> and me, There isan infinite subset J, of Jy and
eS such that wu for n->co and ney. Then, taking the limit for
n+ and neJ, we obtain Iu |= 0 and w= because
wal sl aha — ml +e, — eh
Hence fi) ~ fle) =0. Furthermore,
se)
Hr Sf) ~ $10] + Lf) ~ fe + Le) fl
Again taking the limit as n+ 0 and me J, we conelude that
Sie) ~ fl)
approaches 0. This contradicts the assumption that
Lien) — fol >«
and proves the theorem.
Let A, B be two sets of complex numbers. By the distance between
them, denoted by d(A, B), we mean
(A, B= elle —
where the greatest lower bound gb. is taken overall elements z¢ A and
we. IB consists of one point, we also write d(4,w) instead of d(A, B).
‘We shall leave the next two results as easy exercises,
‘Theorem 46, Let $ be a closed set of complex numbers, and let v be a
complex monber. There exists a point we such that
ats,
[Hints Let be a closed dsc of some suitable
and consider the function 2-+[2 ~ o|for se SE)
ius, centered at 0,
‘Theorem 47. Let K be a compact set of complex numbers, and let $ be
closed set, There exist elements 59 K and wo © such that
aK, 5)
[Utint; Consider the function 21-45, 2) for 2¢ K:] 0.89) LIMITS AND COMPACT SETS 2s
Theorem 48. Let $ be compact. Let r be a real number > 0. There
exists a finite number of open discs of radius r whose union contains 5.
Proof. Suppose this is false. Let 2, ¢5 and let D, be the open dise of
radius r centered at 2,. Then D, does not contain, and there is some
56S, 2, #2,. Proceeding inductively, suppose we have found open
discs D,,...D, of radius r centered at points 2, ..,2,tespectively, soch
that 2,4, does not ie in D,u-~"w Dy, We can then find 2,., which docs
ot fie in D,U~-UD,, and we let Bs, be the disc of radius r centered
at yay. Let v be a point of accumulation of the sequence (z,). By
4efttion, there exist positive integers m, k with k > m such that
lyrol 0. IEA= 6, one ean simply replace the ters onthe ef the
Incas by 0 throughoat.
Example (The Binomial Series). Let «be any complex number #0.
Define the binomial coefficients a5 usual,
6)
+0 8 POWER SERIES on, 21
And the binomial series
astrenin= §(°)r:
@)-
Te ral of comer of Hamel sre 1 8 mt al
ovine 0,
By convention,
Proof, Under the stated assumption, none of the coefficients 0, are 0,
and we have
‘The limit is 1 as n+ 20, $0 we can apply the ratio test.
Warning. Let r be the radius of convergence of the series fle)
[Nothing has been said about possible convergence if |2| = r. Many cases
‘an occur concerning convergence er non-convergence on this circle. See
Exercises 6 and 8 for example
UM, §2. EXERCISES
1. Let [al <1. Express the stm of the geometric series Sey 2” i it usual
simple form.
2. Letr be a real mumber, 0: r< 1. Show thatthe series
ret ana Se
conver (0 is el). Expres the series in simple terms wing the uel
Touma ors geomet eis
4. Show thatthe usual power seis for log + 2) 0 log ~ 2) fom elementary
alee converges absolutly for [ 0. Show thatthe following
series have the same radius of convergence:
Sm © Dea"
(©) Ent for any pose integer d (2). nna"
6. Give an example of a power seis whose eadius of convergence i I, and
such that the cortesponing function iz continuous on the cowed nite
Cain Tey F270]
7, Le a,b be two complex numbers, and assume that B isnot equal 1 any
integer 0. Show that the rads cf convergence ofthe sree
ola+ le) 5
Lieb en
fi atleast 1 Show that this radius can be a in some cses
8 Let {ay} be @ decreasing squence of postive numbers approaching . Prove
that the power seri 2" uniformly convergent onthe domain of = suck
‘hat
bist and
ues,
where §> 0. [Hint Foe this problem andthe next, se summa
See Appendix, $1]
9, (Abels Theorem). Let $2 a,2* be a power series with radius of convergence
by pars,
BAL Assume tha the series F oy conver. Let 0 Sx <1. Prove that
mnbor-Ee
ee Th anc nite
sto as
en wat ne
0
(CE Theovem 35 of Chapter VIE in my Underraducte Analysis, Springer
Vesag, 1983
10 Lat Faye" and Fa" be two power sre, with radius of convergence rsd
ss respetvely. What cn you say about the rade of convergence of the
@) Dette © Daher
11, Let a Pte complex numbers with al < Ia Let
$e) = Dee — spe. POWER seRiEs 0, 81
Determine the radius of convergence off)
12. Let {a} be the sequence of real numbers defined bythe conditions:
Beha = and gma tons for mee
Deter
the radius of convergence ofthe power series
ar.
[ints What isthe general soation ofa diference equation? CI. Exercie 6
ogi]
13, More genealy let, Be complex numbers sch
the polynomial
>
fay Tay (P= aT 0)
has two dine roots witha 0 such
that f(2) #0 forall * with 21 Ss, and 2 #0.
(6) Let J(7)=3Sa47" and g(T) = SbyT* be two convergent power
series, Suppose that f(x) = g(x) forall points x in an infinite set
fetng 0 a pit of acm, ‘hen (7) = 47), tat is
Proof. We can write
Je)
is higher terms, and 0, £0
mace hye thet to)
e+ HO,
where Me) = bz +2? + is a power series having a non-zero radius
fof convergence, and zero constant term. For al sufiiently small [s,the
value [h(i small, and hence
1m) #0.
240, then ay2" #0. This proves the fist part of the theorem,
For part (b) let hi) = f(T) ~ g( 7) = S(@,~b,)T*. We have x)= 0
for an infinite set of points x having 0 a8 point of accumulation. By part
(a) this implies that A(T) is the zero power series, $0 a, =, for all n,
thus proving the theorem.
eampl. Thre ett st ct ne convert power set
Lar eh th or sone inenal (ee) ne have Jo) eer or Ae
Ecey Tis proves he uniques of ny power sates cen fs
Capone fion fo a Somos number Silty oar he te
test ofthe powers credng he Soe and Sento (HL §3] RELATIONS BETWEEN FORMAL AND CONVERGENT SERIES 63
Furtemore et ex) = E2!. Then
Zeer
‘Summing over even m and odd 1, we find that
expt
respectively. Hence e* for real 6 coincides with expli@) as given by the
power series expansion,
Quite generally if (7), A(T) are power series with O constant term, then
exp(o(T) +4(T)) = (expa(T)(exPh(7)).
Proof. On ove hand, by defrition,
and on the other hand,
Shantan
exvainyfepKin) = SS
FEM ag
In particular, for complex numbers wwe have
ex
then substitute T'= 1, Thus we se that the exponent
‘in Chapter I has the same values as the function defined by the usual powe
‘Theorem 32 also allows us to conclude that any polynomial relation
between the elementary functions which have a convergent Taylor expsn-
son at the origin also holds for the extension of these functions as
complex power series,
where sins =
‘are defined by the usual power serie Indeed, the
has infinite radiws of comergence, and has
“Theorem 32 implies that there is at mest ope series
having this property, and that is the series 1, as desired. It would be
disagreeable to show dreety thatthe formal power series forthe sine and o owen sentes m1.
cosine satisly this relation. I is easier to doit through elementary calculus
a8 above.
Example Let m be a postive inter. We have seen in §2 tha the
vison ies
»e)=2(°}
with «= I/m has @ radius of convergence 2 I, and thus converges ab-
solely for |2| <1. By elementary calculus, we have
Bor = 14x
When x is real, and |x] <1 (or even when [x is sufficiently smal). There
fore BUTY" isthe unique formal power series such that
Buy = 14x
forall sufciently small real x, and therefore we conclude that
AUP =14T.
Tn this manner, we see that we ean take mth roots
by the binomial series when |: <1
Quorients
In our discussion of formal power series, besides the polynomial rela
tions, we dealt with quotients and also compesition of series. We still
hhave to relate these to the convergent case. It will be convenient to
introduce a simple notation to estimate power series.
Let f(T) = 3. a,T" be a power series. Let
oT) =EeT
bbe a power series with real coeficiemts c, 20. We say that f is domi-
rated by 9, and write
fYou might also like
