WWITrenchWarfare:

ExplorationinTechnology,EncounterwithDesperation,andExchangeofHumanity

ChristineDoan,AdaZhu
SeniorDivision
GroupWebsite

WorkCited
PrimarySources
Books
Persico,JosephE.
EleventhMonth,EleventhDay,EleventhHour:ArmisticeDay,1918,World
WarIandItsViolentClimax
.NewYork:RandomHouse,2004.Print.Persico'sbook
includedaplethoraofprimaryaccounts.Weusedanaccountinwhichasoldierexpressed
howhebelievedthatwarwasgallantandgreatonour"Desperation"page.However,he
realizedinthefaceofwarthatitwasanythingbut.Thisservedasproofforthedestruction
ofwarromanticism.Insideofcomingtofaceglory,thesoldiersencountereddesperation.
Philpott,WilliamJames.
ThreeArmiesontheSomme:TheFirstBattleoftheTwentiethCentury
.
NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2010.Print.Weextractedprimaryquotesfromthesoldierson
theSommefromPhilpott'sbook.Thequotesweselectedexpressedhowtheexplorationin
technologyproducedanartillerywarthatwasneverseenbefore.Thisnewmodeofwarfare
madethesoldiersquestionwhattheywerereallydoing.Thisbookgaveusprimary
evidencethatthenewmeansofmurderscarredthesoldiersbothphysicallyand
psychologically.

Images
"ChristmasTruce1914:WhenWWIShowedHumanity."
TheDenverPost
.N.p.,n.d.Web.05
Jan.2016.Thethreemenholdinghandsintheimagedemonstratehowhumanityand
compassionstillexistedamongtheslaughterduringtheGreatWar.Bothhumanityand
compassiontowardpeacewererevealed,softeningthefightingspiritandsearchingfor
mortality.Atransitoryperiodofpeacewasachieved.Despitetheirdifferentlanguagesand
cultures,theopposingsidesexchangedgifts.Therelaxationofhostilitiessoonspread
amongthesoldiers.Throughtheimage,wereceivedasenseofcooperationandconnection
betweenthesoldiers,believingthathumanspiritwasabletolessenviolenceandhostility.
"ChristmasTruceof1914."
History.com
.A&ETelevisionNetworks,n.d.Web.05Jan.2016.
Theimageillustratesthehumanity'slongingforpeaceduringWorldWarI.Itwasthe
soldierswhodeclaredanunofficialtrucetheybegantorecognizeoneanotherashumans
ratherthanenemies.Basedontheimage,welearnedthatsoldierswhohadbeenkilling
eachotherwereseekingashredofhumanityinordertoescapethehorrorsofwar.
Combs,Marianne."AllIsCalm:TheChristmasTruceof1914."
AllIsCalm:TheChristmas
Truceof1914
.N.p.,20Dec.2007.Web.05Jan.2016.DuringWorldWarI,thesoundsof
riflefadedinanumberofplacesalongtheWesternFrontinfavorofChristmas
celebrationsinthetrenches.Asparkofhumanityandgenerosityappeared,leadingtoan
unofficialceasefirebetweenthetwocountries.Aftertheshootingceased,soldierscameout
ofthetrenchesandbegantogreeteachotherandexchangegifts.Theimagedepictsa
soldierwhohadreceivedChristmaspresentsonChristmasEve.Humanitywasshown

whenthesoldiersplayedsoccerandenjoyedtheholidayswithmenwhoweretheirdeadly
enemies.
Hall,ZoeDare."CartoonistWhoseOldBillSketchesBoostedMorale."
TheTelegraph
.
TelegraphMediaGroup,n.d.Web.07Jan.2016.BruceBairnsfather'sOldBillcartoons
helpedtoliftspiritsonthefrontline.Weappliedthesixcartoonsfromthewebsitetothe
"Desperation"pagebecausethesecartoonswereabletodescribewhateverydaylifeinthe
trenchesconsistedof,provokingasenseoflonelinessanddehumanization.Throughthe
soldier'sexperience,theytrulyencounteredthevalueofilifeandthedesperationthatwas
left.
OneHundredYearsAgo
.Digitalimage.
OneHundredYearsAgo
.N.p.,n.d.Web.5Jan.2016.
ChemicalweaponswerealsointroducedduringWorldWarI.Thechemicalwarfare,such
astheusingofphosgeneandchlorine,playedamajorroleduringthewar.Theuseofgas
masksmaypossiblyprotectthesoldiers.Throughtheillustration,weobservedthatthegas
masksmadethesoldiersbecomemerciless,andthismeansofmurderdehumanizedthe
opposingside.
"RadiganNeuhalfen'sWebLog."
:WorldWarI
.N.p.,03Jan.2010.Web.05Jan.2016.The
advancementintechnologywasmoreharmfulthanbeneficial.Soldiersfromthetrenches
alwaysencountereddangerousenemyshells,destroyingtheirfacesandkillinghundredsof
people.Cosmeticsurgerythusbecameamedicalpracticeduetothenumeroushorrific
injuries,anditstechniquesweresoonadoptedbythescientists.

STEMPEL,John."GreatWarCentenary."N.p.,04May2014.Web.7Jan.2016.Thesite
providedimagesofthewoundedsoldierswalkinginthedirtytrenches.Thedescriptionof
thelongnightsinthetrenchesexhibitedasenseofhorrorandloneliness.Themedical
stationwasfullofwoundedsoldiers,whosufferedfromdiseaseandinjuredbythe
bombshells.Webelievedthattheseimagescouldclearlydisplayedthedestructionofthe
war.
"WorldWarIHistory."
History.com
.A&ETelevisionNetworks,n.d.Web.05Jan.2016.While
WWImayhavebeenthewartoendallwars,italsoservedasthebeginningofmany
militarytechnologies.Thepicturedepictstheintroductionoftanks,whichcamefroma
developmentofvehiclesthatcouldcrossdifficultlandbyusingcaterpillartracks.We
foundoutthattheexplorationoftechnologyleadingtotankswasusedeffectivelyinorder
tobreakthroughtheenemylines.

Videos
"WW1WarNeuroses."
YouTube
.YouTube,27Sept.2012.Web.16Dec.2015.Informationof
warneurosesanddisorderwasdiscussedinthevideo.Wefoundoutthatbytheendofthe
war,thereweremorethan80,000casesofshellshock,mostshellshockvictimswere
treatedharshlyandwithlittlesympathybecausetheirsymptomswereviewedasasignof
weakness.Thisvideoprovidedtheimpactoftheshellshock:ithelpedacceleratethe
expansionofknowledgeinpsychiatry.Weappliedthisvideoto"TheScarsofTrench
Warfare"pagetoshowthedestructionofthewar.

Websites
Simkin,John."SpartacusEducational."
SpartacusEducational
.N.p.,n.d.Web.16Dec.2015.
Thecasualtiesinthetrencheswerediscussedonthiswebsite.Wegotmostofourtimeline
eventsfromthiswebsite.Inaddition,wealsousedprimaryexcerptsfoundonthebottomof
thewebsite.CharlesChaplinlookedbackonhisexperiencewiththewarandconfessed
howtheyallthoughtthewarwouldbeoversoon.However,itwasquitetheopposite.
Desperationquicklytookoverandfatalismbecameprevalentamongstthesoldiers.
"TanksandWorldWarOneHistoryLearningSite."
HistoryLearningSite
.N.p.,n.d.Web.06
Jan.2016.ThisarticleprovideduswiththeconsoftheusageoftanksinWorldWarOne,
andspecificallyinthetrenches.Weextractedaprimarysourcequotefromthiswebsite,
whichcanbefoundonthe"Technology:ThePricetoPay"page.Fromthiswebsite,we
cametotheconclusionthattheinventionofmoderntankswerenotnecessarilyhelpful.
Evenwhengivenadvancedtechnology,soldiersrunningthetankswereunabletouseitto
theiradvantagebecauseofthelackofinstructionandknowledge.Whileanexplorationin
technologywasmade,itdidnotmatterbecauseitwasnotusedtoitsfullpotential.
"TrenchWarfareWWI."
TrenchWarfareWWI
.N.p.,n.d.Web.16Dec.2015.Weextracteda
primaryquotebyRobertGravesin1915fromthiswebsite.ItconsistedofGraves
describinghisfriend'sbreakdownandhowthewardestroyedtheirhopesandfaith.Itwas
verymuchanencounterwithdesperation.Despairandterrorsdamagedthesoldiersin
morewaysthanweaponsevercould.Weplacedthequoteinthe"Desperation:Living
Conditions"page.

"WorldWarI."
:WorldWarI
.N.p.,3Jan.2010.Web.16Dec.2015.Thequotewetookfrom
thiswebsitewassaidbyaBritishprivate.Weuseditinour"Desperation:Living
Conditions"page.Itdemonstratedthedisgustingconditionsthatthesoldiershadtosurvive
through.Rodentswereprevalentandratsevenstartedtofeastondeadflesh.Afterthe
soldiers'encounterwithdesperation,theyneverseparated.Thehorrorsfollowedthem
everywhere,evenintheirsleep.
"WWIWarGases."
WWIWarGases
.N.p.,n.d.Web.06Jan.2016.Aprimaryquoteregarding
thehorrorsofpoisonousgasonthebattlefieldwastakenfromthiswebsite,asalongwitha
picturethatweincludedinour"Technology"page.Fromthiswebsite,wegraspedthe
importanceofpoisonousgas.Whileweknewitplayedaroleinbringingthedeathsof
countlesssoldiers,thiswebsitegaveusinsightonhowitpsychologicallyaffectedthe
soldiers.Thefearsandterrorsexpressedbytheprimarysourcesmadeusunderstandthe
gravityofthesituation.

SecondarySources
Interviews
Liulevicius,VejasG."Dr.VejasGabrielLiulevicius."Emailinterview.Nov.Dec.2015.Our
interviewwithDr.Liulevicius,thedirectoroftheCenterfortheStudyofWarandSociety
andaprofessorattheUniversityofTennessee,wasincrediblyinsightfulregardingthe
topicofexplorationintechnology.Hediscussedtheimpactofmoderntechnologyonpast
notions.Fromthisinterview,weconcludedthattrenchwarfarebecameaturningpointfor
theexplorationoftechnology.Inaddition,healsohelpedusgrasptheconceptofthe
ChristmasTruceandwhatpushedthesoldierstohaveanunofficialceasefire.Itwasa
primeexampleofanexchangeofhumanity.
Strauss,Lon."Dr.LonStrauss."Emailinterview.Dec.2015.Dr.Stauss,aprofessoratthe
UniversityofKansas,examinedthepsychologicaleffectofWWI.Heansweredour
questionsregardingthesoldiers'encounterwithdesperation.Accordingtotheinterview,
weconcludedthatcountrieswereaggressiveinthewakeofWorldWarI,andhealso
discussedtheshellshock,whichwasaconditionthatwasdevelopedbymanysoldiersin
thetrenchesduringthewar.Hefurtherprovidedasummaryofhisopiniontowardsthe
ChristmasTruce,whichdisplayedanevidenceofhumanity.
Tooley,Hunt."Dr.HuntTooley."Emailinterview.Nov.Dec.2015.Dr.HuntTooleyfrom
AustinCollegeansweredourquestionsregardingtheimpactoftheexplorationin
technologyduringtheGreatWar.Hegaveusnewperspectivesabouttheadvancementof
technologyandthefrontlinesthatweprobablywouldnothavethoughttoconsider
otherwise.Healsodiscussedhowtheeconomyplayedaroleintheexploration.Webased

halfofouranalysisontheinformationgainedinthisinterviewforthetechnologysection.
Wealsolearnednewfacts,suchastheexplorationintechnology'simpactonmedical
cosmeticsandsurgery.

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Books
Bull,Stephen,andAdamHook.
WorldWarITrenchWarfare
.Oxford:Osprey,2002.Print.
Basedonthebook,Dr.Bullwroteoftheinfantryweaponsin1914andhedescribedthe
useofavariationoftheMaximmachinegundesign.Byreadinghissummaryofthe
examinationoftrenchwarfaretactics,wediscoveredthattheAlliedhadattemptedtobreak
thestalemateoftrenchwarfarebythe'bigpushes'of1916forseveraltime,andusedthis
pieceofinformationinthe"Technology"page.
Ferguson,Niall.
ThePityofWar:
.NewYork,NY:Basic,1999.Print.In"ThePityofWar",
writtenbyNiallFerguson,theauthormadeanargumentthatwarwasnotinevitableand
wasEngland'sfaultforbringingoutthewar.Weunderstoodmorethroughthechartsand
graphsthatwereprovidedbythebookandfoundoutthatover200,000soldiersdiedinthe
trenchesoftheWesternFrontinWorldWarI.Theappallingwarwasunpredictable,and
theconsequencesofusingadvancedweaponsweredevastating.
Hochschild,Adam.
ToEndAllWars:AStoryofLoyaltyandRebellion,19141918
.Boston:
HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2011.Print.HochschildanalyzedthehistoryofWWIand
declareditasasenselesscarnagewithitsmyriadtragedies.Hemainlyfocusedonthe
criticsofwar,andsummarizedtheGreatWaronthequestionofloyaltyandrebellion.
Humanityandcomradeshipwerealsoshownfromhisdescriptionofthesoldier'saction
therefore,werelatedthefactsto"Impact"page.
Ousby,Ian.
TheRoadtoVerdun:WorldWarI'sMostMomentousBattleandtheFollyof
Nationalism
.NewYork:Doubleday,2002.Print.Ousby'sbookhadaprimaryfocuson
howwarromanticismwasdestroyedduringthefirstworldwar.Hisanalysisgreatly

11

affectedourownanalysisonthewar.Weusedmostoftheinformationgainedfromthis
bookinourpagesondesperation.Onethingthatshockeduswasthatonthelastdayof
war,commandersstillsentouttheirmeninordertocrushtheopposingsidecompletely.
Wefoundthattobecompletelyabsurdandupsettingbecauseofhowmanypeoplecould
havebeensaved.Itdemonstratedtoushowthehigherauthoritiesdidnotcareabouttheir
soldiers,andthatwasafocalpointinouranalysisaswell.
Rawling,Bill.
SurvivingTrenchWarfare:TechnologyandtheCanadianCorps
.Toronto:Uof
Toronto,1994.Print.Productsandimpactsofthehorrorsofwarweredescribedbythe
author.Wewereabletoprovidetheideaoftacticalsystemandmilitarystrategiesinour
"Technology"pagebecauseRawlingprovidedinformationabouttheweaponsand
destructionthroughawiderangeofsources.Weacknowledgedthatthesoldierswereeager
totakecontrolovertheirweaponsandplaces.RawlingtracedtheevolutionontheWestern
Frontandadoptedinformationoftacticalsystemthatwasusedduringthewar.
Stone,Norman.
WorldWarOne
.NewYork:Basic,2009.Print.AnexcerptfromStone'schapter
ontheimpactoftheGreatWarwasplacedinour"Aftermath"page.Stone'sexplanation
wasusefulbecauseherelatedthetopictopresentissues.Ithelpedsignificantlywithour
overallimpactanalysis.Theexplorationintechnologywasaturningpointinhistory.

12

Images
"WorldWarI19141918."
HSCModernHistory
.N.p.,n.d.Web.Weusedadiagramfromthis
website.Thediagramdemonstratedandlabeledseverallinesinthetrenches.Itwasuseful
becauseithadeverythingthatweneededtoexplainpointoutinvisualterms.Itisthesecond
pictureonour"Inception"page.

13

Websites
Bajekal,Naina."SilentNight:TheStoryoftheWorldWarIChristmasTruceof1914."
Time
.
Time,24Dec.2014.Web.16Dec.2015.Wefoundthiswebsiteusefulbecauseitused
vividdescriptionstoprovideasenseofhumanitythatmanypeoplethoughthad
disappearedduetothebrutalityofwar.Wecametobelievethatthesoldierswishedtostop
thefightandgohomesoon.Thissitealsodescribedtousofhowthetrucebegan:two
nationsbothsangthesamecarolinthemiddleofawar.Germansoldiersemergedfrom
theirtrenches,callingoutMerryChristmasinEnglish,andlatertheirenemiesalsocame
outtogreetthem.Thistrucecouldberememberedasarepresentationofhopeand
humanity.
"BattleoftheSomme."
H100WeRemember
.N.p.,n.d.Web.16Dec.2015.TheBattleof
Somme,whichwasfoughtin1914,wasoneofthefamousbattlesduringWW1.According
tothe2,000heavygunbombardmentshaveoccurred,leadingtomassslaughters.We
appliedtheinformationfromthesitetoour"Desperation"pagebecauseitrevealedthe
inhumanityandhorrificconditioninthetrenches.Theencounterwithdesperationamong
thesoldierswasunimaginable,andonlythosewhohadexperiencedbeforecould
comprehend.

14

"FirstTrenchesAreDugontheWesternFront."
History.com
.A&ETelevisionNetworks,n.d.
Web.16Dec.2015.Thecontentinour"Inception"pagemostlyconsistedwithinformation
givenonthiswebsite.Wefoundfundamentalinformationonthestartoftrenchwarfareand
howmuchitprogressedthroughoutthefouryears.Fromthiswebsite,weconcludedthat
thestartoftrenchwarfarewasconsequentialforWorldWarOne'sexplorationin
technology,encounterwithdesperation,andexchangeofhumanity.
"Firstworldwar.com."
FirstWorldWar.com
.N.p.,n.d.Web.06Jan.2016.Thissiteprovided
informationaboutthecasualtiesandlifeinthetrenches.Theconstantshellfiredirectedby
theenemybroughtrandomdeath,andexplosionswerecommoninthebattlefields.The
imagesthatweredepictedfromthewebsiteillustratedasenseofhorrorandsavagery.We
foundthiswebsitevaluablebecauseitofferedadetailedaccountofhowtheintroductionof
advancedtechnologieshadalsocausedagreatnumberofdeathsduringthebattles.Asa
result,weusedthiswebsiteforour"Aftermath"pageinordertorevealtheimpactsof
powerfulweaponsthatwereintroduced.
Flank,Lenny."WorldWarOne:LifeandDeathintheTrenches."
DailyKos
.N.p.,18Sept.
2013.Web.16Dec.2015.Descriptionsofbothlifeanddeathinthetrenchesweregiven
fromthewebsite.Itnotonlydescribedhowtypicaltrencheslookedlike,butalsoprovided
informationaboutthelivingconditionthatwasexperiencedbythesoldiers.Wediscovered
thatwarromanticismwasalsodestroyedbecauseofthebothphysicalandpsychological
scarsthesoldierscarriedalong.Undertheconditionsoftrenchwarfare,the
dehumanizationofopposingsidesspreadquickly.

15

"GermansIntroducePoisonGas."
History.com
.A&ETelevisionNetworks,n.d.Web.16Dec.
2015.Informationaboutexplorationintechnologywasprovided,discussingtheuseof
poisongasandtheintroductionofgasmasks.Welearnedthatthefirstmajorgasattack
wasdonebytheGerman,devastatingtheAlliedline.Astheuseofpoisongasbecame
morefrequent,moresophisticatedmaskswerealsointroduced.Weusedtheimagesand
quotesfromthewebsitetoour"Technology"pageandconcludedthatpoisonousgaswasa
fearedweaponduringthewar,andthemasksmadethesoldierslookinhumane.
Jones,Nigel."LifeandDeathinFirstWorldWarTrenches."
TheTelegraph
.TelegraphMedia
Group,30May2013.Web.16Dec.2015.Basedontheinformationithasprovided,we
usedthewebsiteforour"Desperation:LivingCondition"page.Wewerehorrifiedbythe
realityofthefoodandenvironmentinthetrenches.Verminincludingratsandlicewere
verynumerous,anddiseasewaseasilyspreadbythem,Morethanabout3millionsof
soldiers,accordingtotheresearch,weredeadofthediseases.
Lilies,Jordan."StoriesofChaplin:WorldWarI."
RSS
.N.p.,7Oct.2014.Web.16Dec.2015.
JordanLilesprovidedquotesfromthesurvivedsoldierstoportraythehorrificdifficulties
thesoldiershadencounteredinthetrenches.Theinformationfromthewebsitewasapplied
to"Desperation"pagebecauseitexplaineddistressanddisorderthesoldiershadsuffered.
Thesoldiersinthetrenchesexperiencedtraumatizingbombardmenteveryday.
"TheLivesofSoldiers."
AlphaHistory
.N.p.,2014.Web.16Dec.2015.Primaryquotationswere
listedbythiswebsite,whichdiscussthepsychologicaldistressthesoldiershadto
encounter.Therefore,weorganizedthequotesunderthe"Desperation"pageinorderto

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displaythehelplessnessanddisruptionthatwerecarriedoutbythewar.Thestimulating
andrealisticdescriptionexhibit
Nater,Adrienne."Death,Dying,Grief,andMourning."
ErichM.Remarque,AllQuietOnthe
WesternFrontDeathofFrenchSoldier
.N.p.,2008.Web.16Dec.2015.Thearticlewas
excerptedfromthefamousnovel,"AllQuietontheWesternFront".Thewelldeveloped
phrasesoutlinedalltheresponsesofthesoldiersduringthewar.Griefandmourningwere
conventionalresponsesfromthesoldiers.Weappliedthequotesfromtheextracttoour
"Desperation"pagesothatthepsychologicalresponsecouldberevealed,connectingto
soldier'sencounterwithdesperation.
"NobelLecture."
LordBoydOrr
.N.p.,2014.Web.16Dec.2015.Notonlythehistoryofwar,
butalsothepowerofsciencewasdiscussedinthearticle.Sciencehasadvancedduringthe
war,givingmankindmorepowersovertheforcesofnature.Wefoundtheinformation
necessaryindiscussingthepageof"Technology:ThePricetoPay".Weanalyzedtheuse
ofgasmasks,tanksandartilleryinordertohighlightthecasualtiesthatwerecausedbythe
advancementoftechnologies.

17

"TheOrganisationCulturalLegaciesoftheChristmasDayTruce&TheAccringtonPals."
Fromthelighthouse
.N.p.,5Jan.2015.Web.16Dec.2015.ThelegacyoftheChristmas
Trucewasdiscussedinthewebsite.Althoughthetrucehadonlylastedforawhile,its
legacyprovideduswithhopeandinspiration.Afterreadingthearticle,wewereimpressed
bythecommunicationbetweenthetwoopposingsides.Theywereabletocooperateand
talkabouttheirfamilies,eventhoughtheywerejustenemieswhotriedtokilloneanother
justseveralhoursbeforetheceasefire.Hence,weappliedtheinformationtoour
"Humanity:Empathy"pageinordertoshowthatthesoldiersstilledprovokedasenseof
humanityratherthandehumanization.
"PropagandaasaWeapon?InfluencingInternationalOpinion."
TheBritishLibrary
.N.p.,n.d.
Web.07Jan.2016.TheBritishLibraryprovideduswithgoodpropagandapostersthatwe
placedinour"Desperation"page.Fromthiswebsite,werealizedthatpropagandawasa
contributortothefalseglorificationaboutwar.Itmadeitseemlikeitwasthebestthingto
dothatfightingforyourcountrywasanobledecisionandeveryonewasdoingit.Of
course,thepropagandadidnotcomeclosetodescribingtherealnatureofwar.Thisonly
madethesoldiers'encounterwithdesperationallthemoredevastating.

18

"TrenchWarfare:DidTrenchWarfareLeadtoPointlessSlaughter?"
GaleGroup
.N.p.,n.d.
Web.Trenchwarfare'sstalematewasexplainedinthissite.Wefoundithelpfulbecauseit
describedtoushowexplorationsandadvancementswasnotalwaysagoodthing.Weused
quotesfromthiswebsiteonthe"Home"and"Technology:ThePricetoPay"page.Gale
Groupalsodiscussedthesoldier'sdailyroutineandhowtraumatizingitwasforthemon
thefrontlines.Weusedtheinformationfromthispagetowriteanalysisforthe
"Desperation"page.
"TheTrenches:SymboloftheStalemate."
PBS
.PBS,n.d.Web.16Dec.2015.Thetrenches
weredescribedasthesymbolofstalemateinthissite.Itprovideddetailedinformation
abouttheorganizationoftrenchesandNoMan'sLand,whichseparatedthetwoopposing
sides.Havingseenthispieceofinformationhelpful,wedecidedtoapplytheknowledgeto
our"Desperation:LivingCondition"page.
"WhatReallyHappenedintheChristmasTruceof1914?"
BBCNews
.BBC,n.d.Web.16Dec.
2015.AfteroneofthememberhadwatchedavideoabouttheChristmasTrucein1914,we
begantosearchforplethoraofinformationaboutthisevent.Thiswebsitewasableto
answerourquestion:WhatreallyhappenedduringtheChristmasTruce?Itsymbolizedthe
truceasapeacefulescapefromthedevastatinglyviolentwar.Wealsoacknowledgedthat
generalswereangrybecausetheyfearedthatmenwouldthenquestionthewarm,and
uprisings.