Muscular walls aid in voice production and swallowing reflex. Glottis - the superior opening of the larynx.

Epiglottis- prevents food and drink from entering

airway when swallowing. Digestive Processes: lngestion - intake of food. Digestion- breakdown of food bit by bit into molecules small enough to be absorbed
Mechanical Digestion -physical breakdown of food Chemical Digestion -- chemical breakdown of macromolecules to monomers Absorption transport of
productions into the blood: Elimination-elimination of undigested waste Movement of Materials-via peristalsis or alternating waves of contraction and relaxation
of smooth muscles that move materials through the digestive tract Info on Digestive Tract:The digestive tract aka alimentary canal + gastrointestinal tract. It
consists of a long, continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures located in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas aren't part of the
digestive tract, but are major accessory organs of the digestive system that play a role in the digestive process. These secrete fluids into the digestive tract.
Stomach Stuff (cells) : Enzymatic digestion of proteins initiated and foods reduced to liquid form. Wall of stomach is lined with millions of gastric glands-secrete
400 - 800 ml of gastric juice per meal. Several kinds of cells located in gastric glands with different functions. Parietal cells - produce hydrochloric acid (active
transport is used to increase concentration of H+ ions in gastric juice) and intrinsic factor( binds vitamin B12 so it can be absorbed by the small intestine). Chief
cells - produce and secrete pepsinogen the precursor to pepsin Mucus secreting cells: form mucus which protects stomach lining from hydrochloric acid.
Hormone secreting cells- produce hormone gastrin when food arrives. Absorption from the stomach -very little absorption occurs in the stomach - some water,
ethanol (quick effects of alcohol consumption), drugs as aspirin (quick pain relief), and certain ions are absorbed.Stomach tissue Layers: Mucosa: it's made up of
epithelial cells,smooth muscle and connective tissue. It also contains gland openings for digestive enzymes and mucous. Submucosa: Made up of loose
connective tissue, glands, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves. It's vessels nourish surrounding tissues and carries away absorbed materials.Muscularis Externa:
Made up of 2 coats of smooth muscle. Serosa: Outermost layer. Composed of connective tissue and a special epithelial tissue called visceral peritoneum. The cells
secrete serous fluid to lubricate the outermost layers surface. Small lntestine Layers-Going from inside the lumen outwards, one passes the mucosa,submucosa,
muscularis externa ,and lastly serosa. Teeth:. Incisors(8): The middlemost four teeth on upper and lower jaws. Canines (4): The pointed teeth just outside the
incisors. Premolars (bicuspids)(8): Teeth between the canines and molars. Molars (cuspids)(12): Flat teeth in the rear of the mouth, grinding food. Wisdom teeth
or third molars (4): These teeth erupt at age 18, often surgically removed to prevent displacement of other teeth. Functions of D.S.Break up food into smaller
pieces.Transporting food the the GI tract, Secreting digestive enzymes.Absorbing nutrients into the blood.Excreting solid waste products. Diseases:Stomach and
duodenal ulcers open sores or lesions found in the stomach or duodenal lining - most ulcers develop as a result of infection with a bacterium called Helicobacter
pylori (H. pylori):Abdominal pain,vomiting,nausea,weight loss-Meds,antibiotics.Cancers of the D.S. esophageal, liver ,stomach, pancreatic, : ,anal,colorectal,
gallbladder.Diarrhoea, Constipation, Vomiting, Nausea, Bleeding, Abdominal pain.Diarrhea loose, watery, and frequent stools or bowel movements prolonged
it can cause dehydration: Bloating, abdominal cramps,drink fluids,pepto-bismol. Lactose Intolerance - the inability to digest and metabolize lactose, a sugar in
milk caused by a lack of the enzyme lactase in the D.S..Diarrhea,Nausea, vomiting,Abdominal cramps, Bloating, Gas. Hepatitis: inflammation of liver commonly
caused by three viruses hepatitis A, B,C typically don't appear until had virus for a few weeks:Fatigue, Nausea and vomiting, Abdominal pain or discomfort,
especially in the area of your liver on your right side beneath your lower ribs,Loss of appetite, Low- grade fever,Dark urine,Muscle pain,Yellowing of the skin and
eyes ,:interferon,antiviral drugs Appendicitis inflammation of the appendix-abdominal pain. :appendectomy. Alzheimers:Alzheimers is a neurodegenerative
disease typically found in people over the age of 65 years. 24 million people have dementia; 60% of these cases are due to Alzheimers. Alzheimers is progressive
cognitive deterioration . Changes in personality and behavior, Planning and performing familiar tasks,Making judgments and decisions,Thinking and
reasoning,Speaking and writing, Disorientation and misinterpreting spatial relationships,Memory.Parkinson's:Parkinsons affects the motor skills and speech.
Symptoms may include slow physical movement, muscle rigidity, and tremors. Behavior, thinking, and sensation disorders are non-motor
symptoms.Tremor.Slowed movement (bradykinesia),Rigid muscles, Impaired posture and balance,Loss of automatic movements,Speech changes,Writing changes.
Multiple sclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory demyelinating disease, meaning that the myelin sheath of neurons is damaged. Symptoms of MS include: visual and
sensation problems, muscle weakness, and depression:tingling, loss of balance, numbness, weakness in limbs, doubled or blurred vision ,drugs slow it,
Conjunctivitis(pink eye) is inflammation of the conjunctiva (the outermost layer of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids. It is most commonly due to an
infection (usually viral, but sometimes bacterial) or allergic reaction. :Redness in the white of the eye or inner eyelid, increased amount of tears, thick yellow
discharge that crusts over the eyelashes, especially after sleep Green or white discharge from the eye, Itchy eyes, Burning eyes, Blurred vision increased sensitivity
to light,Drugs,wash hands. Herpes zoster (shingles) and also known as zona, is a viral disease characterized by painful skin rash with blisters in limited area on 1
side of the body, often in a stripe:headache, fever, malaise,antiviral med,topical antibiotic, .Cerebral palsy is a group of non-progressive non-contagious motor
conditions that cause physical disability in human development.abnormal muscle tone (e.g. slouching over while sitting), reflexes, motor development,
coordination.Therapy, medications, surgeries. Glaucoma, refers to a group of eye conditions that lead to damage to the optic nerve. This nerve carries visual
information from the eye to the brain. In most cases, damage to the optic nerve is due to increased pressure in the eye, aka intraocular pressure . An eye disease in
which the optic nerve is damaged in a characteristic pattern. This can permanently damage vision in affected eye(s) and lead to blindness if left untreated. It is
normally associated with increased fluid pressure in the eye:eye pain, nausea and vomiting,Sudden onset of visual disturbance, often in low light Blurred vision,
Halos around lights, Reddening of the eye,eye drops Seizures are episodes of disturbed brain activity that cause changes in attention or behavior:911. Epilepsy is a
brain disorder in which a person has repeated seizures (convulsions) over time.:temporary confusion, A staring spell, Uncontrollable jerking movements of the
arms and legs, Loss of consciousness or awareness,meds,therapy,surgery:Drugs: Alcohol: (depressant of nervous system) low doses:alcohol produces:a relaxing
effect, reduces tension ,lowers inhibitions, Impairs concentration ,slows reflexes ,impairs reaction time, reduces coordination medium doses:slur speech,cause
drowsiness, alter emotions.High doses: Vomiting,breathing difficulties, unconscious,coma.Caffeine: a central nervous system stimulant.moderate doses:
increase alertness, reduce fine motor coordination, cause insomnia,cause headaches, nervousness and dizziness.massive doses, caffeine is lethal. A fatal dose of
caffeine is more than 10 grams (drinking 80 to 100 cups of coffee in rapid succession). Nicotine- Smoking can be stimulating/relaxing - depends on a person's
mood and dosage of nicotine. Nicotine acts on central + peripheral nervous system. rapid effects of nicotine:Stimulation of the central nervous
system.Marijuana- low to medium doses, marijuana causes: relaxation, reduced coordination, disruption in attention, an altered sense of time and space. high
doses, marijuana can cause: hallucinations, delusions, impaired memory,disorientation. Excersise :Negative Effects- Exercise can cause digestive disorders.
Disorders such as nausea and diarrhea are common in women who train hard. Acute gastric and gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms are also common in runners.
Positive Effects- regular exercise improves digestion and elimination. Exercise slows down the digestion system in order to conserve energy for the muscles.
Cardiovascular exercise strengthens the muscles of the abdomen and stimulates the intestinal muscles to move contents through the digestive system.CautionsAllow two hours after a meal before you exercise and do not exercise on a full stomach. Practice light exercise to improve the efficiency of the digestive system.
Light exercise improve digestive system functions by reducing stress and anxiety levels, which can cause digestive disorders. Brain Lobes and Their Functions
frontal lobe is home to cognitive thinking, and it is this process that determines and shapes an individual's personality. In human beings, the frontal lobe attains
maturity when the individual is around the age of 25. frontal lobe is made up of the anterior portion (prefrontal cortex) and the posterior portion, and is divided
from the parietal lobe by the central sulcus. The anterior portion has higher cognitive functions, and the posterior portion controls voluntary movements. Functions
of the frontal lobe include reasoning, planning, organizing thoughts, behavior, sexual urges, emotions, problem-solving, judging, organizing parts of
speech, and motor skills. The frontal lobe is extremely vulnerable to injury due to its location, as it is in front of the central cranium. Any damage to this lobe of

the brain can lead to one or more of the following problems. Increased or decreased problem solving ability and creativity. Alteration in talking habits. Reduced
sexual interest or peculiar sexual habits. Impaired risk-taking ability. Reduced or no sense of taste and/or smell. Impaired spontaneity and mental flexibility.
Increased susceptibility to distractions. Parietal Lobe The parietal lobe is located behind the central sulcus, and above the occipital lobe. It has four anatomical
boundaries; the central sulcus, which separates parietal lobe from frontal lobe, the parieto-occipital sulcus which separates parietal and occipital lobes, the lateral
sulcus which separates the parietal from the temporal lobe, and the medial longitudinal fissure which divides the two hemispheres. The parietal lobe is responsible
for integrating sensory information from various parts of the body. The optic nerves passes through the parietal lobe to the occipital lobe. Functions of the parietal
lobe include information processing, movement, spatial orientation, speech, visual perception, recognition, perception of stimuli, pain and touch sensation
and cognition. damage to the parietal lobes result in abnormalities in spatial processing and body image. below are the problems that occur after damage to a
particular site of the parietal lobe. Left Parietal Lobe Damage: Any damage to left side of this lobe can cause Gerstmann's syndrome,language disorder, and
agnosia (abnormal perception of objects). Right Parietal Lobe Damage: Right side damage results in difficulty in making something, impaired personal care skills
and impaired drawing ability. Bi-lateral Parietal Lobe Damage: It causes Balint's syndrome which is characterized by impaired visual attention and motor
activities. Occipital Lobe. Smallest of four lobes, the occipital lobes are located in the rearmost portion of the skull. These are located on the tentorium cerebelli,
that separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. This lobe is responsible for visual perception system, as it contains the primary visual cortex. Functions of the
occipital lobe include visual reception, visual-spatial processing, movement and color recognition. Disorders of the occipital lobe can cause visual illusions.
these lobes are not particularly susceptible to injury, although significant trauma can result in problems. Disruption of the visual-perceptual system. Homonomous
vision loss. Temporal Lobe. There are two temporal lobes, each of which are located on each side of the brain; left and right, at about the level of the ears. The
temporal lobes are responsible for all auditory processing. These lobes also contain the hippocampus, responsible for formation of long-term memory and sorting
new information. Functions of both (left and right) temporal lobes include distinguishing and discrimination of smell and sound from other smells and
sounds respectively. Between them, they control visual memory (right lobe) and verbal memory (left lobe), and thus, hearing, speech and memory. Effects of
temporal lobe damage can again be classified depending on which side of the lobe is affected.Left Temporal Lobe Damage: leads to decreased ability to recall
audio and visual content, difficulty in recognizing words and remembering verbal material.Right Temporal Lobe damage: Damage to right side of this lobe results
in difficulty in recognizing visual content and tonal sequences, recall of previously encountered music or drawings, and reduced inhibition of talking. Medulla
-Control of Autonomic Functions, Relay of Nerve Signals Between the Brain and Spinal Cord, Coordination of Body Movements . Pons-Controlling Autonomic
Functions,Relaying Sensory Information Between the Cerebrum and Cerebellum, Sleep . Midbrain-Vision,Audition,Eye
Movement,Body Movement. Pituitary - Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help control the following body processes:Growth ,Blood
pressure,Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth, Breast milk production,Sex organ functions in both males and females,Thyroid gland function,
The conversion of
Name
Function
Production Site
Secretion Site
food into energy
Peptidases
Digests polypeptide
Small Intestine
Small Intestine
(metabolism),
lipase
digests lipids
salivary glands
mouth
Water and
hydrochloric acid
kills bacteria,activates pepsin
gastric glands
stomach
osmolarity
pepsin(ogen)
digests protein
gastric gland
stomach
regulation in the
Nuclease
digests nucleic acids
pancreas
duodenum
body, Water
sucrase
digests sucrose
small intestine
small intestine
balance via the
lactase
digests lactose
small intestine
small intestine
control of
bile
emulsifies fats
liver
duodenum
reabsorption of
secretin
stimulates bicarbonate, secretion to counter, acidity
duodenum
duodenum
salivary amylase
digests starch
salivary glands
mouth
maltase
digests maltose
small intestine
small intestine
mucus
protects from stomach acid
duodenum(goblet cells)
duodenum
water by the kidneys,Temperature regulation, Pain relief.thalamus-Sensory
processing, Movement. Hypothalamus-Body Temperature, Emotions,
Hunger, Thirst, Circadian Rhythms. Cerebellum
-Movement,Balance,Posture. Cerebrum- Determining Intelligence ,
Determining Personality,Thinking,Perceiving Producing and Understanding
Language ,Interpretation of Sensory Impulses,Motor Function,Planning and
Organization, Touch Sensation.Special areas-Brocas area-Speech production
and articulation.Wernickes area-Language comprehension. Limbic Systemsupport a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, motivation, longterm memory, and olfaction. It appears to be primarily responsible for our
emotional life, and has a great deal to do with the formation of memories. Fiber is found mostly in plant.There are two types insoluble fiber and
soluble fiber.Insoluble fiber is a type of fiber which cannot be dissolved in water.Insoluble fiber draws water to the intestine, increasing the bulk
and softness of waste products. Soluble fiber which can be dissolved in water. Soluble fiber can be digested slowly and it slows the digestive
process and keeps the stomach fuller longer leaving the body feeling full for a longer period of time .Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates are
slower so that glucose (sugar) in food enters the bloodstream more slowly, which keeps blood sugar on a more even level.The slow absorption of
sugar gives the body an opportunity to regulate blood sugar levels.Senses in skin:Heat,Cold,Light pressure,Heavy Pressure,Pain.Taste buds:
Chemical Receptors: Sweet, Sour, Bitter, Salty, MSG:gustatory cells. Images:the cornea and the lens help to produce the image on the
retina.images formed by the lens are upside down and backwards when they reach the retina.Olfactory receptors:Chemical Receptors:Top of
nasal cavity,Extremely sensitive,Easily fatigued,Much of taste involves smell.Sensory neurons bring messages to CNS Motor neurons - carry
messages from CNS Interneurons between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS. Dendrite receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the
cell body. Cell Body with nucleus nucleus & most of cytoplasm. Axon fiber which carries impulses away from cell body. Schwann Cells- cells
which produce myelin or fat layer. Myelin sheath lipid layer around the axon. Node of Ranvier gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath. Impulses
travel from dendrite to cell body to axon. Impulse-Self propagating, Mechanism Na+ K+ pump. Synapse-Junction between neurons,
Neurotransmitters. Synapse-Junction between neurons, The neurons do not actually tough at the synapse Neurotransmitters used to restart
impulse in dendrite of 2nd neuron .Neurotransmitters- Chemicals in the junction which allow impulses to be started in the second neuron.