About the Philippines

Bodies of Water
The Philippines boast of many different kinds of natural water forms, such as bays,
rivers, lakes falls, gulfs, straits, and swamps. Because it is made up of islands, the
country's coastline, if laid end-to-end, would measure around 17.5 thousand
kilometers. The Philippines is blessed with excellent natural harbors for ports like Manila
Bay. Other excellent harbors with port potentials are found in Ilocos, Pangasinan,
Visayas, and Mindanao. The three largest rivers in the country are the Cagayan River in
Northern Luzon, the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and the Agusan River, also in Mindanao.
Also noteworthy in terms of size are the Agno, Pasig, Angat Pampanga, and Bicol rivers
in Luzon. Most popular among tourist is the famous underground river in Palawan.
Aside from rivers, the country also abounds with lakes. Easily the most famous is the
heart-shaped Laguna de Bay. Other famous lakes are Taal in Batangas, Sampaloc in
Laguna, Buhi and Bulusan in Bicol, Naujan in Mindoro oriental, and Lanao and Mainit in
Mindanao. Generating power for the Nations growth are the magnificent waterfalls that
serve as tourist attractions, as well. The biggest is waterfalls is the Maria Cristina falls, it
can be found in the North Western part of Lanao province in Mindanao, while the most
popular is Pagsanjan falls in Laguna, where tourist came in droves.
Natural Resources
The Philippines is rich in natural resources. It has fertile, arable lands, diverse flora and
fauna, extensive coastlines, and rich mineral deposits. About 30% of the land area of
the country was determined be geologically prospective by the Philippine Mines and
Geo-Sciences Bureau. But Only 1.5% of country's land area is covered with mining
permits. Despite the rich natural resources of the Philippines, the government is
restricting its exploitation. A logging ban is imposed on many areas of the country and
only in select areas are "sustainable logging" allowed. However illegal logging and
small-scale illegal mining continues is many areas. In July 2012, President Benigno
Aquino III ordered a stop to all mining activities in all (78 areas) protected and ecotourism sites. A positive step in the right direction to protect the natural resources of the
Philippines.

Our Land
The Philippines primary source of livelihood is its fertile land. Rich, wide plains suitable
for farming are found in the Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, South western Bicol, Panay,
Negros, Davao, Cotabato, Agusan and Bukidnon. The country s six major crops

are rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, abaca and tobacco. Except for rice and corn, all
these products are exported, along with bananas and pineapples.
Our Forests
The Philippines also boasts of wide tracts of lush, green forests. In fact, almost half of
the countrys total land area is forested. Sixty percent of these forests are found in
Mindanao.
Mineral resources
Except for petroleum and a number of metals, mineral resources abound in Philippine
soil. The countrys mineral deposits can be classified into metals and non-metals. Our
metal deposits are estimated at 21.5 billion metric tons, while non-metal deposits are
projected at 19.3 billion metric tons. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size, it is
found in Surigao del Norte, Davao, Palawan, Romblon and Samar. Iron is found in
Ilocos Norte, Nueva Ecija, Camarines Norte and Cotabato. While copper in
Zambales,Batangas, Mindoro, Panay and Negros. Among non-metal deposits, the most
abundant are cement, lime, and marble. Other non-metals include asbestos, clay,
guano,asphalt, feldspar, sulfur, talc, silicon, phosphate, and marble.
Fishery Resources
With its territorial waters measuring as much as 1.67 million square kilometers and
located in the worlds fishing center, the Philippines is definitely rich in marine resources.
Of the 2,400 fish species found in the country. 65 have good commercial value. Other
marine products include corals, pearls, crabs and seaweeds. Some of the countries
best salt water fishing areas are found in Sintangki Island in Sulu Estancia in Bohol,
Malampaya in Palawan, Lingayen Gulf in Pangasinan, San Miguel lake in Camarines
Norte, Bantayan Channel in Cebu, and the seas of Quezon and Sorsogon.
On the other hand, among our biggest fisher water fishing areas are Laguna de
Bay, Bombon Lake in Batangas, Bato Lake in Canmarines Sur, Naujan Lake in Mindoro
and Mainit lake in Agusan del Norte. Continue to Early Filipinos

The First Filipinos

Many historians and scientists believe that the first inhabitants of the Philippine islands
emerged during the Pleistocene period. There are two theories on where the inhabitants
(first Filipinos) came from namely: Beyers Migration Theory and Jocanos Evolution
Theory. Noted social scientist Henry Otley Beyer believes that Filipinos descended
from different groups that came from Southeast Asia in successive waves of migration.
Each group had a distinct culture, with its own customs and traditions. While Jocano
believes that Asians, including Filipinos are the result of a lengthy process of evolution
and migration.
Migration Theory
The first migrants were what Beyer caked the Dawnmen (or cavemen because they
lived in caves.). The Dawnmen resembled Java Man, Peking Man, and other Asian
Home sapiens who existed about 250,000 years ago. They did not have any knowledge
of agriculture, and lived by hunting and fishing. It was precisely in search of food that
they came to the Philippines by way of the land bridges that connected the Philippines

and Indonesia. Owing perhaps to their migratory nature, they eventually left the
Philippines for destinations unknown.
The second group of migrants was composed of dark-skinned pygmies called Aetas or
Negritoes. About 30,000 years ago, they crossed the landbridged from Malaya,
Borneo, and Australia until they reached Palawan, Mindoro and Mindanao. They were
pygmies who went around practically naked and were good at hunting, fishing and food
gathering. They used spears and small flint stones weapons.
The Aetas were already in the Philippines when the land bridges disappeared due to the
thinning of the ice glaciers and the subsequent increase in seawater level. This natural
events forced them to remain in the country and become its first permanent
inhabitants.
Because of the disappearance of the land bridges, the third wave of migrants was
necessarily skilled in seafaring. These were the Indonesians, who came to the islands
in boats. They were more advanced than the Aetas in that: they had tools made out
of stone and steel, which enabled them to build sturdier houses: they engaged in
farming and mining, and used materials made of brass; they wore clothing and other
body ornaments.
Last to migrate to the Philippines, according to Beyer, were Malays. They were believed
to have come from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula more than 2,000
years ago. Like the Indonesians, they also traveled in boats.
The Malays were brown-skinned and of medium height, with straight black hair and flat
noses. Their technology was said to be more advanced than that of their predecessors.
They engaged in pottery, weaving, jewelry making and metal smelting, and introduced
the irrigation system in rice planting.
Jocanos Theory
Renowned Filipino anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano disputes Beyers belief that
Filipinos descended from Negritoes and Malays who migrated to the Philippines
thousands of years ago. According to Jocano, it is difficult to prove that Negritoes were
the first inhabitants of this country. The only thing that can positively concluded from
fossil evidence, he says is that the first men who came to the Philippines also went to
New Guinea, Java, Borneo, and Australia.
In 1962, a skullcap and a portion of a jaw-presumed to be a human origin-were found in
the Tabon Caves of Palawan by archaeologist Robert Fox and Manuel Santiago, who
both worked for the National Museum. Carbon dating placed their age at 21,000 to
22,000 years. This proves, Jocano argues, that man came earlier to the Philippines than
to the Malay Peninsula; therefore, the first inhabitants of our islands could not have
come from the region. The Tabon Man is said to resemble Java Man and Peking Man.
He gathered fruits, leaves and plants for his food. He hunted with weapons made
of stone. Although further research is still being done on his life and culture, evidence
shows that he was already capable of using his brain in order to survive and keep
himself safe.
Instead of the Migration Theory, Jocano advances the Evolution Theory, as a better
explanation of how our country was first inhabited by human beings, Jocano believes
that the first people of Southeast Asia were products of a long process of evolution and
migration. His research indicates that they shared more or less the same culture,
beliefs, practices an even similar tools and implements. These people eventually went

their separate ways; some migrated to the Philippines, the others to New Guinea, Java
and Borneo. Proof, Jocano says, can be found in the fossils discovered in different parts
of Southeast Asia, as well as the recorded migrations of other peoples from the Asian
mainland when history began to unfold. Continue to Spanish Expeditions to the
Philippines. Also see "About the Philippines".
Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines
The Magellan Expedition
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish crown, was looking for
a westward route to the to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. On March 16, 1521,
Magellan's expedition landed on Homonhon island in the Philippines. He was the first
European to reach the islands. Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly with Magellan and
embraced Christianity, but their enemy, Lapu-Lapu was not. Humabon wanted Magellan
to kill Lapu-Lapu while Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu into Christianity. On April
17, 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan and ensuing battle killed Magellan by the natives
lead by Lapu-Lapu. Out of the five ships and more than 300 men who left on the
Magellan expedition in 1519, only one ship (the Victoria) and 18 men returned to
Seville, Spain on September 6, 1522. Nevertheless, the said expedition was considered
historic because it marked the firstcircumnavigation of the globe and proved that the
world was round.
Juan Sebastian de Elcano, the master of ship "Concepcion" took over the command of
the expedition after the death of Magellan and captained the ship "Victoria" back to
Spain. He and his men earned the distinction of being the first to circumnavigate the
world in one full journey. After Magellan's death in Cebu, it took 16 more months for
Elcano to return to Spain. The Magellan expedition started off through the westward
route and returning to Spain by going east; Magellan and Elcano's entire voyage took
almost three years to complete.
Spain sends other expedition
After the Spain had celebrated Elcanos return, King Charles I decided that Spain
should conquer the Philippines. Five subsequent expeditions were then sent to the
Islands. These were led by Garcia Jofre Loaisa (1525),
Sebastian Cabot (1526), Alvaro de Saavedra (1527), Rudy Lopez de Villalobos (1542)
and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564). Only the last two actually reached the Philippines;
and only Legazpi succeeded in colonizing the Islands.
The Villalobos Expedition
Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set sail for the Philippines from Navidad, Mexico on November
1, 1542. He followed the route taken by Magellan and reached Mindanao on February
2, 1543. He established a colony in Sarangani but could not stay long because
of insufficient food supply. His fleet left the island and landed on Tidore in the Moluccas,
where they were captured by the Portuguese.
Villalobos is remembered for naming our country Islas Filipinas, in honor of King
Charles son, Prince Philip, who later became king of Spain.
The Legazpi Expedition
Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisa to Villalobos had succeeded in
taking over the Philippines, King Charles I stopped sending colonizers to the

Islands. However, when Philip II succeeded his father to the throne in 1556, he
instructed Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to prepare a new expedition to be
headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who would be accompanied by Andres de
Urdaneta, a priest who had survived the Loaisa mission.
On February 13, 1565, Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu island. After a short
struggle with the natives, he proceeded to Leyte, then to Camiguin and to Bohol. There
Legaspi made a blood compact with the chieftain, Datu Sikatuna as a sign of friendship.
Legaspi was able to obtain spices and gold in Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna.
On April 27, 1565, Legaspi returned to Cebu; destroyed the town of Raja Tupas and
establish a settlement. On orders of the King Philip II, 2,100 men arrived from Mexico.
They built the the port of Fuerza de San Pedro which became the Spanish trading
outpost and stronghold for the region.
Hearing of the riches of Manila, an expedition of 300 men headed by Martin de Goiti left
Cebu for Manila. They found the islands of Panay and Mindoro. Goiti arrived in Manila
on May 8, 1570. At first they were welcomed by the natives and formed an alliance with
Rajah Suliman, their Muslim king but as the locals sensed the true objectives of the
Spaniards, a battle between the troops of Suliman and the Spaniards erupted. Because
the Spaniards are more heavily armed, the Spaniards were able to conquer Manila.
Soon after Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila. Legaspi
built alliances and made peace with Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571,
Legaspi ordered the construction of the walled city of Intramuros and proclaimed it as
the seat of government of the colony and the capital of the islands. In 1572, Legaspi
died and was buried at the San Agustin Church in Intramuros. In 1574, Manila was
bestowed the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad de Espaa" (Distinguished and ever
loyal city of Spain) by King Philip II of Spain.
Why the Philippines was easily conquered
Through largely outnumbered, the Spaniards who came to colonize the
Philippines easily took control of our country. How did this happen?
The best possible explanation is that the natives lacked unity and a centralized form of
government. Although the barangays already functioned as units of governance, each
one existed independently of the other, and the powers that each Datu enjoyed were
confined only to his own barangay. No higher institution united the barangays, and the
Spaniards took advantage of this situation. They used the barangays that were friendly
to them in order to subdue the barangays that were not. Continue to Spain as Colonial
Masters.
The Spaniards as Colonial Masters
Spain reigned over the Philippines for 333 years, from 1565 to 1898. since Spain was
far from the country, the Spanish king ruled the Islands through the viceroy of Mexico,
which was then another Spanish colony. When Mexico regained its freedom in 1821,
the Spanish king ruled the Philippines through a governor general. A
special government body that oversaw matters, pertaining to the colonies assisted the
king in this respect. This body became known by many names. Council of the Indies
(1565-1837), Overseas Council (1837-1863), and Ministry of the Colonies (18631898).
It is implemented the decrees and legal codes Spain promulgated although many of its
provisions could not apply to condition in the colonies. It also exercised legislative and
judicial powers.
The Political Structure

Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that was

composed of a national government and the
local governments thatadministered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. With
the cooperation of the local governments the national government maintained peace
and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public works.
The Governor General
As the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines, the
governor general saw to it that royal decrees and laws emanating from Spain were
implemented in the Philippines. He had the power to appoint and dismiss public
officials, except those personally chosen by the King. He also supervised
all government offices and the collection of taxes.
The governor general exercised certain legislative powers, as well. He issued
proclamations to facilitate the implementation of laws.
The Residencia
This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of a governor general
who was about to be replaced. The residencia, of which the incoming governor general
was usually a member, submitted a report of its findings to the King.
The Visita
The Council of the Indies in Spain sent a government official called the Vistador General
to observe conditions in the colony. The Visitador General reported his findings directly
to the King.
The Royal Audiencia
Apart from its judicial functions, the Royal Audiencia served as an advisory body to the
Governor General and had the power to check and a report on his abuses. The
Audiencia also audited the expenditures of the colonial government and sent a yearly
report to Spain. The Archbishop and other government officials could also report the
abuses of the colonial government to be Spanish king. Despite all these checks,
however, an abusive governor general often managed to escape stiff fines, suspension,
or dismissal by simply bribing the Visitador and other investigators.
The Provincial Government
The Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the countrys administration.
There were two types of local government units the alcadia and the corregimiento.
The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully
subjugated: the corregimiento, headed by corregidor, governed the provinces that were
not yet entirely under Spanish control. The alcalde mayors represented the Spanish
king and the governor general in their respective provinces. They managed the day-today operations of the provincial government, implemented laws and supervised the
collection of taxes. Through they were paid a small salary, they enjoyed privileges such
as the indulto de comercio, or the right to participate in the galleon trade.
The Municipal Government
Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadordcillos,
whose main concerns were efficient governance and tax collection. Four lieutenants
aided the Governardorcillo: the Teniente Mayor (chief lieutenant), the Teniente de
Policia (police lieutenant), the Teniente de Sementeras (lieutenant of the fields) and the
Teniente de Ganados (lieutenant of the livestock).
The Encomienda System
Spain owed the colonization of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who

valiantly and loyally served the Spanish crown. To hasten the subjugation of the
country, King Philip II instructed Legazpi to divide the Philippines into large territories
called encomiendas, to be left to the management of designated encomenderos.

To show his gratitude to his conquistadors, the King made them the first encomenderos
in the colony. As the Kings representatives in their respective encomiendas, the
encomenderos had the right to collect taxes. However, the encomiendas were not there
to own. The encomenderos were only territorial overseers who had the duty to: 1)
protect the people in the encomienda; (2) maintain peace and order; (3) promote
education and health programs; and (4) help the missionaries propagate
Christianity.Continue to The Galleon Trade.
The Galleon Trade
When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, our ancestors were already trading with
China, Japan, Siam, India, Cambodia, Borneo and the Moluccas. The Spanish
government continued trade relations with these countries, and the Manila became the
center of commerce in the East. The Spaniards closed the ports of Manila to all
countries except Mexico. Thus, the ManilaAcapulco Trade, better known as the
"Galleon Trade" was born. The Galleon Trade was a government monopoly. Only two
galleons were used: One sailed from Acapulco to Manila with some 500,000 pesos
worth of goods, spending 120 days at sea; the other sailed from Manila to Acapulco with
some 250,000 pesos worth of goods spending 90 days at sea.
It also allowed modern, liberal ideas to enter the country, eventually inspiring the
movement for independence from Spain. And because the Spaniards were so
engrossed in making profits from theGalleon Trade, they hardly had any time to further
exploit our natural resources.
Bascos Reforms
Filipino farmers and traders finally had a taste of prosperity when Governor General
Jose Basco y Vargas instituted reforms intended to free the economy from
its dependence on Chinese and Mexican trade. Basco implemented a general
economic plan aimed at making the Philippines self sufficient. He established the
Economic Society of Friends of the Country, which gave incentives to farmers for
planting cotton, spices, and sugarcane; encouraged miners to extract gold, silver, tin,
and copper; and rewarded investors for scientific discoveries they made.
Tobacco Monopoly
The tobacco industry was placed under government control during the administration of
Governor General Basco. In 1781, a tobacco monopoly was implemented in the
Cagayan Valley, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija, and
Marinduque. Each of these provinces planted nothing but tobacco and sold their harvest
only to the government at a pre-designated price, leaving little for the farmers. No other
province was allowed to plant tobacco. The government exported the tobacco to other
countries and also part of it to the cigarette factories in Manila.
The tobacco monopoly successfully raised revenues for the colonial government and
made Philippine tobacco famous all over Asia. Continue to Secularization of Priests
During the Spanish Period.
The Secularization of Priests During Spanish Period

The Opening of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal, which connected the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, was
inaugurated in 1869. It was built by a French engineer named Ferdinand de Lesseps.
By passing through the Canal, vessels journeying between Barcelona and Manila no
longer had to pass by the Cape of Good Hope, at the southern tip of Africa. Thus, they
were able to shorten their traveling time from three months to 32 days.
Thanks to the Suez Canal, trading in the Philippines became increasingly profitable.
More and more foreign merchants and businessmen came to the colony, bringing with
them a lot of progressive ideas. The Filipinos not only gained more knowledge and
information about the world at large; they also gained the desire for freedom and
improvement in their lives.
The Secularization Controversy
Two kinds of priests served the Catholic Church in the Philippines. These were the
regulars and the seculars. Regular priests belonged to religious orders. Their main task
was to spread Christianity. Examples were the Franciscans, Recollects, Dominicans,
and Augustinians. Secular priests did not belong to any religious order. They were
trained specifically to run the parishes and were under the supervision of the bishops.
Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting the parishes that were being run by
regular priests. It was their duty, they argued, to check on the administration of these
parishes. But the regular priests refused these visits, saying that they were not under
the bishops jurisdiction. They threatened to abandon their parishes if the bishops
persisted.
In 1774, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa decided to uphold the dioceses authority over
the parishes and accepted the resignations of the regular priests. He assigned secular
priests to take their place. Since there were not enough seculars to fill all the vacancies
the Archbishop hastened the ordination of Filipino seculars. A royal decree was also
issued on November 9, 1774, which provided for the secularization of all parishes or the
transfer of parochial administration from the regular friars to the secular priests.
The regulars resented the move because they considered the Filipinos unfit for the
priesthood. Among other reasons they cited the Filipinos brown skin, lack of education,
and inadequate experience.
The controversy became more intense when the Jesuits returned to the Philippines.
They had been exiled from the country because of certain policies of the order that
theSpanish authorities did not like.
The issue soon took on a racial slant. The Spaniards were clearly favouring their own
regular priest over Filipino priests.
Monsignor Pedro Pelaez, ecclesiastical governor of the Church, sided with the Filipinos.
Unfortunately, he died in an earthquake that destroyed the Manila Cathedral in 1863.
After his death, other priests took his place in fighting for the secularization movement.
Among them were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora.

The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jocinto Zamora
(Gomburza), all Filipino priest, was executed by the Spanish colonizers on charges of
subversion. The charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora was their alleged
complicity in the uprising of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard. The death of Gomburza
awakened strong feelings of anger and resentment among the Filipinos. They
questioned Spanish authorities and demanded reforms. The martyrdom of the three
priests apparently helped to inspire the organization of the Propaganda Movement,
which aimed to seek reforms and inform Spain of the abuses of its colonial government.
The illustrados led the Filipinos quest for reforms. Because of their education and newly
acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing out popular grievances.
However, since the illustrados themselves were a result of the changes that the Spanish
government had been slowly implementing, the group could not really push very hard
for the reforms it wanted. The illustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of
the Filipinos; but from this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia. The
intelligentsia also wanted reforms; but they were more systematic and used a peaceful
means called the Propaganda Movement.
Goals of the Propaganda Movement
Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists or reformists. They
worked inside and outside the Philippines. Their objectives were to seek:

Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain

Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards
Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes
Secularization of Philippine parishes.
Recognition of human rights
The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independence because its
members believed that once Spain realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards
would implement the changes the Filipinos were seeking.
The Propagandists
The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than those in Manila.
They could be divided into three groups: The first included Filipinos who had been
exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being implicated in the Cavite Mutiny. After
two many years in the Marianas, they proceeded to Madrid and Barcelona because they
could no longer return to the Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in
the Philippines who had been sent to Europe for their education. The third group was
composed of Filipinos who had fled their country to avoid punishment for a crime, or
simply because they could not stand Spanish atrocities any longer. Still, not all Filipinos
living in Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose Rizal, Graciano
Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most prominent members.
Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces as "Fray Botod," "Esperanza,"
and "La Hija del Fraile," which all criticized the abuses of Spanish friars in the
Philippines. Del Pilar was an excellent writer and speaker who put up the
newspaper Diarion Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars. Some of his most

popular writings included "Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at Tocsohan," and "Ang Sampung
Kautusan ng mga Prayle". "Caingat Cayo" was a pamphlet answering the criticisms
received by Jose Rizals novel Noli Me Tangere. "Dasalan" was parody of the prayer
books used by the Church, while "Ang Sampung Kautusan" was a satirical take on
the Ten Commandments, which highly ridiculed the Spanish friars.

Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He was
the first Filipino become famous for his written works. He wrote a poem entitled Sa
Aking mga Kababata when he was only eight years old. His novels, Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo, clearly depicted the sufferings of the Filipinos and the
rampant abuses committed by the friars in the colony. Because of his criticisms of the
government and the friars, Rizal made a lot of enemies. He was executed at
Bagumbayan (later renamed Luneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30,
1896.
The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired Andres Bonifacio and
other radicals to establish the Katipunan and set the Philippine Revolution in
place.Continue to La Solidaridad & La Liga Filipina.
La Liga Filipina
In 1892, Jose Rizal (full name: Jose Protacio Mercado Rizal y Alonzo) returned to the
Philippines and proposed the establishment of a civic organizationcalled La
Liga Filipina. On July 3, 1892, the following were elected as its officers: Ambrosio
Salvador, president: Agustin dela Rosa, fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and
Deodato Arellano, secretary. Rizal functioned as its adviser.
La Liga Filipina aimed to:

Unite the whole country

Protect and assist all members
Fight violence and injustice
Support education
Study and implement reforms

La Liga Filipina had no intention of rising up in arms against the government; but
the Spanish officials still felt threatened. On July 6, 1892 only three days after La
LigaFilipinas establishment, Jose Rizal was secretly arrested. The next day, Governor
General Eulogio Despujol ordered Rizals deportation to Dapitan, a small, secluded
town in Zamboanga.

La Liga Filipina's membership was active in the beginning; but later, they began to drift
apart. The rich members wanted to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement; but
the others seemed to have lost all hope that reforms could still be granted. Andres
Bonifacio was one of those who believed that the only way to achieve meaningful
change was through a bloody revolution.
La Solidaridad

In order to help achieve its goals, the Propaganda Movement put up its own newspaper,
called La Solidaridad. The Soli, as the reformists fondly called their official organ, came
out once every two weeks. The first issue saw print was published on November 15,
1895.
The Solidaridads first editor was Graciano Lopez Jaena. Marcelo H. del Pilar took over
in October 1889. Del Pilar managed the Soli until it stopped publication due to lack of
funds.

Why the Propaganda Movement Failed

The propaganda movement did not succeed in its pursuit of reforms. The
colonial government did not agree to any of its demands. Spain itself was undergoing a
lot of internal problems all that time, which could explain why the mother country failed
to heed the Filipinos petitions. The friars, on the other hand, were at the height of their
power and displayed even more arrogance in flaunting their influence. They had neither
the time nor the desire to listen to the voice of the people.

Many of the reformists showed a deep love for their country, although they still failed to
maintain a united front. Because most of them belonged to the upper middle class, they
had to exercise caution in order to safeguard their wealth and other private interests.
Personal differences and petty quarrels, apart from the lack of funds, were also a
hindrance to the movements success. Lastly, no other strong and charismatic leader
emerged from the group aside from Jose Rizal. Continue to The Katipunan.
The Katipunan Finally Starts a Revolution
The Katipunan is born
Andres Bonifacio was also a member of La Liga Filipina, although he soon lost hope in
gaining reforms though peaceful means. This feeling was especially heightened
when Jose Rizal was exiled to Dapitan. Bonifacio became convinced that the only way
thePhilippines could gain independence was through a revolution.
Bonifacio then founded the Katastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipuanan ng mga
Anak ng Bayan (KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street (now Claro M.
Recto), in Tondo Manila.
The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the members loyalty, they
performed the solemn rite of sanduguan(blood compact), wherein each one signed his
name with his own blood..

The members agreed to recruit more people using the triangle system of enlistment.
Each original member would recruit tow new members who were not related to each
other. Each new member would do the same thing, and so on down the line. Members
were also asked to contribute one Real (about 25 centavos) each month in order to
raise funds for the association.
The KKK members agreed on the following objectives:

The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after
declaring the countrys independence.
The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine

morals, and how to guard themselves against religious fanaticism..

The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor
oppressed.

The Kataastaasang Sanggunian (supreme council) was the highest governing body of
the Katipunan. It was headed by a supremo, or president. Each province had a
Sangguaniang Bayan (Provincial Council) and each town had a Sangguniang
Balangay (Popular Council).
The Leaders of the Katipunan:

Deodato Arellano -Supremo

Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal
Teodora Plata -Secretary
Valentine Diaz -treasurer
Andres Bonifacio -controller
Jose Rizal and the Katipunan
Jose Rizal never became involved in the organization and activities of the Katipunan;
but the Katipuneros still looked up to him as a leader. In fact, Rizals name was used as
a password among the societys highest-ranking members, who were called bayani.
Andres Bonifacio had already known Rizal during his La Liga Filipina days, although
Rizal did not know Bonifacio personally Nevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizals
intelligence and talent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio Valenzuela to Dapitan to seek
Rizals advice on the planned revolution.
Rizal told Valenzuela that the timing was not right for a revolution. The people were not
yet ready and they did not have enough weapons. He suggested that the Katipunan
obtain the support of wealthy and influential Filipinos first, in order to gain financial
assistance. He also recommended Antonio Luna as commander of its armed forces,
since Luna had much knowledge and expertise in military tactics.
Valenzuela returned to Manila on June 26 and relayed Rizals advice to Bonifacio, who
admitted that it would indeed be fatal for the Filipinos to fight without enough weapons.
However, there was no stopping the Revolution. Bonifacio ordered his men to prepare
for battle. He directed them to store enough food and other supplies. Battle plans were
made with the help of Emilio Jacinto. It was suggested that the revolutionary
headquarters be located near the seas or mountains to provide for an easy retreat, if
necessary.
The Katipunan is Discovered
Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation, although no
solid evidence could be found to support them. The big break as far as the Spanish
authorities was concerned, came on August 19, 1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro
Patio told his sister Honoria about the existence of the Katipunan. Patio was a worker
in the printing press of Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living with nuns in a
Mandaluyong orphanage.
The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanages Mother Superior,
Sor Teresa de Jesus, what her brother had revealed. Sor Teresa suggested they seek

the advice of Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of Tondo.

After hearing Patios revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied by several
Guardias Civiles immediately searched the premises of Diario de Manila and found
evidence of the Katipunans existence. The governor general was quickly informed. The
printing press was padlocked and hundreds of suspected KKK members were
arrested. -Continue to Cry of Pugad Lawin & Andres Bonifacio's Execution.
The Cry of Pugadlawin

News about the discovery of the Katipunan spread to Manila and nearby suburbs,
and Andres Bonifacio immediately called for a general meeting. Various wings of the
Katipunan gathered at the house of Juan Ramos in Pugadlawin on August 23,
1896. Ramos was the son of Melchora Aquino, also known as Tandang Sora and was
later acknowledged as the Mother of the Katipunan."

Bonifacio asked his men whether they were willing to fight to the bitter end. Everyone
shouted their approval, except for Teodoro Plata, who though that it was too soon for a
revolution. Heartened by his mens response, Bonifacio then asked them to tear
their cedulas (residence certificates) to pieces, as a sign of their defiance and
determination to rise against the Spaniards. The men immediately tore up their cedulas,
shouting, Mabuhay ang Pilipinas (long live the Philippines) -known as the Cry of
Pugadlawin.
The Katipunan in Cavite
Cavite soon became the center of the Revolution, and the Katipuneros there divided
themselves into the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions. Baldomero Aguinaldo, brother of
Emilio Aguinaldo, headed the Magdalo group, which was stationed in Kawit. General
Mariano Alvarez led the Magdiwang group, which was stationed in Noveleta.

The two groups fought in separate battles. Emilio Aguinaldo overran Kawit on August
31, 1896, while Alvarez attacked Noveleta. In Bacoor, Aguinaldo tried to intercept
Spanish reinforcements coming from Manila; but he was repulsed and forced to retreat
to nearby Imus. Here, on the morning of September 5, he defeated the Spanish troops
under the command of General Aguirre. A hundred Spaniards were killed and 60
weapons were confiscated. Aguinaldo was hailed as a hero. The adoring Caviteos
referred to him as General Miong and no longer Kapitan Miong.

General Aguinaldos numerous victories in the battlefield made him the acknowledged
revolutionary leader in Cavite. He issued a proclamation on October 31, 1896 enjoining
the people to take courage and continue fighting for Philippine independence.

Owing to the defeat of the Spaniards in Cavite, Camilo de Polavieja replaced Ramon
Blanco as governor general on December 13, 1896. Polavieja was more successful
than his predecessor and slowly regained one-third of the province.

Andres Bonifacio's Execution

While Aguinaldo was recognized as leader by the Magdalo faction, Bonifacio was
recognized as the leader of the Katipunan by the Magdiwang faction. An assembly was
held in Imus, Cavite on December 31, 1897 to settle the leadership issue but was not
successful. Then on March 22, another assembly was held at Tejeros (known as the
Tejeros Convention) to elect officers of the revolutionary government. Aguinaldo won as
president while Bonifacio was relegated as the Director of the Interior. Bonifacio rejected
the elections and declared it void. Bonifacio later formed the Naic Military Agreement,
essentially creating a government contending Aguinaldo's. Soon after, Bonifacio was
captured, stood trial, and was sentenced to death by a War Council of Aguinaldo's
government. Aguinaldo initially commuted the sentence to deportation but later reversed
the commutation upon pressure from Pio Del Pilar and other officers. On orders from
General Mariano Noriel, Andres Bonifacio was executed at the foothills of Mt. Buntis by
Major Lazaro Makapagal on May 10, 1897.

The Revolution Continues

Bonifacios death did not deter the Filipinos from fighting for their freedom. The Spanish
government, for its part, doubled its efforts in trying to control Cavite, which was
considered the seat of the Revolution. When Governor General Primo de
Rivera replaced Camilo Polavieja on April 27, 1897, he immediately marched to Naic,
Cavite to persuade the Filipinos to surrender. The rebels, however, stood their ground.

Aguinaldo realized that Cavite was no longer safe for his men. They moved
to Batangas, where they temporarily set up camp in the town of Talisay. However,
Spanish soldiers were able to pursue them there. Thus, they retreated to Morong on
June 10, 1897 and proceeded to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan. Click here to continue with
Pact of Biak-na-Bato.

The Biak-na Bato Republic

Emilio Aguinaldo established his headquarters in Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province. The
news immediately spread throughout the country, and the revolutionaries were once
more in high spirits. General llanera, who was in Nueva Ecija, declared his support for
Aguinaldo. In July 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-Bato Republic and issued
aproclamation stating the following demands:

Expulsion of the friars and the return of the friar lands to the Filipinos
Representation of the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes
Freedom of the press and of religion
Abolition of the governments power to banish Filipinos
Equality for all before the law.

A charter based on the Cuban Constitution was also drafted by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo
Artacho. It was signed on November 1, 1897. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution provided
for the establishment of a Supreme council that would serve as the highest governing
body of the Republic. It also outlined certain basic human rights, such as freedom of

religion, freedom of the press, and the right to education. Emilio Aguinaldo and Mariano
Trias were elected Supreme Council president and vice president, respectively.
The Pact of Biak-na-Bato
Pedro Paterno, a Spaniard born in the Philippines volunteered to act as negotiator
between Aguinaldo and Gov. Primo de Rivera in order to end the clashes. Paternos
effort paid off when on, December 15, 1897, the Pact he sign the Pact as the
representative of the revolutionaries, and de Riveraas the representative of the Spanish
government. The Leaders are: Emilio Aguinaldo-President, Mariano Trias-Vice
President, Antonio Montenegro-Secretary, Baldomero Aguinaldo-Treasurer, and Emilio
Riego de Dios.
On December 23, 1897, Generals Celestino Tejero and Ricardo Monet of the Spanish
army arrived in Biak-na-Bato and became hostages of the rebels.
A ceasefire was declared by both camps and an agreement between Aguinaldo and the
Spanish forces was made -that the Spanish government will grant self-rule to the
Philippines in 3 years if Aguinaldo went to exile and surrender his arms. In exchange,
Aguinaldo will receive P800,000 (Mexican Pesos) as remuneration to the revolutionaries
and an amnesty. After receiving a partial payment of P400,000, Aguinaldo left for Hong
Kong on December 27, 1897. Some Filipino generals, however, did not believe in the
sincerity of the Spaniards. They refused to surrender their arms. Nevertheless, the Te
Deum was still sung on January 23, 1898.
The Biak-na-Bato Pact Fails

The Filipinos and the Spaniards did not trust each other. As a result, periodic clashes
between the two groups still took place even after Aguinaldos departure from the
country. The Spanish did not pay the entire agreed amount. Continue to The SpanishAmerican War.

The Spanish-American War

The US Helps Cuba
One year before the historic Cry of Pugad Lawin, a revolution broke out in Cuba
-another Spanish Colony that rose against the rampant abuses of the Spaniards. It
became independent in 1898 after three years of revolt, with the help of United States.
The Americans were supportive of the Cubans for various reasons:

First- the US is a free country and Advocated democracy and freedom.

2nd- the US wants to protect its huge economic interest in Cuba, in the amount of
$50,000,000.
3rd- a lot of stories reached the United States about Spanish maltreatment
of Americans living in Cuba and this greatly angered the US citizens.
Finally, since Cuba was located very near the US it was deemed covered by the
protective mantle of the Monroe Doctrine.
The US interest in the Philippines

At that time, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, wanted a war to
erupt between the US and Spain so he could strengthen and expandthe US Navy, he
immediately put his plan into place. On February 25, 1896, he
ordered Commodore George Dewey to make Hong Kong the headquarters of the
American Asiatic Squadron. He also directed Dewey to attack Manila Bay and destroy
the Spanish fleet, the moment hostilities between Spain and US break out.

The Spanish-American War

Spain did not relish American intervention in its affairs. However, with the Philippine
and Cuban revolutions going on, it could not afford to add the Americans to its enemy
list, especially since the United States had more advanced technology and weaponry. In
the face of Spains declining power, it tried to repair its rift with the US in order to avoid a
disastrous war. On February 15, 1898, how ever a fateful event accrued in Cuba. The
American warship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor, resulting in the death of its
260 officers and crewmembers. Although it was not proven that the Spaniards had sunk
the Maine, the Americans called for war against Spain. Roosevelt was one of many US
officials who considered the destruction of the Maine as act of treason and supported
the declaration of war.

Spain declared war on the United States on April 23, 1898. The United
Sates declared war against Spain on April 25, 1898. On May 1, 1898, the United States
Navy lead byCommodore George Dewey crushed the Spanish squadron in Manila Bay
and the Spanish naval base at Sangley Point in Cavite. By June, 1898, the American
had control of portions of the Philippine islands. The Spanish-American War ended with
the Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898. The treaty conferred ownership of the
Spanishcolonies of Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. In turn,
the U.S. paid Spain US$ 20 million.

The Battle of Manila Bay

George Dewey, then a Commodore United States Navys Asiatic Squadron was waiting
in Hong Kong when He received a cable from the then secretary of Navy, Theodore
Roosevelt, stating that the war had begun between the US and Spain. Dewey sailed
from Hong Kong on board his flagship Olympia with six other heavily armed ships. He
brought with him a report on the location of the Spanish ships in Corregidor and
Manila at dawn of May 1, 1898. Dewey entered Manila Bay almost undetected. When
he saw the Spanish ships, which were under the command of General Patricio
Montoya, he ordered his men to fire. The battle began at 5:41 in the morning and by
12:30 of the same day, the Spaniards were raising the white flag in surrender. Although
The Spanish ships outnumbered those of the Americans; the weapons of the Americans
were far more superior to those of the Spaniards. The battle proved to be too costly for
the Spaniards, who lost 167 men and had 214 others wounded. As for the Americans,
no ships were destroyed, and no soldier was killed or injured. The Battle of Manila Bay
is considered one of the easiest encounters ever won in world history.

The Siege of Manila

By June 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo had captured the whole of Luzon and was
ready to storm Manila with the help ofGregorio del Pilar, Artemio Recarte, Antonio
Montenegro, Pantaleon Garcia, and many other able generals. At that time, the term
Manila referred to the walled city of Intramuros. Aguinaldos men surrounded the walls
of Intramuros. Nearby areas like Tondo, Sta. Cruz, San Juan, and Caloocan were
likewise secured. The Spaniards stubbornly hoped for the arrival of reinforcements from
the Spanish mainland, but none ever came. Aguinaldo on the other hand, was firmly
convinced that it just was a matter of days before the Spaniards surrendered. Therefore,
he started planning for the declaration of Philippine independence.

The Philippine Revolutionary Government

The Malolos Congress

Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree on July 18, 1898 asking for the election of delegates
to the revolutionary congress, another decree was promulgated five days later, which
declared that Aguinaldo would appoint representatives of congress because holding
elections is not practical at that time. He appointed 50 delegates in all (but this number
fluctuated from time to time). In accordance with these two decrees, Aguinaldo
assembled the Revolutionary Congress at the Brasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan on
September 15, 1898.
The atmosphere was festive and the Pasig Band played the national anthem. After
Aguinaldo had read his speech congressional elections were held among the delegates
present. The following were among the most important achievements of the Malolos
Congress:
1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the declaration of Philippine independence held at
Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898
2. Passage of a law that allowed the Philippines to borrow P 20 million from banks for
government expenses
3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura de Filipinas and other schools
4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution
5. Declaring war against the United States on June 12, 1899

Malolos Constitution
A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided by Cayetano Arellano, the
constitution was drafted, for the first time by representatives of the Filipino people and it
is the first republican constitution in Asia. The constitution was inspired by the
constitutions of Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Brazil, Belgium and France. After some
minor revisions (mainly due to the objections of Apolinario Mabini), the final draft of the

constitution was presented to Aguinaldo. This paved the way to launching the first
Philippine Republic. It established a democratic, republication government with three
branches - the Executive, Legislative and the Judicial branches. It called for the
separation of church and state. The executive powers were to be exercise by the
president of the republic with the help of his cabinet. Judicial powers were given to the
Supreme Court and other lower courts to be created by law. The Chief justice of the
Supreme Court was to be elected by the legislature with the concurrence of the
President and his Cabinet.

First Philippine Republic

The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan on January 21, 1899.
After being proclaimed president, Emilio Aguinaldo took his oath of office. The
constitution was read article by article and followed by a military parade. Apolinario
Mabini was elected as a prime minister. The other cabinet secretaries were: Teodoro
Sandico, interior; Baldomero Aguinaldo, war; Gen. Mariano Trias, finance & war;
Apolinario Mabini, foreign affairs; Gracio Gonzaga for welfare, Aguedo Velarde, public
instruction; Maximo Paterno, public works & communication; and Leon Mara Guerrero
for agriculture, trade & commerce.

The Philippine National Anthem

Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a composer from Cavite province was asked to
write an an instrumental march for the proclamation of independence ceremony. The
original title was "Marcha Filipina Magdalo". This was later changed to "Marcha
Nacional Filipina". The lyrics was added in August 1899 based on the poem titled
"Filipinas" by Jose Palma. The original lyrics was written in Spanish, then to English
(when the Flag Law was abolished during the American period) then later, was
translated to Tagalog, which underwent another change of title to Lupang Hinirang, the
Philippine National Anthem.

Filipino-American Hostilities
Emilio Aguinaldo agreed to hold a peace conference between Filipino and American
leaders. The conference lasted from January 9 to 29 in 1899. It ended without definite
results, because the Americans were actually just biding time, waiting for more
reinforcements to arrive from the US. Hostilities finally exploded between the Filipinos
and Americans on February 4, 1899 in San Juan. An American soldier named Robert
Grayson, saw 4 armed Filipino men on San Juan Del Mote Bridge and ordered them to
stop, but they ignored him. This prompted Grayson to fire at the men, who immediately
fired back. The following day MacArthur ordered his troops to openly engage the
Filipinos in battle. The Filipino American War was on. From San Juan, American
soldiers marched on to Pasig and nearby areas. In a matter of days, they were able to
overrun Guadalupe, Pateros, Marikina, and Caloocan.

General Antonio Luna and his men showed great heroism when they attacked Manila
on the night of February 24, 1899. They burned the living quarters of the Americans in
Tondo and Binondo, and reached as far as Azarraga Street (now Claro M. Recto
Avenue), where they met by formidable American troops. Luna was forced to retreat to
Polo, Bulacan two days later. When American reinforcements arrived in the Philippines,
General Elwell Otis immediately attacked the northern part of Manila, while General
Henry Lawton went to the south. General Arthur MacArthu, Jr. marched to Malolos,
which was then the capital of the Philippine Republic. Malolos was taken on March 31,
1899. By this time, however, Aguinaldo had already moved his headquarters to San
Fernando, Pampanga. General Fredrick Funston crossed the Pampanga River in April
1899 and entered San Fernando. On May 5, the Americans had gained control
of Pampanga. Fortunately, Aguinaldo was able to flee to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.
The death of Antonio Luna. A significant event that greatly weakened Aguinaldos
forces was the death of General Antonio Luna, acknowledged as the best and most
brilliant military strategist of the Philippine Revolution. He was brave, intelligent, and
well educated; but he also had a fiery temper, and was a strict disciplinarian. His harsh
and rough manner earned him a lot of enemies, who latter plotted to kill him. In June
1899 Luna was at his command post in Bayambang, Pangasinan when he received a
telegram allegedly sent by Aguinaldo. The telegram instructed him to proceed to
Aguinaldos headquarters in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. On June 5, Luna arrived at the
headquarters, a convent on the town plaza in Cabanatuan, but was told that Aguinaldo
left for Tarlac. Angry, Luna went out of the convent and was met and killed
by Captain Pedro Janolino with Kawit, Cavite troops. General Luna was buried at the
nearby churchyard. Aguinaldo's role on his death is not clear and his killers were never
charged or investigated.
Aguinaldo Flees. Philippine military strategies began to fail with the death of Antonio
Luna. The generals started to disagree among themselves, and the
Filipinos began losing battles. On November 13, 1899, General Emilio Aguinaldo fled to
Calasiao, Pangasinan with his wife, son, mother sister, and some Cabinet members.
The Americans followed in hot pursuit; but Aguinaldo still managed to elude them.
However, he soon realized that being constantly on the run put the women in his group
at great disadvantage. So, on December 25, 1899, he surrendered them to the
American Aguinaldo then continued his march from Pangasinan to Palanan, Isabela.
There he stayed for some time, since the place was mountainous and difficult to
approach. Aguinaldos loyal men guarded all roads leading to the area.

End of the Philippine Revolution

Aguinaldo is Captured

Gen. Funston plotted the capture of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo. On the night of March 6,
1901, He boarded the American warship Vicksburg and docked at Casiguran Bay on
March 14. From Palanan Funston group reached Aguinaldos headquarters in Palanan
on March 23, 1901. The Macabebe Scouts pretended to have been sent by Lacuna,
with the American officials as their prisoners. Thus Aguinaldo have no idea of his
impending capture until Tal Placido of the Macabebe Scouts embraced him. The
Americans then declared the arrest of Aguinaldo and his men in the name of the United
States government. Aguinaldo was brought to Manila and presented to then military

Governor-General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (father of General Douglas MacArthur)

at Malacanang Palace. On April 19, 1901 he finally pledged allegiance to the United
States.
The Philippine Revolution Ends

The first to yield to the Americans was by General Simion Ola. He surrendered to
Colonel Harry Bandoltz in Guinobatan Albay on September 25.1903. Other
revolutionaries soon followed.
Military Government

General Wesley Merritt was the highest-ranking American official in the Philippines after
Spaniards surrendered Manila on August 13, 1898. He established a military
government and became the first American Military governor of the Philippines. The
objectives of the Military government are: 1) to establish peace and order to
the Philippines, and 2) to prepare Philippines for civil governance. The government in
the Philippines can be classified into opposition and collaboration. The Americans used
propaganda and other means to win the Filipinos to their side.
The Schurman

The first commission was chaired by Dr. Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell
University. Thus it became known as the Schurman Commission. Their group arrived on
the Philippines on February 4, 1899. The commission proposed the following:

1. Establish civil governments in areas were peace and order had been restored
2. Set up a bicameral legislature with members of the lower house to be all elective
3. Appoint American and Filipino member of the Upper house to head the cabinet
4. Preserve Philippine natural resources
5. Create a civil service system
6. Assign highly qualified Filipinos to important government positions

The US Congress adopted all the recommendation of the Schurman commission.

The Taft Commission
On March 16, 1900, United States President William McKinley appointed the then
Judge William Howard Taft to head the second Philippine Commission, which would
also be known as the Taft Commission. Taft would become Governor-General of
thePhilippines and later, the president of the U.S.

McKinley wanted to hasten the transition of the Philippine military government into a
civil one. The TaftCommissions was given executive and legislative powers it could use
to achieve the Presidents objective.
The Commission arrives in the Philippines on June 3, 1900. It began legislative work on
September 1, thefirst law it passed set aside P2 million for the construction of treads

and bridges. From September 1900 to August 1902, the Commission was able to enact
440 pieces of legislation for the Philippines. Some of theselaws included the Municipal
and Provincial codes, which established municipal and provincial governments all over
the country, and laws organizing the Philippine Constabulary and the
countries judicial system. Aside from enacting laws the commissions also visited various
provinces and help it in the government peace efforts.

The Spooner Amendment

The modification sponsored by Senator John C. Spooner, allowed the US president to
fully administer the Philippines. Thus, the military government of the Philippines was
replaced with a civil one albeit temporary pending the legislation of
permanent colonial government by the United States.

Civil Government under Taft

The Philippine civil government was inaugurated on July 4, 1901, with William Howard
Taft as its first governor, the powers and duties of a governor were passed on to Taft.
The Taft Commission continuing functioning as legislative body. Cayetano Arellano was
the first Filipino to hold a high position of government he was named Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court on May 28, 1899. Gregorio Araneta was appointed as Secretary of
Justice and finance. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Luzuriaga
were selected as members of the Philippine Commissions.

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in Philippine history from 1935
to 1945 in preparation for independence from the United States as provided for under
the Philippine Independence Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie
Law. The Commonwealth era was interrupted when the Japanese occupied the
Philippines in January 2, 1942. The Commonwealth government, lead by Manuel L.
Quezon and Sergio S. Osmea went into exile in the U.S., Quezon died of tuberculosis
while in exile and Osmea took over as president. At the same time, the Japanese
forces installed a puppet government in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel as president.
This government is known as the Second Philippine Republic. On October 20, 1944,
theAllied forces led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur landed on the island of Leyte to liberate
the Philippines from the Japanese. Japan formally surrendered in September 2, 1945.

After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored. Congress convened in its
first regular session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the peoples representatives
have assembled since their election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas
was elected SenatePresident, and Elpidio Quirino was chosen President Pro Tempore.
Jose Zulueta was speaker of the house, while Prospero Sanidad became speaker pro
Tempore. The first law of this congress, enacted as commonwealth act 672, organized
the central bank of the Philippines. The commonwealth deal also tackled the issue of
collaboration. In September 1945 the counter intelligence corps presented the people
who were accused of having collaborated with, or given aid to, the Japanese. Included

were prominent Filipinos who had been active in the puppet government that the
Japanese had been established. A Peoples Court" was created to investigate and
decide on the issue.
Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth elections were held on April 23,
1946. Sergio Osmea and Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus
becoming the last president of the Philippine Commonwealth. The Commonwealth era
formally ended when the United States granted independence to the Philippines, as
scheduled on July 4, 1946.
Important legislations and events during the American period that made the Philippines
a commonwealth of the United States:
The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act
United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper sponsored the Philippine Bill of 1902,
also known as the Cooper Act. The bill proposed the creation and administration of a
civil government in the Philippines. President Theodore Roosevelt signed it into law in
July 2, 1902.

Here are some of the more important provisions of the Cooper Act:
Ratification of all changes introduced in the Philippine government by the president of
the U.S., such as the establishment of the Philippine Commission, the office of the civil
governor and the Supreme court
Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the Filipinos except the right of trial by jury
Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the Philippine Commission as the upper
house and a still-to-be-elected Philippine Assembly as the Lower House
Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who was also president of the
Philippine Commission
Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating authority for nonChristian tribes
Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and other lower courts
Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who would represent the
Philippines in the US Congress but would not enjoy voting rights
Conservation of Philippine natural resources

The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first before the Philippine
Assembly could be establishing these were the:

Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines

Accomplishment of a Nationwide census

 Two years of peace and order after the publication of the census

The Philippine Assembly

The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907 at the Manila Grand Opera House,
with US secretary of War William Howard Taft as guest of honor. Sergio Osmea
was elected Speaker while Manuel Quezon was elected Majority Floor leader. The
Recognition of the Philippine Assembly paved the way for the establishment of the
bicameral Philippine Legislature. The Assembly functioned as the lower House, while
the Philippine Commission served as the upper house.
Resident Commissioners
Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first commissioners. Other Filipinos who
occupied this position included Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra, Teodoro Yangco, Isaro
Gabaldon, and Camilo Osias.

The Jones Law

To further train the Filipinos in the art of government, the U.S. Congress enacted the
Jones Law on August 29, 1916. It was the first official document that clearly promised
the Philippine independence, as stated in its preamble, as soon as a stable government
was established. The Jones Law or the Philippine Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine
bill of 1902 as the framework of the Philippine government. It provide for the creation of
the executive powers. The vice governor general, assisted by his Cabinet, would
exercise executive powers. The vice governor would act concurrently as the Secretary
of Education.

Creation of the Council of State

Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmea, Governor
General Francis Burton Harrison issued an executive order on October 16, 1981,
creating the first Council of State in the Philippines. It was the Councils duty to advise
the governor general on matters such as the creation of policies for administering
government offices.
The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the governor general called for
one. It was composed of the governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker
of the Lower House, and the Senate president. During Harrisons term, the executive
and legislative branches of government worked harmoniously with each other.
The Os-Rox Mission
One delegation, however, that met with partial success was the Os-Rox Mission, so
called because it was headed by Sergio Osmea and Manuel Roxas. The Os-Rox
group went to the United States in 1931 and was able to influence the U.S. Congress to
pass a pro-independence bill by Representative Butter Hare, Senator Henry Hawes,
and Senator Bronso Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law provided for a 10-year
transition period before the United States would recognize Philippine independence.
U.S.President Herbert Hoover did not sign the bill; but both Houses of Congress ratified
it. When the Os-Rox Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law to the Philippine
Legislature, it was rejected by a the American High Commissioner representing the
US president in the country and the Philippine Senate, specifically the provision that
gave the U.S. president the right to maintain land and other properties reserved for
military use. Manuel Quezon was tasked to head another independence mission to the
united States.

The Tydings-McDuffie Law

In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned to the Philippines from the United
States with a slightly amended version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting bill authored by
Senator Milliard Tydings and representative McDuffie. President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, the new U.S. president, signed it into law on March 24, 1934. The TydingsMcDuffie Act (officially the Philippine Independence Act of the United States Congress;
Public Law 73-127) or more popularly known as the The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided

for the establishment of the Commonwealth government for a period of ten

years preparatory to the granting of Independence.

Japanese Occupation of the Philippines

During Word War II

On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines. Clark Air Base in Pampanga was
first attacked and also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked, then on December
22, The Japanese forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and continued on to Manila.
General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open city on the advice
of commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its destruction. Manila was
occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. MacArthur retreated with his troops to
Bataan while the commonwealth government withdrew to Corregidor island before
proceeding to the United States. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in Bataan
finally surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor then proceeded
to Australia. The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to embark on the infamous
"Death March" to a prison camp more than 100 kilometers north. An estimated 10,000
prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.
The Huks

In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded together and
created local brigades for their protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro Alejandrino,
and other leaders of organized farmers held a meeting in February 1942 in Cabiao,
Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they agreed to fight the Japanese as a unified guerrilla
army. Another meeting was held the following month, where in representatives from
Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija threshed out various details regarding their
organization, which they agreed to call "Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon"
or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc was chosen to be the Leader of the group, with Alejandrino as
his right hand man. The members were simply known as Huks!
The Philippine Executive Commission
In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the Filipino
officials in Manila were told to enter into agreements and compromises with the
Japanese to mitigate the sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule of the
Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine Executive Commission was established,
with Vargas as chairman. the following was appointed as department heads: Benigno
Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice; Claro M.
Recto, education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin Paredes, public works and
communication; Jose Yulo was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.

The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory Commission
for Philippine Independence (PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw up a constitution
for a free Philippines. Jose Laurel became its head. Against the will of the PCPI
delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10, 1943. Two months later it was

ratified by the KALIBAPI, which was the only political party allowed to exist at that
time. KALIBAPI is the acronym for "Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted
from the 1935 constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in
effect only temporarily, while the Philippines still in chaos. After the war, a new
constitution would again be drafted for the new Philippine Republic.

The Second Republic

On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership of its director
general, Benigno Aquino Sr. held a party convention to elect 54 members of the
National Assembly. The Assembly was actually made up of 108 members; but half of
this number was composed of incumbent governors and city mayors. Jose P. Laurel
was elected as president of the second republic (the first republic was
Aguinldo's Malolos Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr. & Ramon Avancena as a
vice-presidents. The newrepublic was inaugurated on October 14 1943 on the
front steps of the legislative building in Manila. The Philippine flag was hoisted as the
national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the Japanese started using propaganda to
gain the trust and confidence of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with them. They
hung giant posters and distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the
Philippines belong to the Filipinos." they also used newspapers, movies, and others to
publicize the same idea. Promoting Japanese propaganda was one of the main
objectives of the KALIBAPI, but still Japanese failed to gain the trust of the Filipinos.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns

From Australia, Allied forces slowly advanced toward the Philippines, bombing several
Japanese strongholds until they regained control of areas previously occupied by the
enemy. The bombings began on September 21 1944, and barely a month later, on
October 20, 1944, the Americans landed triumphantly in Leyte. Once a shore, General
Douglas MacArthur said; "I have Returned."

Sergio Osmea was Part of MacArthurs group. He had taken over Manuel L.
Quezon as president after the latter past way at Saranac Lake, New York on August
1944. From October 23 to October 26, 1944 the Americans engaged Japanese forces in
the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle in World History, this
historic encounter almost destroyed the entire Japanese fleet and rendered in incapable
of further attack. The US victory in the battle of Leyte Gulf is said to have signaled the
beginning of Philippine liberation from the Japanese.

By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese,

meanwhile, secured other area where their thought other American units would land.
Nevertheless, US liberation forces successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on January 9,
1945. The news alarmed the Japanese. Lt. Gen.Tomoyuki Yamashita, supreme

commander of the Japanese troops in Manila, mobilize his kamikazes (Japanese

suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans. The Japanese also
deployed MAKAPILI units to defend Manila but neither succeeds.

On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon orders
of Yamashita, who is also known as the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese forces retreated
to Yamashita line a jungle battlefront stretching along the Sierra Madre Mountains from
Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.

The Japanese in Manila would not give up easily. In fact, it took 3 weeks of intense
fighting before they finally surrendered on February 23. Gen. MacArthur continued to
liberate other parts of the country. And finally proclaim general freedom from the
Japanese on July 4, 1945.

Philippine Independence from the Americans

Freedom is among the rights that Filipinos did not enjoy during the Spanish rule. It was
a struggle for the Philippine revolutionary leaders to achieve independence from foreign
power. The Filipinos fought countless battles, resulting to bloody revolutions since the
19th century under the Spanish government. The Filipino forces were persistent to
achieve independence for the country. In 1896, the Philippine Revolution started, which
incriminated Jose Rizal resulting to his execution on allegations of treason and rouse
the Katipunan in Cavite to organize in two groups creating conflict. At the break of
the Spanish-American war, the Filipino leaders saw the war between Spain and
America as an opportunity to free the Philippines from the claws of the Spanish colony;
hence, supported the United States with military forces including indispensable
intelligence.America summoned Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines from exile and
with confidence towards the pleasant US relations, Aguinaldo anticipated independence
from Spain with the help of America. Returning to the Philippines and leading the
Filipino troops to hold the fort of Luzon with success except for Intramuros,
Aguinaldodeclared the Philippine Independence from the Spanish colonial government
on June 12, 1898 under the First Philippine Republic. The Philippine National flag was
held up, and swayed proudly before the joyous cries of the Filipinos by 4:20 in the
afternoon at General Aguinaldos balcony of his mansion in Kawit, Cavite. Albeit, the
fact that Spain lost the battle to the Filipino troops, Admiral George Dewey schemed to
convince the Spaniards to surrender to America. It was an act of betrayal by America
that no sooner short-lived the celebration of Philippine independence when America
annexed the Spanish colonies to include the Philippines. The Filipino forces were
determined to continue their efforts against imperialist power leading to a bloody fight
against the American Army in February 1899 when America refused to grant Philippines
the long-sought Independence.
The Philippine-American War erupted in February 4, 1899 in the struggle of the Filipinos
for freedom conflicting with the interests of America to become a world power by
establishing overseas empire to include the Philippines under the US imperial rule. The
Filipino forces applied conventional, then guerrilla tactics in fighting against the US army
as they become fully aware, under the leadership of General Emilio Aguinaldo, of the
strength of the US military heavily equipped with superior firearms. Although, General
Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, the insurgencies, particularly by the Muslim Moros in

the Southern part of the Philippines continued. Nonetheless, America was preparing
Philippines for independence that started with the creation of civil government. The
USPresident Woodrow Wilson promised Philippine Independence and started to entrust
authority over Filipino leaders with the establishment of the Philippine Senate by a
democratic election. The Philippine Commonwealth, with elected President Manuel L.
Quezon, was instituted in 1935 under the Tydings-McDuffie Act that granted Philippines
its self-government, although the legislative power was not absolute, which still required
approval from the US President. At that time, it was a good start towards the eventual
Philippine Independence.
When the events were gearing towards Philippine independence as promised by the
United States of America, the Japanese invasion and occupation bolstered in a surprise.
Bataan was surrendered to the Japanese but President Quezon along with Osmea fled
to America. World War II broke out that created immense damage to Filipinos with
roughly about one million casualties. After the war, Manuel Roxas was elected President
in April 1946 for the independent Second Republic of the Philippines. In a formal
declaration, the American flag was lowered in Luneta, Manila and raised the Filipino
National flag in tri-color of red, white, and blue looked up by proud Filipinos. Finally,
independence was granted to the Republic of the Philippines dated July 4, 1946. The
National anthem of the Philippines was played next to Americas. It was indeed a
moment of liberating glory, for all Filipinos after pools of blood were shed in many
revolutions.
July 4, however, holds less inspiration for the Filipinos according to the elected
President of the Republic of the Philippines in 1961, Diosdado Macapagal. Macapagal
believes that the June 12, 1896 declaration of the Philippine independence by General
Emilio Aguinaldo brings to memory the heroes of the revolution and therefore, Philippine
independence is best commemorated in honor of the Filipino revolutionary heroes.
Hence, President Macapagal changed the date of celebration of the Philippine
independence from July 4 to June 12, which the Filipinos celebrate each year up to this
time.

The Philippines During Martial Law

Proclamation of Martial Law: On September 21, 1972, President Ferdinand E.
Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law. The declaration issued under
Proclamation 1081 suspended the civil rights and imposed military authority in the
country. Marcos defended the declaration stressing the need for extra powers to quell
the rising wave of violence allegedly caused by communists. The emergency rule was
also intended to eradicate the roots of rebellion and promote a rapid trend for national
development. The autocrat assured the country of the legality of Martial Law
emphasizing the need for control over civil disobedience that displays lawlessness.
Marcos explained citing the provisions from the Philippine Constitution that Martial Law
is a strategic approach to legally defend the Constitution and protect the welfare of the
Filipino people from the dangerous threats posed by Muslim rebel groups and Christian
vigilantes that places national security at risk during the time. Marcos explained that
martial law was not a military takeover but was then the only option to resolve the
countrys dilemma on rebellion that stages national chaos threatening the peace and
order of the country. The emergency rule, according to Marcoss plan, was to lead the
country into what he calls a New Society.
Marcos used several events to justify martial law. Threat to the countrys security was

intensifying following the re-establishment of the Communist Party of the Philippines

(CPP) in 1968. Supporters of CPPs military arm, the New Peoples Army, also grew in
numbers in Tarlac and other parts of the country. The alleged attempt to the life of then
Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile gave Marcos a window to declare Martial Law.
Marcos announced the emergency rule the day after the shooting incident. Marcos also
declared insurgency in the south caused by the clash between Muslims and Christians,
which Marcos considered as a threat to national security. The Muslims were defending
their ancestral land against the control of Christians who migrated in the area. The
minority group organized the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in Malaysia and
pushed for the autonomy of Mindanao from the national government.
The move was initially supported by most Filipinos and was viewed by some critics as a
change that solved the massive corruption in the country. Martial law ceased the clash
between the executive and legislative branches of the government and a bureaucracy
characterized by special interest. Marcos started to implement reforms on social and
political values that hindered effective modernization. To match the accomplishments of
its Asian neighbors, Marcos imposed the need for self-sacrifice for the attainment of
national welfare. His reforms targeted his rivals within the elite depriving them of their
power and patronage but did not affect their supporters (US Library of Congress, Martial
Law and the Aftermath).
Thirty-thousand opposition figures including Senator Benigno Aquino, journalists,
student and labor activists were detained at military compounds under the Presidents
command (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). The army and the Philippine
Constabulary seized weapons and disbanded private armies controlled by prominent
politicians and other influential figures (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos
took control of the legislature and closed the Philippine Congress (Proclamation 1081
and Martial Law). Numerous media outfits were either closed down or operated under
tight control (Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law). Marcos also allegedly funnelled
millions of the countrys money by placing some of his trusted supporters in strategic
economic positions to channel resources to him. Experts call this the crony capitalism.
The deterioration of the political and economic condition in the Philippines triggered the
decline of support on Marcos plans. More and more Filipinos took arms to dislodge the
regime. Urban poor communities in the countrys capital were organized by the
Philippine Ecumenical Council for Community and were soon conducting protest
masses and prayer rallies. These efforts including the exposure of numerous human
rights violations pushed Marcos to hold an election in 1978 and 1981 in an aim to
stabilize the countrys chaotic condition. Marcos, in both events, won the election;
however, his extended term as President of the Republic of the Philippines elicited an
extensive opposition against his regime. Social unrest reached its height after former
Senator Benigno Aquino was murdered. The incident sent thousands of Filipinos to the
streets calling for Marcos removal from post. Turning again to his electoral strategy,
Marcos held a snap election in 1986 but what he hoped will satisfy the masses only
increased their determination to end his rule that seated Corazon Aquino, widow of
Benigno Aquino, as President of the Philippines ousting Marcos from Malacaang
Palace and ending the twenty-one years of tyrant rule.

EDSA People Power Revolution

The Philippines was praised worldwide in 1986, when the so-called bloodless revolution
erupted, called EDSA People Powers Revolution. February 25, 1986 marked a

significant national event that has been engraved in the hearts and minds of every
Filipino. This part of Philippine history gives us a strong sense of pride especially that
other nations had attempted to emulate what we have shown the world of the true
power of democracy. The true empowerment of democracy was exhibited in EDSA by
its successful efforts to oust a tyrant by a demonstration without tolerance
for violence and bloodshed. Prayers and rosaries strengthened by faith were the only
weapons that the Filipinos used to recover their freedom fromPresident Ferdinand
Marcoss iron hands. The Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) stretches 54
kilometers, where the peaceful demonstration was held on that fateful day. It was a day
that gathered all Filipinos in unity with courage and faith to prevail democracy in the
country. It was the power of the people, who assembled in EDSA, that restored the
democratic Philippines, ending the oppressive Marcosregime. Hence, it came to be
known as the EDSA People Powers Revolution.
The revolution was a result of the long oppressed freedom and the life
threatening abuses executed by theMarcos government to cite several events like
human rights violation since the tyrannical Martial LawProclamation in 1972. In the
years that followed Martial Law started the suppressive and abusive yearsincidents of
assassination were rampant, particularly those who opposed the government,
individuals and companies alike were subdued. The Filipinos reached the height of their
patience when former Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Sr.was shot and killed at the
airport in August 21, 1983, upon his return to the Philippinesfrom exile in the United
States. Aquinos death marked the day that Filipinos learned to fight. His grieving
wife, Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino showed the Filipinos and the world the strength and
courage to claim back the democracy that Ferdinand Marcos arrested for his personal
caprice. Considering the depressing economy of the country, Ninoys death further
intensified the contained resentment of the Filipinos. In the efforts to win back his
popularity among the people, Marcos held a snap presidential election in February 7,
1986, where he was confronted with a strong and potent opposition, Corazon Aquino. It
was the most corrupt and deceitful election held in the Philippine history. There was an
evident trace of electoral fraud as the tally of votes were declared with discrepancy
between the official count by the COMELEC (Commission on Elections) and the count
of NAMFREL (National Movement for Free Elections). Such blatant corruption in that
election was the final straw of tolerance by the Filipinos of
the Marcos regime. The demonstration started to break in the cry for democracy and the
demand to oust Marcos from his seat at Malacaang Palace. The revolt commenced
when Marcos' Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and the Armed Forces Vice-Chief of
Staff command of Fidel V. Ramos, both withdrew their support from the government and
called upon the resignation of then President Marcos. They responsibly barricaded
Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo and had their troops ready to combat against
possible armed attack organized by Marcos and his troops. The Catholic
Church represented by Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin along with the priests and nuns
called for the support of all Filipinos who believed in democracy. Radyo Veritas aired the
message of Cardinal Sin that summoned thousands of Filipinos to march the street of
EDSA. It was an empowering demonstration that aimed to succeed peacefully with the
intervention of faith. Nuns kneeled in front oftanks with rosaries in their hands and
uttering their prayers.
With the power of prayers, the armed marine troops under the command
of Marcos withdrew from the site. Celebrities expressed their support putting up a
presentation to showcase the injustices and the anomalies carried out by
the Marcos administration. Finally, in the morning of February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino
took the presidential oath of office, administered by the Supreme Court Associate
Justice Claudio Teehankee at Club Filipino located in San Juan. Aquino was proclaimed

as the 11th President of the Republic of the Philippines. She was the first lady president
of the country. People rejoiced over their victory proving the success of the EDSA
Peoples Power Revolution, the historic peaceful demonstration. Although in 2001, there
was an attempt to revive People Power in the efforts to oust then President Joseph
Estrada, it was not as strong as the glorifying demonstration in 1986. The bloodless,
People Power Revolution in EDSA renewed the power of the people, strengthened the
meaning of democracy and restored the democratic institutions of government.

Fifth Republic (1986Present Time)

The worlds eye was on the Philippines after it successfully toppled down almost a
decade of dictatorship rule through a peaceful demonstration tagged as the EDSA
Peoples Power Revolution. After the widowed wife of former Senator Benigno "Ninoy"
Aquino, Sr. was elected into office, President Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino faced both
economic and political problems of the country. Her rule as president began on
February 25, 1986 after taking oath at the Club Filipino in San Juan, Metro Manila. She
was the 11th president of the Philippines and the first woman to become president of
the country. She was tasked to put together a nation devastated by the rule of her
predecessor Ferdinand E. Marcos. It was not an easy task since the countrys economic
condition was in its worse state since 1982. Filipinos living below the poverty line is
alarmingly increasing in number. Aquino also struggled with Marcos supporters in
the Armed Forces of the Philippines who attempted to remove her from power. The
group of soldiers, who called themselves members of the Reform the Armed Forces
Movement or RAM, staged seven coup attempts against the Aquino administration. The
attack held in August 28, 1987, which killed at least 53 people and injured more than
200 others, was the most serious attack the government experienced. These attacks
worsened the economic condition of the Philippines as investors became wary about
Aquinos ability to rebuild the country. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World
Bank and the United States also forced the government to fulfill its obligations to pay an
estimated $27.2 billion worth of debt Aquino inherited from the previous administration.
To be eligible for IMFs rehabilitation programs, Aquino instigated reforms towards a
freer economy. These reforms ended monopolization of the agricultural industry of the
country, reduced tariffs and lifted import controls in the Philippines.
The political condition of the country at that time did not look any better. To resolve the
issue, Aquino commissioned a referendum that would be the framework for the new
government. It tackled various issues from shifting the government from presidential to
parliamentary, to economic reforms involving foreign participations. Due to its immediate
necessity, details of the referendum were left to the legislature to determine. Released
in February 1987, the new charter easily won the approval of the public.
The rule that followed Aquinos presidency established steadier governance of the
Philippines. Fidel V. Ramos took office in 1992 and immediately worked on the countrys
recovery. Ramos initiated the Social Reform Agenda or SRA that was geared towards
alleviating poverty. The Gross National Product reached an average of 5 percent
annually, which translated to a growth in the average family income of the Filipinos. He
undertook the implementation of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) law which improved
public infrastructure and deregulated several industries to help liberalize the economy.
The country also saw improvements in its relations to secessionistMoro Islamic
Liberation Front or MNLF as Ramos achieved a peace agreement with the group.
Ramos bagged the first UNESCO Peace Award yet given to an Asian for this effort. He

also came to be known as the Centennial President for his successful supervision of
the 100th anniversary of the countrys independence from the Spanish rule celebrated
in June 12, 1998.
A film actor, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, succeeded Ramos as president in 1998. He was
the previous mayor in the municipality of SanJuan, Metro Manila and vice president of
Ramos, Estrada was placed into office by a wide margin of vote. He gained support in
the election for his promise to begin a pro-poor administration that his predecessors
failed to promote in their respective platforms. This support dwindled down as his
administration was rattled by corruption. Critics accused him of failing to live up to his
promises due to the resurfacing of cronyism in the government. Efforts made by Ramos
to resolve political conflicts in Mindanao were also threatened as Estrada launched an
all-out war against the Islamic group in Mindanao called the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front in March 21, 2000. In the same year, Ilocos Sur Governor Luis Chavit Singson
accused Estrada of receiving Php 400 million from him as payoff from illegal gambling
profits. The revelation led to Estradas impeachment in November 12, 2000 and his
ouster from presidency in January 20, 2001. Then Supreme Court Chief Justice Hilario
Davide, Jr. swore-in vice-president, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo aspresident the same day.
The Philippine Constitution allows the president to ran for a second term if he/she was
sworn into office by succession and served in less than 4 years, otherwise the
president is limited to one term of office. Arroyo was qualified to ran for another term.
Indeed, she did. In the 2004 Philippine General Election, Arroyo declared her
presidential candidacy and she was seated into office for the second time. Arroyo
promoted a Stronger Republic under her rule, which was geared toward vigorous
economic reforms. However, her administration was bombarded with several
controversies and impeachment attempts in the last five years. Hence, as she
announced her disinterest to extend her term or run for office in the 2010 elections,
critics expressed their apprehensions. Once, Arroyo had broken the peoples trust when
she declared that she was not interested to run in the 2004 elections. Protesters
express their disappointment every so often rallying at the streets calling against the
Charter Change (Cha-Cha) and now the Constituent Assembly (Con-Ass), which is
currently promoted by the Arroyos supporters in Congress when the Cha-Cha attempt
has become improbable receiving critical disapproval. The representatives in the lower
house of Congress were said to have made the move independently to pass the ConAss however, many are skeptic of the true agenda of the Arroyo administration as the
2010 election countdown nears. Supporters of Arroyo are pushing for a change of
government from a Presidential to a Parliamentary form. This will enable Arroyo run for
parliament and become prime minister.

On the May 10, 2010 general elections, Arroyo run and won for congresswoman for the
2nd district of Pampanga province. Making her the first president to hold a
loweroffice after occupying the highest office of the land. On her first day as
congresswoman, Arroyo filed a resolution calling for Congress to hold a Constitutional
Convention toamend the constitution.

On June 30, 2010, Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, a.k.a Noynoy Aquino, was
proclaimed as president of the republic together with Jejomar Cabauatan Binay as vicepresident.

SYNOPSIS OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Pre-Spanish Times
There are two theories on the origins of the first Filipinos, the inhabitants of what will
later be called the Philippine Islands and eventually the Republic of the Philippines. See
the Early Inhabitants of the Philippine Islands.

In the beginning of the 3rd century, the inhabitants of Luzon island were in contact and
trading with East Asian sea-farers and merchants including the Chinese. In the 1400's
the Japanese also established a trading post at Aparri in Northern Luzon.

In 1380, Muslim Arabs arrived at the Sulu Archipelago and established settlements
which became mini-states ruled by a Datu. They introduced Islam in the southern parts
of the archipelago including some parts of Luzon and were under the control of the
Muslim sultans of Borneo. They had a significant influence over the region for a couple
of hundreds years. The Malay Muslims remained dominant in these parts until the 16th
century.

Philippine History During the Spanish Colonial Times

In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer who was serving the Spanish
crown, landed in Samar Island on his voyage to circumvent the globe. He explored the
islands and named it Archipelago of San Lazaro. Magellan was killed during a rebellion
led by a Datu named Lapu Lapu in Mactan Island (adjacent to Cebu Island). Spain
continued to send expeditions to the island for financial gain and on the fourth
expedition, Commander Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, named the islands: Philippines, after
Prince Philip (later King Philip II), heir to the Spanish throne. Spain ruled the Philippines
for 356 years.

In 1565, King Philip II appointed Miguel Lopez de Legazpi as the first Governor-General
of the Philippines. Legazpi chose Manila to be it's capital because of it's natural harbor.
Spain's legacy was the conversion of the people to Catholicism and the creation of the
privileged landed class. Because of abuses and suppression of the Spaniards, a
Propaganda Movement emerged with the aims for equality between Filipinos and
Spaniards. The arrest of propagandist Dr. Jose Rizal and execution in 1896 gave fresh
momentum to Filipino rebels to fight against Spain.

The secret society of the Katipunan, founded by Andres Bonifacio attacked the Spanish
Garrison in San Juan with little success, while Katipuneros in Cavite Province headed
by Emilio Aguinaldo defeated the Guardia Civil in Cavite. Aguinaldo's victories lead him
to be elected as head of the Katipunan. The factions of Bonifacio & Aguinaldo fought
and lead to the trial and execution of Bonifacio on Aguinaldo's orders. Aguinaldo later
drafted a constitution and established the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province.
In 1897, an impasse between the Spanish government and Aguinaldo arose. After
negotiations between the two sides, Aguinaldo accepted an amnesty from the

Spaniards and US$ 800,000.00 in exchange for his exile to Hong Kong with his
government.

Philippine History During the American Era

The Spanish-American war which started in Cuba, changed the history of the
Philippines. On May 1, 1898, the Americans led by U.S. Navy Admiral George Dewey, in
participation of Emilio Aguinaldo, attacked the Spanish Navy in Manila Bay. Faced with
defeat, the Philippines was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898 after a payment
of US$ 20 million to Spain in accordance with the "Treaty of Paris" ending the SpanishAmerican War. On June 12, 1898, Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo declared
independence. This declaration was opposed by the U.S. who had plans of taking over
the colony. And this led to a guerrilla war against the Americans. In 1901, Aguinaldo was
captured and declared allegiance to the United States. On the same year, William
Howard Taft was appointed as the first U.S. governor of the Philippines. The U.S.
passed the Jones Law in 1916 establishing an elected Filipino legislature with a House
of representatives & Senate. In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act was passed by the U.S.
Congress, established the Commonwealth of the Philippines and promised Philippine
independence by 1946. The law also provided for the position of President of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines. On the May 14, 1935 elections, Manuel L.
Quezon won the position of President of the Philippine Commonwealth.

In accordance with the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, The Philippines was given
independence on July 4, 1946 and the Republic of the Philippines was born.

Philippine History During the Japanese Occupation

On December 8, 1941, the Japanese invades the Philippines hours after bombing Pear
Harbor in Hawaii. While the forces of Gen. Douglas MacArthurretreated to Bataan, the
Commonwealth government of President Quezon moved to Corregidor Island. Manila
was declared an open city to prevent further destruction. After the fall of Bataan on April
9, 1942 and Corregidor, In March 1942, MacArthur & Quezon fled the country and by
invitation of President Roosevelt, the Commonwealth government went into exile to
Washington D.C. American and Filipino forces surrendered in May 6, 1942. Soon a
guerrilla war against the Japanese was fought by the Philippine & American Armies
while Filipinos were enduring the cruelty of the Japanese military against civilians.

Prior to Quezon's exile, he advised Dr. Jose P. Laurel to head and cooperate with the
Japanese civilian government in the hope that the collaboration will lead to a less
brutality of the Japanese towards the Filipinos. Rightly or wrongly, President Laurel and
his war time government was largely detested by the Filipinos.

In October 1944, Gen. MacArthur with President Sergio Osmea (who assumed the
presidency after Quezon died on August 1, 1944 in exile in Saranac Lake, New York)
returned and liberated the Philippines from the Japanese.

The Philippine Republic

On July 4, 1946, Manuel Roxas of the

Nationalista Party was inaugurated as the
first President of the Republic of the Philippines. Roxas died in April 1948. He was
succeeded by Elpidio Quirino. Both Roxas & Quirino had to deal with the Hukbalahap, a
large anti-Japanese guerrilla organization which became a militant group that
discredited the ruling elite. The group was eventually put down by Pres. Quirino's
Secretary of Defense, Ramon Magsaysay.

Magsaysay defeated Quirino in the 1953 elections. He was a popular president and
largely loved by the people. Magsaysay died in an airplane crash on March 17, 1957
and was succeeded by Carlos Garcia.
Diosdado Macapagal won the 1961 presidential elections and soon after he changed
history by declaring June 12 as independence day - the day Emilio Aguinaldo declared
independence in Cavite from Spain in 1898. Aguinaldo was the guest of honour during
the fist Independence Day celebrations in 1962.

Philippine History During the Martial Law Regime

Ferdinand E. Marcos won the presidency in 1965 and was the first president to be reelected for a second term in office. Marcos He embarked on an ambitious public works
program and maintained his popularity through his first term. His popularity started to
decline after his re-election due to perceived dishonesty in the 1969 campaign, the
decline in economic growth, government corruption and the worsening peace & order.
He declared Martial Law in 1972 near the end of his second & final term in office.
Staunch oppositionist, Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino (later went on self exile to the
U.S.) & Senator Jose Diokno were one of the first to be arrested. During the Martial Law
years, Marcos held an iron grip on the nation with the support of the military. Opposition
leaders we imprisoned and the legislature was abolished. Marcos ruled by presidential
decrees.

Post Martial Law up to the Present Time

The 21-year dictatorial rule of Marcos with wife Imelda ended in 1986 following a
popular uprising that forced them to exile to Hawaii. Corazon "Cory" Aquino, the wife of
exiled and murdered opposition leader Benigno Aquino who was perceived to have won
a just concluded snap election was installed as president. Aquino restored civil liberties,
initiated the formation of a new constitution and the restoration of Congress.

On September 16, 1991, despite the lobbying of Aquino, the Senate rejected a new
treaty that would allow a 10-year extension of the US military bases in the country.

In the1992 elections, Pres. Aquino endorsed Secretary of Defense Fidel Ramos as her
successor, which Ramos won with a slight margin over his rival, Miriam DefensorSantiago. During the Ramos presidency, he advocated "National Reconciliation" and
laid the ground work for the resolution of the secessionist Muslim rebels in the southern
Philippine Island of Mindanao. The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) led by Nur
Misuari, signed a peace agreement with the government. However a splinter group, The
Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) led by Hashim Salamat continued to fight for an
Islamic state. Ramos worked for the economic stability of the country and the
improvement of the infrastructure facilities like telecommunications, energy and
transportation.

Joseph Ejercito Estrada, a popular actor, succeeded Ramos in 1998 with Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo (daughter of former President Diosdado Macapagal) as his VicePresident. Estrada's lack of economic & management skills plunged the economy
deeper as unemployment increased and the budget deficit ballooned. In October 2000,
Estrada's close friend Luis "Chavit" Singson accused Estrada of receiving millions of
pesos from "Jueteng", an illegal numbers game. Soon after, Congress impeached
Estrada on grounds of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust and culpable
violation of the constitution. His impeachment trial at the Senate was however blocked
by his political allies in the Senate. Shortly after the evidence against Estrada was
blocked at the Senate, thousands of people rallied up at the EDSA Shrine, site of the
People Power Revolution which ousted Marcos in 1986.

In January 2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph Estrada unable to rule in view of
mass resignations from his government and declared Vice-President Gloria MacapagalArroyo as his constitutional successor. To this date, Estrada remains detained facing
graft charges before the Sandigan Bayan, the Anti-graft court.

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, completed the remaining term of Estrada and run for reelection against Fernando Poe, Jr., another popular actor and a friend of Estrada in May
2004. Arroyo with her running mate Noli de Castro was eventually proclaimed the
winners of the Presidential & Vice-Presidential elections. She has been advocating a
change from a Presidential form of government to a Parliamentary form of government.

Arroyo's husband & son has been rumored to be receiving money from gambling lords
and this has tainted her reputation. A tape recording of Arroyo talking with a
commissioner on elections surfaced establishing impropriety by Arroyo and suggesting
that she might have influenced the outcome of the last elections. Demonstrations
followed in June 2005 calling for Arroyo to resign.

On the eve of the anniversary of the "People Power Revolution" on February 24, 2006,
the government took pre-emptive measures to quash alleged plots to unseat Arroyo
through massive rallies and a coup. Arroyo declared a "State of Emergency" the next
day mobilizing the police and the military averting any destabilization moves. Note:
Arroyo is has been under hospital arrest since 2011 for charges of electoral sabotage
and misuse of public funds. She is detained at the Veterans Memorial Hospital in
Quezon City, Metro Manila.

May 14, 2007 - National Elections for Senators, Congressmen, Governors, Mayors and
local officials. Although there are instances of violence and allegations of cheating
specially in Mindanao, this elections is considered by many as one of the most peaceful
elections conducted in Philippines.

September 12, 2007 - Former President Joseph Ejercito Estrada is convicted of plunder
by the Sandiganbayan, the anti-graft court and is sentenced to 40 years imprisonment.
He is the first former president ever convicted of any crime in Philippine history. Six
weeks later, on October 26, Estrada was pardoned by President Arroyo. Because of the
pardon, Estrada was able to run for Mayor of Manila and won. He is presently the city
mayor of Manila.

Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, affectionately called "Noynoy" and "Pnoy", a
former senator is the son of former President Corazon C. Aquino and the late Senator
Benigno Aquino. He won the May 10, 2010 presidential elections and was proclaimed
president on June 30, 2010 at Rizal Park in Manila. Former President Gloria Arroyo,
was elected congresswoman for the second district of Pampanga. This was the first
computerized national elections in Philippine history. Aquino is generally perceived as
honest with high public satisfaction ratings. Under his presidency, the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court, Renato Corona was impeached in 2011 for non-declaration of
assets and prominent politicians like Senators and Congressmen is being charged of
corruption. Aquino continues his anti-corruption crusade. Under the present constitution,
Aquino cannot run for a second term. The next presidential elections will be held in May
2016. Strong candidates for the coming presidential elections are Mary Grace Sonora
Poe-Llamanzares, Manuel "Mar" Araneta Roxas II and Jejomar Cabauatan Binay.