Three

n
n

Euclidean Vector Spaces

3.1
(space)

(x, y)
(x, y, z ) 3 (3-space)
3

3
( Coordinate
axes)
X XY XZ
Y XY YZ
Z YZ XZ
(Origin) O

3.1.1

P(x1, y1, z1 )

Q(x2, y2, z2 )

PQ (x 2 x1 )2 (y2 y1 )2 (z 2 z1 )2

Page 76 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

2 3

3.1.2
x, y, z (x, y, z ) 3
(x, y, z )
O (x, y, z )
3.1.3
P1(x1, y1, z1 ) P2 (x 2, y2, z2 )

P1P2 (x2 x1, y2 y1, z2 z1 )

3.1.4 3
u (u1, u2, u3 ) v (v1, v2, v3 ) 3

u v u1 v1, u2 v2 , u3 v3

u v (u1 v1, u2 v2 , u3 v3 )

k ku (ku1, ku2 , ku3 )

(Standard operations) 3
3 0 (0, 0, 0)
u (u1, u2, u3 ) u u (u1, u2, u3 )
3
3.1.5
u , v w 3 k, m
1. u v 3
2. u v v u
3. u (v w) (u v ) w
4. 0 3 0 u u 0 u
5. u u 3 u (u ) (u ) u 0
6. ku 3
7. (km)u k(mu ) m(ku )
8. k(u v ) ku kv
9. (k m)u ku mu
10. 1u u

 | Page 77

n (Vectors in n-Space)

2-3 3


() n
3.1.6
infinite n n (ordered n-tuple)
dimension
n (a1, a2,..., an ) n
n n -space
2 3-space n (n-space) n

(a1, a2,..., an ) n

3.1.7
u (u1, u2,..., un ) v (v1, v2,..., vn )

u v u1 v1, u2 v2 ,..., un vn

u v (u1 v1, u2 v2 ,..., un vn )

k ku (ku1, ku2 ,..., ku3 )

(Standard operations) n

(0, 0,..., 0)

u (u1, u2,..., un )

u (u1, u2 ,..., un )

3
n

Page 78 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

n
Properties of vector Operations in n-Space
3.1.8
u , v w n k, m
1. u v n
2. u v v u
3. u (v w) (u v ) w
4. 0 n 0 u u 0 u
5. u u n u (u ) (u ) u 0
6. ku n
7. (km)u k(mu ) m(ku )
8. k(u v ) ku kv
9. (k m)u ku mu
10. 1u u

3.1.9
v n
1. 0v 0
2. kv 0
3. 1v v

(Linear Combinations)

3.1.10
w

v1, v2 ,..., vn n

w k1v1 k2v2 ... knvn

k1, k2,..., kn
1
c1, c2 , c3
c1(1, 1, 0) c2 (3,2,1) c3 (0,1, 4) (1,1,19)

 | Page 79

3.1
1.
a.

u (1, 3, 3) , v (1, 0, 3)

w (1, 2, 3)

2u v

b.

u w v

c.

2v 3w

2. 1

2u v x 7x w

3. a,b, c a(2,9,6) b(3,2,1) c(1,7,5) (0,5, 4)

4. a,b, c a(1,2, 0) b(2,1,1) c(0, 3,1) (0, 0, 0)

Page 80 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

3.2

3

1. (Inner Product)
2.
( Outer
Product)
3. (Cross Product)
3

()
( Outer Product)
(
Dyad
Product)

3.2.1
u (u1, u2,..., un ) v (v1, v2,..., vn ) n
(Euclidean inner product) u v u v
n

u v ui vi u1v1 u2v2 ... un vn

i 1

n 2 n 3 (dot product)
- u 2 u u
- u v v T u
(Properties of Euclidean inner product)
3.2.2
u (u1, u2,..., un ), v (v1, v2,..., vn ) w (w1, w2,..., wn )
n k, m
1. u v v u
2. u (v w) u v u w
3. k(u v ) (ku ) v u (kv )
4. (ku ) (mv ) km(u v )
5. u u 0 u u 0 u 0
u (u1, u2,..., un ) , v (v1, v2,..., vn )
w (w1, w2 ,..., wn ) n k, m
1. u v v u

2. u (v w) u v u w

 | Page 81

3. k(u v ) (ku ) v

u (kv )

4. (ku ) (mv ) km(u v )

5. u u 0 u u 0 u 0

3.2.3
u (u1, u2,..., un )
u

u u u u 2 u12 u22 ... un2

3.2.4
u (u1, u2,..., un ) v (v1, v2,..., vn ) n
( Euclidean distance) u v
d(u, v )
d(u, v ) u v

u (2, 3, 1,7), v
d(u, v )

(1, 0, 3, 5)

Page 82 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

Cauchy-Schwarz
3.2.5 Cauchy-Schwarz
u (u1, u2,..., un ) v (v1, v2,..., vn ) n
u v u v

3.2.6
u v n k
1. u 0
2. u 0 u 0
3. ku k u

u (u1, u2,..., un ) v (v1, v2,..., vn ) n

k
(
1. u 0
)

(norm)
( Euclidean norm)

 | Page 83

2.

u 0

3.

ku k u

u 0

3.2.7
u v n k
u v u v

Page 84 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

3.2.8 Parallelogram Equation for Vectors

u v n
u v

u v

2 u

2
v

3.2.9
u v

n
2
1
1
u v u v u v
4
4

3.2.10
u, v w n k
1. d(u, v ) 0
2. d(u, v ) 0 u v
3. d(u, v ) d(v , u )
4. d(u, w) d(u, w) d(w, v )

 | Page 85

3.2
1.
a. u (4, 3)
b. v (2,2,2 2)
c. w (5, 6, 0)
2. (unit vector)
a. u n u

b.

3. u (1, 1, 4,2, 3)

4. u, v w
(1.) d(u, v ) 0
(2.) d(u, v ) 0 u v
(3.) d(u, v ) d(v , u )
(4.) d(u, w) d(u, w) d(w, v )

v (2, 3, 4,5,6)

Page 86 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

3.3 (Orthogonality)
(dot product) 2-3
u v u v cos

u v

cos

3.3.1
u

u v 0
u (2, 3, 1, 4), v (1,2, 0, 1)

3.3.2
u v
u v

u v

 | Page 87

3.4
3
L 3 P0 (x 0, y0, z 0 )
v (a,b,c) L P(x, y, z )

L P0P v
t

P0P tv

(x x 0 , y y0 , z z 0 ) (ta, tb, tc)

x x 0 ta, y y0 tb

z z 0 tc

3.4.1 3
a,b, c
x x 0 ta,

y y0 tb,

z z 0 tc

( t )

P0 (x 0, y0, z 0 ) v (a,b,c)
x x 0 ta, y y0 tb, z z 0 tc ( t )

v (4, 5, 7)

P0 (2,2, 3)

A(2, 4, 1)
B(5, 0, 7) XY

Page 88 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

r (x, y, z ) P(x, y, z ) r0 (x 0 , y0 , z 0 )

P0 (x 0, y0, z 0 ) P0P r r0
r r0 tv
r r0 tv

x x0
a

y y0
b

z z0
c

3.4.2 n
r0 v 0

r r0 tv

r0

P0 (1,2) v (2, 3)

 | Page 89

P0 (1,2, 3) v (4, 5,1)

4x y 11z 39

3x y 7z 26

2x 8z 26

3
4

Page 90 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

(inclination)


(normal vector)
P0 (x 0, y0, z 0 ) n (a,b,c)
(normal vector) P(x, y, z )

P0P n

n P0P 0

a(x x 0 ) b(y y0 ) c(z z 0 ) 0

point-normal form
3.4.3 3
a,b, c
ax by cz d 0

n (a,b,c) (normal vector)

ax by cz d 0
x, y, z
7

(1, 2, 5)
n (4,2, 3)

3 (normal vector)

3.4.4
( cross product vector product) u (u1, u2, u3 )
v (v1, v2 , v3 ) u v
u v (u2v3 u3v2 , u3v1 u1v3 , u1v2 u2v1 )

3.4.5
u v 3 u v
u v

 | Page 91

P1(1,2, 1), P2 (2, 3,1)

P3 (3, 1,2)

r (x, y, z ) P(x, y, z ) r0 (x 0 , y0 , z 0 )

P0 (x 0, y0, z 0 ) P0P r r0
v1 0, v2 0

r r0 t1v1 t2 v2

3.4.6 n
r0 v1 0, v2 0
t1, t2

r r0 t1v1 t2 v2

r0

v1, v2

v1, v2

Page 92 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

9x y 5x 16 0

10

x y 2z 5

11

9x y 5z 16

18x 2y 10z 32
27x 3y 15z 48

 | Page 93

12

z y z 1

z 2y 3z 1

13

z y z 1

z 2y 3z 1

3.4.7

P0 (x 0 , y0 , z 0 )

14

ax by cz d 0

ax 0 by 0 cz 0 d
a 2 b2 c2

(1, 4, 3) 2x 3y 6z 1 0

Page 94 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

3.4
1. P u
a. P(4,1), u (0, 8)

b.

P(9, 3, 4), u (1,6, 0)

2.

3.
3x 2y z 0
3x 2y z 2

6
x

4
y

2
z

6x 4y 2z 4
3x 2y z 0

3x 2y z 2

u (4, 0, 5)

 | Page 95

4.4

f (x ) x 2
(real valued function of real
variable)
x

f (x, y) x 2 y 2
( real valued
function of two real variables)

f (x ) x 2

2
3

f (x, y) x 2 y 2
f (x, y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2

f n m f
(transformation map) n m f : n m
m 1
m n
f : n n n (operator n )
f1, f2, f3,..., fm n
w1 f1(x1, x 2,..., x n )

w2 f2 (x1, x 2,..., x n )

wm fm (x1, x 2,..., x n )

(x1, x2,..., xn ) n (w1, w2,..., wm ) m

m T
T : n m
T (x1, x 2,..., xn ) (w1, w2,..., wm )

15

w1 x1 x 2
w2 x1x 2

w 3 x1 x 2

T : 2

T (x1, x2 ) (x1 x2, x1x2, x1 x 2 )

T (1,2) (3,2, 1)

Page 96 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

n m
T (x1, x2,..., xn ) (w1, w2,..., wm )

f1, f2, f3,..., fm

w1 f1(x1, x 2 ,..., x n )

w2 f2 (x1, x 2 ,..., x n )

wm fm (x1, x 2 ,..., x n )

T : n m

T : n m
w1 a11x1 a12x 2 ... a1n x n

w2 a21x1 a22x 2 ... a2n x n

Some Notational Matters

A
T
TA (x) Ax

wm am1x1 am 2x 2 ... amn x n

w a
a
a x
w1 a11 a12 a1n x 1
2
22
2n
2
21

w am 1 am 2 amn x n
m

T
T (x) T x

TA A

16

w Ax
A aij

T : 4

w1 2x1 x 2 x 3 x 4

w2 3x1 x 2 x 3 x 4

w 3 4x1 x 2 x 3 x 4

w 2 1 1 1 x 1
w1 3 1 1 1 x 2
x3
w2
3 4 1 1 1 x 4

 | Page 97

2 3

1 2
(operator)
y

y x

2 3
(operator)
xy

xz

yz

Page 98 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

3 (projection) 2
(operator)
(orthogonal
projection) x

(orthogonal
projection) y

4 (projection) 3
(operator)
(orthogonal
projection) xy

(orthogonal
projection) xz

(orthogonal
projection) yz

 | Page 99

5 2
(operator)

6 3
(operator)

Page 100 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

7 2
(operator)
k 2

(0 k 1)

k 2
(k 1)

7 3
(operator)
k 3
(0 k 1)

k 3
(k 1)

 | Page 101

4.3
1.

A T T : 3 2
T (1, 0, 0) (7,11),T (0,1, 0) (6,9) T (0, 0,1) (13,17)

2. T : 2

3
1
4
x 1


T x 1 2 x 2 5
x
3
6
2

3. v1, v2,, vm n T : m n
x1

x
T 2 x 1v1 x 2v2 x mvm

x m

( v1, v2,, vm )
4. T : 2 2 45
T
5. T : 2 2
T
6.
y1

x1

7x 2

y2 3x 1 20x 2

7.

A T

(linear operator)

3 0

0 3
1 0
A

0 1

1 1
A

1 1

1 0

0 0
0 2
A

2 0

0.8 0.6
A

0.6 0.8

a. A

d. A

b.

e.

c.

f.

Page 76 | Euclidean Vector Spaces

8. T (x ) Ax
1
1

0 1

1 0

a. A

2 0

b. A

0 2
1 0

0 2

c. A

0 0

0 1

d. A

0.6

0.8

0.8 0.6

e. A

 | Page 77

T:R4 R3 T(a1,a2,a3,a4) =(a1,a1+a3,a3+a4)

S4 , S3 R4 ,R3
S = {(1,0,0,1),(0,0,0,1),(1,1,0,0),(0,1,1,0)} , S 1 ={(1,1,0),(0,1,0),(1,0,1)}
R4 , R3
T S S3
T S S 1
T(2,1, 1,3) 1.1 1.2
T
T:R2 R2 T(x,y) =(x+2y,2x3y)
T
{(1,0),(0,1)} {(2,1),(1,0)}
{(1,1),( 2,3)} {(1,1),(0,2)}
T:R2 R3 T(x,y) = (x+y , 2xy , x+2y) T

3.1 {(1,1),( 1,2)} {(1,0,0),(1.0.1),(0,1,1)}

3.2 {(1,0),(0,1)} {(1,0,1),(0,1,1)(1,1,0)}
4. A B
4.1 A = {(1,0),(0,1)} ; B = {(1,1),( 1,2)}
4.2 A = {(1, 1),(2,1)} ; B = {(1,2),(3,3)}
4.3 A = {(1,1),( 1,2)} ; B = {(1,0),(0,1)}
4.4 A = {(1,2),( 3,1)} ; B = {(1, 1),(2,1)}