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In this book Mumford talks about development of city from ancient times to
the modern age.
Mumford argues for a world not in which technology reigns, but rather in
which it achieves a balance with nature. His ideal vision is what can be
described as an "organic city," where culture is not encroached by
technological innovation but rather thrives with it.
This book is an evaluation of citys growth, how it took the present form, and
where it is heading.
Contents
1. Sanctuary, village, and stronghold
2. The crystallization of the city
3. Ancestral forms and patterns
4. The nature of the ancient city
5. Emergence of the polis
6. Citizen versus ideal city
7. Helleinistic absolutism and urbanity
8. Megalopolis into necropolis
9. Cloister and community
10. Medieval urban housekeeping
11. Medieval disruptions, modern anticipations
12. The structure of baroque power
13. Court, parade, and capital
14. Commercial expansion and urban dissolution
15. Paleotechnic paradise : Coketown
16. Suburbia-and beyond
17. The myth of megalopolis
18. Retrospect and prospect.
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animal needs,
the dominance of women in Neolithic culture and
Before cities came into existence, Mumford explains how there was the hamlet and the
shrine and the village: before the village, the camp, the cache, the cave and the cairn.
Mumford further observes that the pattern of human settlement is common with the
settlement patterns of other animals such as birds and insects the need to breed and feed.
However, Mumford also recognizes that the propensity to store and settle down may
itself be an original human trait and he also quotes a unique human trait with mans
fascination with the concept of death.
Unlike any other animal counterpart, even the most primitive mans trail demonstrates
his interest, anxiety and respect for the dead. Mumford suggest that perhaps death
had an even greater role than more practical needs in causing [man] to seek
a fixed meeting place and eventually a continuous settlement.
The evidence of the Paleolithic mans fascination with death lies in the cavern, mound
and collective barrow he has left behind.
Such a fascination with death thus also justifies how the Necropolis antedates
the city of living as Mumford finally concludes that even though hunting and food
gathering may not encourage permanent occupation of a single site, the dead at least
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claim that privilege
Thus it is not necessarily the animalistic needs that drive men to settlement, but their
wonder and awe with the dead, which leads to the spiritual and ceremonial rites in the
caves and finally draws men into cities.
Permanent settlement is followed by general domestication, which is marked by the
agricultural revolution. Although the mans hunting skills, territorial nature and
alertness were very useful, especially in the Paleolithic culture, the guarding, patient and
nurturing role of women became more prominent in the process of domestication and
Neolithic culture.
Thus Mumford insightfully suggests that the agricultural revolution gave predominance
not to the hunting male, but to the more passive female. The woman spearhead the
agricultural revolution as she was the one who tended the garden crops and
accomplished cross fertilization which turned raw wild species into richly nutritious
domestic varieties.
Furthermore, the Neolithic culture is marked by womens invention and creation of the
first tools the first containers, weaving baskets and coiling clay pots, which are not
only symbolic of the collective container that was the Neolithic village, but also
became essential in the storage of surplus food that came with expertise in agriculture
in the revolution.
Unlike the Paleolithic tools which address the hunters movements and muscular efforts
for aggressive activity, the Neolithic containers and tool address the womans nature8
to hold, enclose and protect, a directly symbolic of essentially what the village is:
He quotes Henri Frankfort, who suggests that the most important agent in effecting the
change from a decentralized village economy to a highly organized urban economy,
was the king, who evolved from the Paleolithic hunter.
Alone the king, marked by the hunters brute coercion and force, however, would not
have been able to accomplish the maximum possible social and vocational
differentiations consistent with the widening processes of unification and integration.
Thus, what religious/spiritual rites alone could not accomplish and brute force alone
could not either, together, the king and priest brought all the rudimentary (under
developed) parts of the city and gave them a fresh form, visibly greater and more
aweinspiring, in order to command the destinies of the city and set the mould of
civilization. Thus, the journey of the wandering, Paleolithic hunter ascended over
thousands of years into the form of the king who became the mediator between heaven
and earth and the centralized power, which brought order to the earliest cities.
Mumford states that the historical development of kingship seems to have been
accompanied by a collective shift from the rites of fertility to the wider cult of physical
power. Their power to command, to seize property, to kill, to destroy-all these were, and
have remained, sovereign powers.
To mobilize these new forces and bring them under control, the king gathered to himself
extraordinary sacred powers; he not only incarnated the community, but by his very
assumptions held its fate in his hands. This shifted the ground for a state of collective
anxiety. There is also evidence, that fertility rites to ensure the growth of crops were11
consummated by human sacrifice.
The powers of the king made him aggressive that lead to war between kingdoms, trying
to occupy others territory and to serve the purpose of greediness for more power and
wealth. Finally, the brutality of wars lead to fortification of the cities or walled cities
came into existence.
Thus came the massive strongholds and citadels for the king and the army. Beside his
role as the City Builder, he also implied Law and Urban Order under his governance.
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The powers of the king made him aggressive that lead to war between kingdoms, trying
to occupy others territory and to serve the purpose of greediness for more power and
wealth. Finally, the brutality of wars lead to fortification of the cities or walled cities
came into existence.
Thus came the massive strongholds and citadels for the king and the army. Beside his
role as the City Builder, he also implied Law and Urban Order under his governance.
Citing various examples, Mumford explains that early cities did not grow beyond
walking distances or hearing distances while in the middle ages, to be within sound of
Bow Bells defined the limits of the city as was the case of City of London; and until other
systems of mass communication were invented , these were among the effective limits to
urban growth.
Mumford explained that the new mark of the city was obvious: a change of scale,
deliberately meant to awe and overpower the beholder. Though the mass of inhabitants
might be poorly fed and overworked, no expense was spared to create temples and
palaces whose sheer bulk and upward thrust dominated the rest of the city.
The dynamic component of the city, without which it could not have continued to
increase in size and scope and productivity: the first efficient means of mass transport ,
the waterways. Transportation made the first implementation of trade possible. The
trade between cities eventually gave birth to the Market of the city.
14
In the ancient civilizations like Mayans, centres of population were not so populated, nor
densely packed and concentrated as our modern cities and towns. On the contrary, they
were scattered over extensive, more lightly inhabited suburbs, fringing out into
continuous small forms. The assemblages of public buildings, temples, sanctuaries,
palaces, pyramids, monasteries, observatories, etc. Were usually not disposed along
streets and avenues. Instead, the buildings were erected the courts and sites which were
religious precincts, governmental and trading sections of the city. The social core of the
city was more significant than any of the particular physical manifestation, so it was
ceremonial centre. But at the later periods, the cities were converted into control centre.
This was the resultant of the tensions brewing between cities and thus, leading to their
fortification.
15
The varied sanitary that Ur and Harappa had, 2000 years before hardly existed even in
5th century Athens. The street of any Greek city were little more than alleys, many of
these were only passages. The Greek cities reached its maturity in the 5 th century, before
it had achieved a rich organisation of physical forms. At that point, its civic purposes had
merged from its original municipal functions, and were far more highly developed.
Lewis Mumford stated, that if one wanted to sum up in three words, what supremely
distinct Greek urban culture form that of its predecessors, one might say simply:
Olympia, Delphi, Cos. It was the contribution of these centres, that raised the
achievements of Greek civilisation so well. The Olympia was the home of the first
Olympian game ever held; Delphi held the chief spine and the sacred oracle of Apollo
and Cos was one of the great held resort or sanatoria.
The dynamic centre of a Greek city was the Agora or the market place. It was a meeting
place for the whole city. It acted as the common point where the political and social
systems existed. Agora grew as a common trading ground to a more complex and highly
functional space, incorporating the political activities along with social activities.
The possibilities and difficulties of urban democracy under population and expansion
were exploded in 5th century in Athens. The contradictions between political, military
policy and economic need were too great to be bridged. In the act of seeking a secure
supply of grain, Athens became an imperialist exploiter. The aspect of life titan into a
knot; and the sword finally severed the whole community.
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The monasteries built by Christianity served as the new citadel. The monasteries kept
alive the image of the Heavenly city. Here was the peace and order, the quietness and
inwardness. A refuge for a common man from the outer world full of butchery.
The new Christian culture that arose under circumstances did not assume an urban
form until the eleventh century. The surviving architecture expresses the needs of the
troubled age, with its emphasis upon enclosure, protection, security, durabillity, and
continuity.
The walled enclosure not merely gave protection from outside invasion: it had a new
political function. The enclosed structures flaunted by political leader as a place of peace
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and freedom.
Increase of Population and Wealth took place drastically under the influence of
Christianity.
Revival of trade took place as the direct cause of the city building and civilizing activities
that took place in 11th century but before it could happen, a surplus population was
necessary. So, Christianity, by its superstitions and dazzling myths, lured the barbarian
population of Northern and Central Europe .
Great International Fairs started taking place in the Middle Ages so as to promote more
trade which resulted in production of more wealth.
Outside the Church, a new community formed, which were the most widespread
representatives of the corporate life was the guild.
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The first radical change which started to alter the form of medieval house was
the development of sense of privacy.
Privacy in sleep, privacy in eating, privacy in religious and social rituals and
finally privacy in thought. People started to withdraw from common life at
their own will.
This resulted into the existence of a private bedroom for the noble owners and
close to it was their private toilet.
This desire of privacy marked the beginning of the new alignment of classes.
Attachments became weaker and it became easier to practice inhumanity
upon those you do not see or work with together.
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Medieval people were used to outdoor living and had shooting grounds
and bowling grounds, they would either tossed the ball around or
kicked a football and also were involved in races and practiced archery.
All of these opportunities were provided for by open spaces nearby at
hand.
The growing population, often unable to expand outside the town walls,
covered over the internal open spaces; and then grave hygienic
misdemeanours were committed.
After a 100 years, the over populated capital could no longer afford
open spaces for the dead, so the invention of graveyards came along.
However decayed corpses became a sanitary menace in the medieval
town as soon as they had a chance, to contaminate the water supply. As
population grew, corpses grew, and that increased the menace of the
town.
By the 16th century such special provisions for sanitary control and
decency had become widespread, one of the commands were as follows,
"no man shall bury any dung or dead within the liberties of the city" .
22
Even with the higher standards of sanitation and hygiene, influenza and
poliomyelitis infect the modern cities and had the highest death plague in
1918.
Main Points discussed:
Level of cleanliness varies significantly between medieval towns .
Poor sanitation as result of population growth in limited space.
Importance of open space, gardens, parks.
Contributed to keeping town nice place to live .
Burial practices: The dead was buried in designated churchyards , when
those were filled, they became house plots and were built on , over the years
seepage from the corpses contaminated water supply.
Human waste disposal: Farmers and gardeners by cities used human
excrement to fertilize their fields.
Crude sanitary arrangements of the small medieval towns were not
necessarily as offensive as they have been pictured.
Public baths promoted hygiene and sociability.
The middle ages was a period of constant change . Towns multiplied and
grew , from tenth century to fifteenth. The wall acted as the limit of physical
town and it was a simple matter to tear down the wall and extend the citys
boundary just like Florence enlarged its area in 1172 and then again after
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around one century.
Plan of Venice had no static design. According to its situation and size, each of
venices islands found its appropriate function. Torcello: a church and
cemetery. Arsenal: industrial quarter. Etc.
He argues that the most significant attribute to Venice is Her collection of
campo and piazzas which are scattered over the city. These are large
multifunctional spaces which lie at the heart of every neighbourhood in
Venice. They enrich the daily routine by creating a social space with trees and
benches where people can relax, go to the local market, children can play,
friends meet and neighbours exchange conversations and smiles. It is a safe,
social space which brings communities together and increases well being.
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Slowly, these industries gave rise to new urban settlements, which were
outside the existing municipals.
These emerging industrial settlements led to the conflict of jurisdictions.
Territorial unification, internal peace and freedom of movement were missing
and this led to the development of centralized power in states like England
and France.
The Church was the only institution which could have stopped these efforts of
rise of new power, but they became economically interested.
City became a pack of people seeking only profit. Officers turned their eyes
from problem of common people.
25
Between the fifteenth and the eighteenth century, a new complex of cultural
traits took shape in Europe. A new Mercantilist capitalistic economy, a new
political framework emerged.
Power came into the hands of those who controlled armies, trade routes or
had great accumulations of wealth.
The symbol of this movement are the straight streets, the unbroken
horizontal roof line, the round arch and repetition of uniform elements,
cornice, lintel, window, column, on the faade. This produced a sense of
openness, clarity and formal order in city.
In the growth of the modern state, technics and warfare played a decisive
part. In order to enhance military conditions, the towns abandoned their
old system of simple walls. They were forced to hire soldiers.
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New fortification leaves the orchards and gardens away from the city.
Population growth led to congestion . Open spaces were rapidly built over.
Protection also gave way to exploitation. The army barracks took the place
of monastery in town.
Military drills became a way to show might.
The avenue is the most important symbol and the main fact about the
baroque city. It was during sixteenth century that carts and wagons came
into more general use within cities.
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The baroque court had a direct influence upon the town in nearly every
aspect of life.
The town planning was practiced by high-handed agents of the prince.
Showmanship and theatrical display of wealth were eminent. Gardens and
orchards were open only for the pleasure of the court.
On the household level, the three functions of producing, selling and
consuming were now separated in three different sets of buildings, three
distinct parts of city.
Privacy was the new luxury.
The scheme of central place was of , circles or open squares, dominated by
monuments and lined with public buildings.
Unlike medieval towns, baroque town were more about imposing structures
than that of surprising details.
The city was sacrificed to the traffic, the street became the unit of planning.
Markets stretched along the traffic lines.
Living space was treated as leftover.
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Thank you
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