Exam Section A

Exam Questions
Section A
Instructions:
Explain what you understand about the
following terms or topics that relate to
petroleum geoscience. Use a sketch or
example as appropriate.
1.
Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
13. Reasonable range of oil and

gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
Paleozoic is an era the oldest

of the three (approx 540 to
250 Ma).
Devonian is a period within the
Paleozoic era (~395 to 345)
Pliocene is a epoch within the
Tertiary period of the
Cenozoic era (the youngest
era).
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
A basin is a large-scale
(regional) depression where
sedimentation is occurring
and subsidence is
continually creating
accommodation space for
more sediments to
accumulate.
Basins form in many different
plate tectonic settings, with
subsidence caused by
thinning of the crust
(extension) or by loading
(during compression).
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
Transgression and regression

refer to rise and fall of
relative sea-level.
Transgression occurs when
relative sea-level rises and
the shoreline moves
landwards, regression
occurs when relative sealevel falls and the shoreline
moves sea-wards.
higher sea level
normal sea level
lower sea level
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
A fracture is a break in the rock

mass across which no
relative movement has
occurred. Fractures can be
closed (by finer ground
material or by crystalline fill
creating veins) or open
(creating secondary porosity
and permeability).
Fractures occur related to faults,
folds and other structural
deformation.
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
A plunging anticline is an
anticline (upfold) whose fold
axis is non-horizontal:
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
Trough cross-bedding is a
sedimentary structure, created by
the migration of megaripples or
dunes with curved crests. The
sets of cross-beds have curved
erosional boundaries (set
boundaries), and are greater than
5 cm thick (thickness is controlled
by the height of the original
beform, which is controlled by the
flow). Curved crested
megaripples represent a higher
energy flow than straight crested
megaripples.
1.
Deltaic deposits are wedge-shaped
volumes of sediment, deposited at
the mouth of rivers where they
meet a standing body of water
2. Basin
(lake or sea). They are subdivided
based on the dominant process
regression
river, wave or tide. Reservoir
4. Fractures
facies in deltas include mouth-bars
in fluvial dominated deltas, and
shoreline facies in wave dominated
deltas.
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
Turbidites are the deposits of

turbidity currents, and are
found in submarine fans
(channelised and sheet
turbidites) and on the basin
floor (sheet turbidites).
A turbidite is sharp-based
(erosive, high energy flow),
has a distinctive finingupwards trend (because of
the waning flow), a
succession of sedimentary
structures (massive,
laminated, cross-bedded or
convoluted, muddy) and
may have internal grain
alignment.
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
Secondary sedimentary
structures are formed after
the deposition of the
sediment. They include
bioturbation (the moving of
the sediment by the action
of animals), dessication
cracks, raindrop imprints,
and various soft-sediment
deformation structures,
including pillow structures,
convolute lamination and
water escape structures.
1.
Paleozoic, Devonian, Crust and lithosphere are the outermost

Pliocene (exact numerical solid layers of the earth. Crust is the
outer layer and is subdivided into two
different types oceanic and
2. Basin
continental crust. Oceanic crust in
thinner and composed of silica poor
regression
igneous rocks, continental crust is
4. Fractures
thicker and more silica rich, and
contains sedimentary metamorphic
and igneous rocks. The crust in
combination with the outermost, solid,
7. Deltaic deposits
layer of the mantle comprise the
8. Turbidites
lithosphere, which is divided into
plates that move around above a
plastic, slowly convecting mantle layer
structures
the asthenosphere.
11. Plate margin
1.
2. Basin
regression
4. Fractures
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
structures
11. Plate margin
Plate margins or plate

boundaries are the zones
where two lithospheric
plates meet. The relative
movement of the plates
means that they will either
be separating (a divergent
plate boundary), moving
towards each other (a
convergent plate boundary)
or sliding past each other (a
transform plate boundary).
1.
When drilling has not succeeded in
intersecting the oil-waterages are not important)
contact (OWC), we should have
two levels that have been found
2. Basin
in wells that will constrain where
the OWC could occur these
regression
are the highest known water
4. Fractures
(HKW) level and the lowest
known oil (LKO) level. The
OWC could occur between
these values, and volumetrics
7. Deltaic deposits
can use these to determine
8. Turbidites
maximum and minimum
volumes for the reservoir.
structures
11. Plate margin
Reasonable recoveries for oil

and gas under different
recovery mechanisms:

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
STOIP: Stock Tank Oil

Originally/Initially In Place
GIIP: Gas Initially In Place
TD: Total Depth
TVDSS: True Vertical Depth
Sub-Sea

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
A way of defining the orientation

of a planar surface: Strike is
the orientation of a
horizontal line on the
surface, and dip is the angle
between the surface and a
horizontal plane.

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
The volume of rock in the

structure that is filled with
hydrocarbons so between
the top of the structure and
the OWC. This can be the
volume of reservoir rock
(with the non-reservoir
removed) if the reservoir is
complex or in segments, or it
could be the volume of rock
including a certain
proportion of non-reservoir
material, which is then
removed by applying a netto-gross multiplier.

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
A contour (line joining points of

equal height) of true
stratigraphic thickness
values.
(dip)
True Stratigraphic
Thickness (isopach)
TST = TVT x cos

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
True Vertical
Thickness (isochore)
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
The organic rich (5-20%)

sedimentary rock that under
the right temperature and
pressure conditions
generated hydrocarbons,
which migrate upwards into
reservoirs and traps.
SEAL
impermeable
RESERVOIR
porous and permeable
SEALING:
IF: seal is deposited before migration
&: it is sufficiently impermeable
TRAP
TRAPPING:
IF: trap formation occurs
before migration
SECONDARY MIGRATION
CARRIER BED
SOURCE ROCK
organic rich

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
Primary migration is the initial

migration out of the source
rock (probably by means of
hydraulic fracturing within the
low permeability source due to
overpressuring from volume
expansion as hydrocarbons
are created), into the
surrounding rocks. Further
migration of the hydrocarbons
away, along carrier beds and
into reservoir rocks is called
secondary migration.
SEAL
impermeable
RESERVOIR
SEALING:
IF: seal is deposited before migration
&: it is sufficiently impermeable
TRAP
TRAPPING:
IF: trap formation occurs
before migration
SECONDARY MIGRATION
CARRIER BED
SOURCE ROCK
organic rich

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
Metamorphic rocks are created

when heat or heat and
pressure on original
sedimentary or igneous
rocks causes changing of
the mineral structures
(recrystallization) without
melting of the rock. Heating
rocks (adjacent to igneous
intrusions) create spotted
rocks or hornfels, rocks
under heat and pressure
(burial) turn into schists and
gneiss. The final rock type
is dependent on the original
rock composition for
example muddy sediments
turn to schists, limestones to
marble and quartz
sandstones to quartzite.

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
Biostratigraphy is the subdivision of 13.

the stratigraphic record (rocks)
into units based on the
presence, absence or grouping
of fossils. Biostratigraphic units
can be defined based on
14.
appearance and
dissappearance of organisms, 15.
or by abundance of particular
16.
species.
17.
Appearance and disappearance
are linked to evolution and
18.
extinction of species, so that
fossil species that are useful 19.
for biostratigraphy need to be 20.
types that occur in many
21.
different environments (are
22.
wide ranging) so that
evolutionary changes affect the 23.
whole population, worldwide
24.
simultaneously.
25.
Reasonable range of oil and

waterflood
The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
Strike and Dip
Gross rock volume
Isopach
Source rock
Primary migration
Metamorphic rocks
Biostratigraphy
Walthers Law
Triangulation
True vertical thickness
Seismic resolution
Walthers Law states that facies

which appear in a vertical
conformable succession, must
have been deposited in
adjacent depositional
environments.
The movement of these
environments through time, for
example due to transgression
and regression, causes
deposition of the different
facies above previously
deposited facies from a
different (but adjacent)
depositional environment.
If facies which cannot be
deposited in adjacent
depositional environments
appear in vertical succession,
then the presence of an
unconformity can be inferred.

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
Triangulation is a techniques used

for creation of contour maps,
which is based on subdividing
the area of the map into
triangles with a data point at
each corner, assuming each
triangle represents a plane with
a single gradient, and then
contouring in straight lines
across the assumed plane. This
results in an unrealistic map,
because of the angles of
intersection of the final contour
lines. It is therefore rarely used,
but can be used in situations
where different geologists have
different interpretations of the
available data. A map
constructed by triangulation
should be the same not matter
who constructs it.

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
Thickness of a rock unit

measured vertically this is
always greater than true
stratigraphic thickness,
depending on the dip. A
contour of true vertical
thickness is called an
isochore.
(dip)
True Stratigraphic
Thickness (isopach)
TST = TVT x cos

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
True Vertical
21. Biostratigraphy
Thickness (isochore)
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation
Seismic resolution is the minimum

thickness that a rock layer
must be in order that the top
and bottom surfaces will be
imaged by the seismic
reflection survey (the unit will
be seen on the seismic line).
It is generally assumed to be
approximately of the
wavelength of the seismic
pulse.

waterflood
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walthers Law
23. Triangulation

Exam Section A

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Exam Questions

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Paleozoic is an era the oldest

Transgression and regression

higher sea level

normal sea level

lower sea level

A fracture is a break in the rock

Turbidites are the deposits of

Paleozoic, Devonian, Crust and lithosphere are the outermost

Plate margins or plate

Reasonable recoveries for oil

13. Reasonable range of oil and

STOIP: Stock Tank Oil

13. Reasonable range of oil and

A way of defining the orientation

13. Reasonable range of oil and

The volume of rock in the

13. Reasonable range of oil and

A contour (line joining points of

TST = TVT x cos

13. Reasonable range of oil and

The organic rich (5-20%)

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Primary migration is the initial

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Metamorphic rocks are created

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Biostratigraphy is the subdivision of 13.

Reasonable range of oil and

Walthers Law states that facies

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Triangulation is a techniques used

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Thickness of a rock unit

TST = TVT x cos

13. Reasonable range of oil and

Seismic resolution is the minimum

13. Reasonable range of oil and

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