Chapter11:Congress:BalancingNationalGoalsandLocal

Interest

CongressasaCareer:ElectiontoCongress
Before1900,mostmembersleftvoluntarilybecausetravelwasslowandarduousand
theyhavetospendlesstimewiththeirfamily
Moreover,thenationalgovernmentwasnotthecenterofpower,theypreferredtoserve
instatecapitals
InmodernCongress,mostifitsmembersareprofessionalpoliticians,andaseatinthe
USSenateofHouseisashighasmostofthem
canexpecttoriseinpolitics
Membersofcongressaresingleminded
seekersofreelections
Incumbents(asofficeholdersarecalled)havea
roughly90%probabilityofwinningreelections
UsingIncumbencytoStayinCongress
Themainreasonincumbentsrunso
stronglyisthatmanycongressional
districtsandsomestatesareso
lopsidedlyDemocraticorRepublican
thatcandidatesofthestrongerpartyseldomlose
Theservicestrategy:takingcareofConstituents
Anincumbentpromoteshisorherreelectionprospectsbycateringtothe
constituency:thepeopleresidingintheincumbentsstateordistrict
Theypayattentiontoconstituencyopinionswhenchoosingpositionson
legislatureandtogettheirshareoffederalspendingprojects(Porkor
Pork0barrelspending)
Incumbentsalsorespondtotheirconstituentsindividualrequests,a
practiceknownastheservicestrategy
Congressionalstaffersspendmostoftheirtimenotonlegislativematters
butonconstituencyserviceandpublicrelations
EachHousememberreceivesanofficeallowanceofroughly$800,000a
yearwithwhichtohireuptoeighteenpermanentstaffmembers
Senatorsreceiveofficeallowancesthatrangebetween$2millionand$4
millionayear,dependingonthepopulationsizeoftheirstate
ItisworthnothingthatEuropeanlegislaturedonothavethelarge
personalstaffsorthetravelandpublicitybudgetsofmemberofCongress
Europeanincumbentshavemuchlowerreelectionratesthanmembersof
Congress
Campaignfunding
Incumbentsalsohaveadecidedadvantagewhenitcomestoraising
campaignfunds

Rarelydoincumbentssaytheyhadtroubleraisingenoughmoneyto
conductaneffectivecampaign,whereaschallengersusuallycomplain
thattheirfundraisingfellfarshortoftheirneeds
Individualcontributions,mostofwhichare100orless,accountabout60
percentofallfundsreceivedbycongressionalcandidatesandare
obtainedmainlythroughfundraisingevents,websites,anddirectmail
solicitation
IncumbentsalsohaveanedgewithPACs
MostPACsarereluctanttoopposeanincumbentunlessthecandidate
appearsbeatable
Aracewithoutanincumbentcalledanopenseatelectionoftenbrings
outastrongcandidatefromeachpartyandinvolvesheavyspending,
speciallywhenthepartiesareratherevenlymatchedinthestateof
district)
Redistricting:FavorableBoundariesforHouseIncumbents
Housemembers,butnotSenators,haveafinalelectoraladvantage
Everytenyears,aftereachpopulationcensus,the435seatsintheHouse
ofRepresentativesarereallocatedamongthestatesinproportiontotheir
populationreapportionment
TheresponsibilityforredrawingHouseelectiondistrictsaprocesscalled
redistrictingrestswiththerespectivestatelegislatures
Thepartythatcontrolsthelegislaturetypicallyredrawstheboundariesin
awaythatfavorcandidatesofitspartya
processcalledgerrymandering
PitfallsofIncumbency
DisruptiveIssues
Mostelectionsarenotwagedinthe
contextofdisruptiveissues,butwhenthey
are,incumbentsareatgreaterrisks
Whenvotersareangryaboutexisting
politicalconditions,theyaremostlikelyto
believethatthoseinpowershouldbe
tossedoutofoffice
PersonalMisconduct
MembersofCongresscanalsofallprettytoscandal
LifeinWashingtoncanbefastpaced,glamorous,andexpensive,and
somemembersofCongressgetcaughtupininfluencepeddling,sex
scandals,andotherformsofmisconduct
TurnoutVariation:TheMidtermElectionProblem
In21ofthelast25midtermelectionsthosethatoccurmidwaythrougha
presidentsturnthepresidentspartyhaslostHouseseats
PrimaryElectionChallengers

Primaryelectionscanalsobeatimeofriskforincumbents,especiallyif
theyholdpoliticalmoderateviews
Iftheyareconfrontedwithastrongchallengerfromtheextremewingof
theirparty,theystandachanceoflosingbecausestrongpartisansare
morelikelythanpartymoderatestovoteinprimaryelections
GeneralElectionChallengers
Incumbents,particularlythoseintheSenate,arealsovulnerabletostrong
challengers
Senatorsoftenfindthemselvesrunningagainstahighrankingpolitician
Suchopponentshavethevoterbase,campaignorganization,fundraising
ability,publicrecognition,andcredentialstomountastrongcampaign
TheUSSenatealsolureswealthchallengers
Houseincumbentshavelessreasontofearstrongchallengers
AHouseseatisoftennowattractiveenoughtoinduceaprominentlocal
politician
Thesituationschangessomewhatwhenvotersaredeeplyunhappywith
thewaygovernmentisperforming
Then,thepartyoutofpowerhasaneasiertimepersuadingstrong
challengerstorun
ANewThreat:SuperPACs
Althoughincumbentsordinarilyhaveafundingadvantageovertheir
challengers,thesituation
canchangewhenthey
appearvulnerable
Contributorsfromoutside
thestateordistrictmay
targettheraceanddonate
moneytothechallengers
Althoughthisthreathas
existedforyear,ithas
becomelargerwiththe
emergenceofsuperPACs,
whichhavethecapacityto
pourmillionsofdollarsinto
arace
WhoaretheWinnersinCongressionalElections?
TheConstitutionplacesafewrestrictionsonwhocanbeelectedtoCongress
Housemembersmustbeatleast25yearsoldandbeaUScitizenforatleast7
years
Senatorsmustbeatleast30yearsoldandbeaUScitizenforatleast9years
Congressisnotamicrocosmofthepopulation
Althoughlawyersconstitutelessthan1%ofthepopulation,theymakeup1/3of
Congress

Attorneysenterpoliticsinlargenumbersinpartbecauseknowledgeofthelawis
anassetinCongressandalsobecausecampaignpublicityevenifacandidate
losesisagoodwaytobuildalawpractice
Professionalssuchasbusinessexecutives,educators,bankers,andjournalists
accountforroughly90%ofcongressionalmembership
Congressaredisproportionatelywhiteandmale
Women15percent,minoritiesaccountforanevensmallerproportionlessthan
10percent
PartiesandPartyLeadership
TheUSCongressisabicamerallegislature,meaningithastwochambers,theHouse
andtheSenate
Atthestartofeachtwoyearcongressionalterm,partymembersineachchambermeet
toelecttheirpartyleaderstheindividualswhowillleadtheirpartyseffortsinthe
chamber
Partymembersalsomeetperiodicallyinclosedsession,whichiscalledapartycaucus,
toplanstrategy,developissues,andresolvepolicydifferences
PartyUnityinCongress
Thereisnowlittleoverlapintheideologiesofcongressionaldemocratsand
Republicans
InbothHouseandtheSenate,themostliberalRepublicanwasfarthertothe
rightthanthemostconservativeDemocrat
Eachcongressionalpartyhasfounditeasiertoachievepartyunityinwhich
membersofapartybandtogetheronlegislationandstandagainsttheopposite
party
TheheightenedlevelofpartyunityinCongresscanbeseenbylookingatthe
partydistributiononrollcallvotes
Inthe1970s,rollcallvotesgenerallydidnotpitmostRepublicansagainst
Democrats
Morerecently,mostrollcallvoteshavedividedalongpartylines
PartyleadershipinCongress
PartyleadersinCongress
areusuallychosenfortheir
demonstratedleadership
ability,aswellastheir
abilitytoworkeffectively
withothermembers
Thepowerofpartyleaders
inCongressdependstoa
considerableextenton
theirabilitytogainthetrust
ofpartymembersandto
forgepositionsthatbridge
theirpolicyviews

HouseLeaders
TheConstitutionspecifiesthattheHouseofRepresentativeswillbe
presidedoverbyaSpeaker,electedbythevoteofitsmembers
Nexttothepresident,theSpeakeroftheHouseissometimessaidtobe
themostpowerfulnationalofficial
TheSpeakerisactiveindevelopingthepartyspositiononissuesandin
persuadingpartymembersintheHousetosupportthem
TheSpeakeralsohascertainformalpowers,includingtherighttospeak
firstduringHousedebateonlegislationandthepowertorecognize
membersthatis,tograntthempermissiontospeakfromthefloor
TheSpeakeralsochoosesthechairpersonandthemajorityparty
membersofthepowerfulHouseRulesCommittee,whichcontrolsthe
schedulingofbills
Althoughpowerful,theSpeakerisultimatelybeholdentothepartys
membership
TheSpeakercannotforcethemtovotefororagainstaparticularbill
TheSpeakermustconsiderwhatpartymemberswillacceptwhentaking
positionsonlegislativeissues
TheSpeakerisassistedbytheHousemajorityleaderandtheHouse
majoritywhip,whoarealsochosenbythemajoritypartysmembers
TheminoritypartyalsohasitsHouseleaders
TheHouseminorityleaderheadsthepartyscaucusanditspolicy
committeeandplaystheleadingroleindevelopingthepartyslegislative
positions
Theminorityleaderisassistedbyaminoritywhip
SenateLeaders
IntheSenate,themostimportantpartyleadershippositionisthatofthe
majorityleader,whoheadsthemajoritypartycaucus
ThemajorityleadersroleresemblesthatoftheSpeakeroftheHousein
thattheSenatemajorityleaderformulatesthemajoritypartyslegislative
agendaandencouragespartymemberstosupportit
TheSenatemajorityleaderchairsthepartyspolicycommitteeandacts
asthepartysvoiceinthechamber
Themajorityleaderisassistedbythemajoritywhip
TheSenatemajorityleaderspositionislesspowerfulthanthatofthe
SpeakeroftheHouse
UnliketheSpeaker,theSenatemajorityleaderisnotthechambers
presidingofficer
TheConstitutionassignsthispositiontothevicepresident
UnliketheHouse,wheretheSpeakerdirectsthefloordebate,theSenate
hasatraditionofunlimiteddebate

Senatemajorityleaderspowerisalsolimitedbythefactthatindividual
senatorshavemorepowerandfreedomofactionthandoindividuals
Housemembers
CommitteesandCommitteeLeadership
MostoftheworkinCongressisconductedthroughstandingcommittees,whichare
permanentcommitteeswithresponsibilityforparticularareasofpublicpolicy
HousecommitteesareabouttwicethesizeofSenatecommittees
Eachstandinghaslegislativeauthorityinthatitcandraftandrewriteproposed
legislationandcanrecommendtothefullchamberthepassageordefeatofthebillsit
handles
Mostofthestandingcommitteeshavesubcommittees,eachofwhichhasadefined
jurisdiction
EachHouseandSenatecommitteeshasaboutadozenmembers
Thesefewindividualsdomostoftheworkandhavealeadingvoiceinthedispositionof
billsintheirpolicyarea
Thecommitteestaffsperformanalmostentirelylegislativefunctionhelpdraft
legislation,gatherinformation,andorganizehearings
Congressalsohasnumberofselectcommitteesthathaveadesignatedresponsibility
but,unlikethestandingcommittees,donotproducelegislation
Congressalsohasjointcommittees,composedofmembersofbothhouses,which
performadvisoryfunctions
Congresshasconferencecommitteesjoincommitteesformedtemporarilytoworkout
differencesinHouseandSenateversionsofaparticularbill
Theroleofconferencecommitteesisdiscussedmorefullylaterinthechapter
CommitteeJurisdiction
The1964LegislativeReorganizationActrequiresthateachbillintroducedin
Congressbereferredtothepropercommittee
Evenifacommitteesmembersareknowntoopposecertaintypesoflegislation,
billsclearlywithinitsjurisdictionthepolicyareainwhichitisauthorizedto
actmustbesenttoitfordeliberation
Jurisdictionisnotalwaysclearcut
Allcommitteesseeklegislativeinfluence,andeachisjealousofits
jurisdiction,soabillthatoverlapscommitteeboundariescanprovokea
turfwaroverwhichcommitteewillhandleit
Partyleaderscantakeadvantageofthesesituationsbyassigningthebill
tothecommitteethatismostlikelytohandleitinthewaytheywouldlike
Alltimes,partyleadershaverespondedbydividingupabill,handingover
someofitsprovisionstoonecommitteeandotherprovisionstoasecond
committee
CommitteeMembership
TheratioofDemocratstoRepublicansoneachcommitteeisapproximatelythe
sameastheratiointhefullHouseorSenate
MembersofthisHousetypicallyserveononlytwocommittees

Senatorsoftenserveforfour,althoughtheycansitononlytwocommittees
Onceappointedtoacommittee,themembercanusuallychosetostayonit
indefinitely
Eachcommitteehasafixednumberofseats
MostnewlyelectedmembersofCongressaskforthereceiveassignmenttoa
committeeonwhichtheycanservetheirconstituentsinterestsandatthesame
timeenhancetheirreelectionprospects
SomemembersofCongresspreferaseatonthemostprestigiouscommittees
Althoughthesecommitteesdonotaligncloselywithconstituencyinterests,they
haveresponsibilityforprominentpolicyissues
Subcommitteesassignmentsarehandleddifferently
Themembersofeachpartyonacommitteedecidewhoamongthemwillserve
oneachofitssubcommittees
Thememberspreferencesandseniority,aswellastheinterestsoftheir
constituencies,arekeyfactorsinsubcommitteeassignments
CommitteeChairs
Eachcommitteeisheadedbyachairperson
Theychairschedulescommitteemeetings,determinestheorderinwhich
committeebillsareconsidered,presides
overcommitteediscussions,directsthe
committeesmajoritystaff,andcan
choosetoleadthedebatewhena
committeebillgoestothefloorofthe
chamberforavote
Committeechairsarealwaysmembers
ofthemajoritypartyandusuallythe
partymemberwiththemostseniority
Sonorityisbasedstrictlyontimeserved
onacommittee,notontimespendinCongress
Thesenioritysystemhasadvantages
Reducesthenumberofpowerstrugglesthatwouldoccurifthechairs
weredecidedeachtimebyopencompetition
Placescommitteeleadershipinthehandsofexperiencedmembers
Enablesmemberstolookforwardtotherewardofapositionaschairafter
yearsofserviceonthesamecommittee
Appliedlessstrictlythaninthepast
CommitteeandParties:WhichisinControl?
Inonesense,committeesareaninstrumentofthemajorityparty,inthatit
controlsmostofeachcommitteesseatsandappointsitschair
Inanothersense,eachcommitteeispowerfulinitsownright
CommitteesdecentralizepowerinCongressandserveindividualmembers
powerandreelectionneeds

Lessthanadozenmembersholdapartyleadershipposition,butseveral
hundredserveascommitteeorsubcommitteechairsorarerankingmembers,
thetemfortheminoritypartyscommitteeandsubcommitteeleaders
AlthoughthepartieshavemoreinfluenceinCongressthantheydidafew
decadesago,thebalancebetweenpartypowerandcommitteepowerisalways
onongoingissue
Thedistinguishingfeatureofcongressionalpowerisitsdivisionamongthe
membership,withtheprovisionforaddedpowersometimesmoreand
sometimeslessinthehandsofthetoppartyleaders
HowaBillbecomesLaw
Abillisaproposedlegislativeact
Manybillsarepreparedbyexecutiveagencies,interestgroups,orotheroutsideparties,
butmembersofCongressalsodraftbills,andtheyalonecanformallysubmitabillfor
considerationbytheirchamber
CommitteeHearingsandDecisions
WhenabillisintroducedintheHouseofSenate,itreceivesabillnumberandis
senttotherelevantcommittee,whichassignsittooneofitssubcommittees
Lessthan10%ofthebillsreferredtocommitteewillgettothefloorforavotethe
othersarekilledwhencommitteesdecidedtheylackmerit
Mostbillsdieincommitteebecausetheyarepoorlyconceivedoroflittleinterest
toanyoneotherthanafewmembersofCongress
Thefactthatcommitteeskillmorethan90%ofthebillssubmittedinCongress
doesnotmeanthattheyexercise90%ofthepowerinCongress
Ifabillappearstohavemerit,thesubcommitteewillschedulehearingsonit
IntheHouse,boththefullcommitteeandasubcommitteecanmarkupa
billthatistheyhavetheauthoritytochangeitscontent
IntheSenate,markupusuallyisreservedforthefullcommittee
FromCommitteetotheFloor
Ifamajorityofthecommitteevotetorecommendpassageofthebill,itisreferred
tothefullchamberforaction
IntheHouse,theRulesCommitteehasthepowertodeterminewhenthebillwill
bevotedon,andhowlongthedebateonitwilllast
Onlyasmallnumberoflegislatorsaregrantedtheopportunitytospeakonthe
floor
TheRulesCommitteealsodecideswhetherabillwillreceiveaclosedrule,
openrule,orsomethinginbetween
TheSenatealsohasarulescommittee,butitislessimportantthanitsHouse
counterpartbecausetheSenatehaslessrestrictiverulesondebateand
amendments
AllSenatebillsaresubjecttounlimiteddebateunlessa3/5majorityvotefor
cloture,whichlimitsdebateto30hours

ClotureisawayofdefeatingaSenatefilibuster,whichisaproceduraltactic
wherebyaminorityofsenatorscanblockabillbytalkinguntilothersenatorsgive
inandthebilliswithdrawnfromconsiderationofalteredtofitopponentsdemand
IntheHouse,proposedamendmentsmustdirectlyrelatetothebillscontents
IntheSenate,memberscanproposeanyamendmenttoanybill
LeadershipandFloorAction
Abillthatemergesfromcommitteewiththesupportofallornearlyallofits
membersisusuallypassedbyanoverwhelmingmajorityofthefullchamber
Ontheotherhand,whenthecommitteevoteiscloselydivided,othermembers
mayconcludethattheyneedtogivethebillacloselookbeforedecidingwhether
tosupportit
Onmajorbills,themajoritypartysleaders(particularlyintheHouse)have
increasinglyassumedthelead
Theydependontheongoingsupportoftheirpartysmembers.Toobtainit,they
consulttheirmembersinformallyandthroughthepartycaucus
ConferenceCommitteesandthePresident
Forabilltopass,itmusthavethesupportofasimplymajorityoftheHouseor
Senate
Tobecomelaw,abillmustbepassedinidenticalformbyboththeHouseandthe
Senate
Eachconferencecommitteeisformed
temporarilyforthesolepurposeof
handlingaparticularbillitsmembers
areusuallyappointedfromtheHouse
andSenatestandingcommitteesthat
draftedthebill
Theconferencecommitteesjobisto
developacompromiseversion,which
thengoesbacktotheHouseand
Senatefloorsforavote
Ifthepresidentsignsthebill,it
becomeslaw
Ifthepresidentrejectsthebillthrough
useoftheveto,thebillissentbackto
Congresswiththepresidentsreasons
fornotsigningit
Congresscanoverrideapresidents
vetobyatwothirdsvoteofeach
chamberthebillthenbecomeslawwithoutthepresidentssignature
However,ifCongresshasconcludeitstermandthepresidentfailstosignabill
withintendays,thebilldoesnotbecomelaw
Thislastsituation,calledapocketveto,forcesCongressinitsnexttermtostart
overfromthebeginning

CongresssPolicymakingRole
Asnationalandinternationalcombinedtoplacegreaterpolicydemandsonthefederal
government,thepresidentassumedacentralroleinthelegislativeprocess
Congressspolicymakingrolerevolvesarounditsthreemajorfunctions:lawmaking,
representation,andoversight
TheLawmakingFunctionofCongress
UndertheConstitution,Congressisgrantedthelawmakingfunction:theauthority
tomakethelawsnecessarytocarryoutthepowersgrantedtothenational
government:includingthepowertotax,tospend,toregulatecommerce,andto
declarewar
Broodissues:FragmentationasaLimitonCongresssRole
Congressisstructuredinawaythatcanmakeagreementonlargeissues
difficulttoobtain
Congressalsoincludesalotoflawmakers:100membersoftheSenate
and435membersoftheHouse
Becauseitmeansdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleindifferentareasof
thecountry,membersofCongresswhorepresentthesevariousareas
haveconflictingviewsonwhenfreetrademakessense
Congressoftenhasdifficultytakingtheleadonbroadissuesofnational
policy
AlthoughanincreaseinpartyunityinCongresshasstrengthenedtherole
ofthechambersmajoritypartyanditsleaders,thefactremainsthat
HouseandSenatemembersarelargelyfreetovoteastheyplease
Congresssometimesstruggleswhenfacedwiththetaskofcraftingmajor
legislation
Asaninstitution,thepresidencyisbettersuitedtothetaskofproviding
leadershiponmajornationalissues
FirstwhereasCongresssauthorityisdivided,executivepowerisvested
constitutionallyinthehandsofasingleindividualthepresidentThe
presidenthaslessneedtonegotiatewithotherexecutiveofficialsin
takingaposition
Second,whereasmembersofCongressoftenseeissuesfromthe
perspectiveoftheirstateorconstituency,presidentshaveanational
constituencyandtendtolookatpolicyfromthatperspective
Third,newscoveragetiltsnationalpolicyleadershiptowardthe
presidencyandawayfromCongress
PresidentialleadershipmeansthatCongresswilllistentoWhiteHouse
proposals,notthatitwillactonthem
Itmayrejectaproposaloutright,particularlywhenthepresidentisfrom
theopposingparty
Ontheotherhand,whenapresidentproposalissomewhatclosetowhat
acongressionalmajoritymightfindacceptable,theproposalbecomesthe

startingpointforcongressionalnegotiations,savingCongressthetime
andtroubleofdevelopingthelegislationfromscratch
Initslawmakingactivities,Congresshasthesupportofthree
congressionalagencies
CongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)providesCongresswithgeneral
economicprojections,overallestimatesofgovernmentexpendituresand
revenues,andspecificestimatesofthecostsofproposedprograms
GovernmentAccountabilityOffice(GAO)isthelargestcongressional
agencyithasprimaryresponsibilityforoverseeingexecutiveagencies
spendingofmoneythathasbeenappropriatedbyCongress
CongressionalResearchService(CRS)conductsresearchandresponds
toinformationrequestsfromcongressionalcommitteesandmembers
CongressintheLead:FragmentationasaPolicymakingStrength
Congressoccasionallytakestheleadonmajorissues
Laborlegislation,environmentallaw,federalaidtoeducation,andurban
developmentarepolicyareasinwhichCongresshastakenaninitiating
role
Congressdoesnotroutinelydevelopbroadpolicyprogramsandcarry
themthroughpassage
ThegreatmajorityofthehundredsofbillsthatCongressconsiderseach
sessiondealwithnarrowissues
ThesamefragmentationthatmakesitdifficultforCongresstoleadon
broadissuesenablesCongresstotacklescoresofsmallerissue
simultaneously
MostofthelegislationpassedbyCongressisdistributivethatis,it
confersabenefitonaparticulargroupwhilespreadingthecostacrossthe
taxpayingpublic
Distributivepolicieshaveaclearpoliticaladvantage:Thebenefitislarge
enoughthatmembersoftherecipientgroupwillrecognizeandappreciate
it,whilethecosttoeachtaxpayerislessnoticeable
TheRepresentationFunctionofCongress
Theproperapproachtotherepresentationfunctionhasbeendebatedsincethe
nationsfounding
Arecurrentissueiswhethertherepresentativeshouldrespondtotheinterestsof
thenationasawholeorthoseoftheconstituency
Theseinterestsoverlaptosomedegreebutdonotcoincideexactly
RepresentationofStatesandDistricts
Thechoicebetweennationalandlocalinterestsisnotasimpleone,even
foralegislatorwhoisinclinedtowardoneortheotherorientation
Tobefullyeffective,membersofCongressmustbereelectedtimeand
againanecessitythatcompelsthemtopayattentiontolocaldemand
Yet,theyserveinthenationslegislativebodyandcannotignorenational
needs

MostmembersofCongress,onnarrowissuesatleast,voteinawaythat
willnotantagonizelocalinterests
Localrepresentationoccursinpartthroughthecommitteesystem
Althoughstudiesindicatethatthepreferencesofmostcommitteesarenot
radicallydifferentfromthoseofthefullHouseorSenate,committee
membershipsroughlycoincidewithconstituencyinterests
Committeesarealsothesiteofmostlogrollingthepracticeoftrading
onesvotewithanothermemberssothatbothgetwhattheywant
LocalrepresentationalsoshapeshowCongressdistributivesfundsfor
federalprograms
Ifaprogramhasalocalelement,membersofCongresswilloften
withholdtheirsupportunlesstheirlocalitygetsashareofthemoney,
eveniftheeffectistomaketheprogramlessefficient
Nevertheless,representationofconstituencyinterestshasitslimits
Constituentshavelittleawarenessofmostissuesthatcomebefore
Congress
WhetherCongressappropriatesafewmilliondollarsinforeignaidto
ChadorBoliviaisnotthesortofissuethatlocalresidentswillhearabout
Moreover,membersofCongressoftenhavenochoicebuttogoagainst
thewishesofasignificantportionoftheirconstituency
Thenationscapitalisfilledwithpowerfullobbiesthatcontributefundsto
congressionalcampaigns
Someoftheselobbiesrepresentintereststhatcoincidewiththoseofthe
legislatorsstateordistrictbutmanyofthemdonot
RepresentationoftheNationthroughParties
Whenaclearcutandvitalnationalinterestisastake,membersof
Congresscanbeexpectedtorespondtothatinterest
InmostcasesmembersofCongress,thoughagreeingonaneedfor
nationalaction,disagreeonthecourseofaction
InCongress,disagreementsovernationalgoalsoccurprimarilyalong
partylines
Differencesinthepartiesapproachtoeducationpolicyplayedoutinthe
legislativedebateonNoChildLeftBehind
Partisandivisionshaveincreasinglydefinedcongressionalaction
Inthepast,thediversityofthecongressionalpartiesthepresenceofa
largenumberofconservationwithinDemocraticranksandalarge
numberofprogressivewithinRepublicansrankswasabarrierto
legislationrootedinpartyideology
Neitherpartycouldmusterthesupportofenoughofitsmembersto
pursuesuchlegislationonaregularbasis
Apositiveaspectofthisdevelopmentisthatpartydifferencesare
increasinglyapparenttovoters

Attimesinthepast,manyvotersbelievedthatthepartiesdidnotoffera
clearchoice
Intheviewofsomepoliticianscientists,thissituationwasabarrierto
accountability
TheyarguedthatAmericasvotersdeservetohavethechoicebetween
responsiblepartiespartiesthattakeclearcupandopposingpolicy
positionsandseektoenactthemwheninofficesothatvoterscanmore
easilyholdthemtoaccountfortheiractions
CriticsofthisviewsatthatiffailstoaccountforthestructureofUS
institutions
Ascongressionalpartisanshiphasintensified,thepublicsimageof
Congresshasplummeted
TheOversightFunctionofCongress
AlthoughCongressenactsthenationslaws,theiradministrationis
entruststotheexecutivebranch
Congresshastheresponsibilitytoseethattheexecutivebranchcarries
outthelawsfaithfully,asupervisoryactivelyreferredtoastheoversight
functionofCongress
Oversightisademandingtask
Thebureaucracyhashundredsofagenciesandthousandsofprograms
Congressgetssomeleveragefromthefactthatfederalagencieshave
theirfundingrenewedeachyear,whichprovidesanopportunityfor
congressionalcommitteestoreviewagencyactivities
Congressalsogetsleveragefromcommitteestaffs,whichinteract
regularlywiththetopbureaucratsintheagencieswithintheircommittees
jurisdiction
Neverthelessbecausethetaskissolarge,oversightisnotpursued
vigorouslyunlessmembersofCongressareannoyedwithanagency,
havediscoveredthatalegislativeauthorizationisbeingabused,orare
intendingtomodifyanagencyprogram