Justice, Care & Diversity

Part I
Foundations

Justice, Care & Diversity

Chapter 1
Justice and Care in Catholic Secondary Schools:
The Importance of Student-Teacher Relationships
Edmundo F. Litton
Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, California
Jason M. Stephens
University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut

It made a difference when you came to school sites. It showed

you cared, and made me care more.
Teachers at all levels have the power to impact the lives of their students. As the student
quoted above articulates in her evaluation of a professor in a Teacher Education program, caring
teachers not only affect those with whom they have direct contact but also the lives of those with
whom their students interact. In the life of this teacher candidate, a caring professor made a difference and she in turn, translated the care she received to the students she was teaching. Most
students are able to identify teachers who have made a difference in their lives. As they remember
a special teacher, many students would often talk about the way this teacher cared for them or
treated everyone fairly. Biographical accounts of just and caring teachers such as Jaime Escalante
(Matthews, 1988) and Lou Anne Johnson (Johnson, 1995) have made for good reading and
popular Hollywood films such as Stand and Deliver, Lean on Me, and Dangerous Minds to name
a few. By showing concern for students, earning their respect, and offering them opportunities for
intellectual and personal growth, these extraordinary teachers illustrate aspects of just and caring
teaching that can result in the improbable the academic engagement and achievement of students
who seemed destined to fail.
While biographies and dramas offer some insight into the meaning and power of good
teaching, such accounts often render an incomplete and sometimes simplistic and sensational

Justice, Care & Diversity

portrayal of justice and care in schools and classrooms. In this chapter, we will explore topics that
provide more depth into the meaning, practice and significance of just and caring teaching. What
does it really mean to be a just and caring teacher? Why are caring student-teacher relationships
important? What concrete practices can create more just and caring relationships in schools? We
believe these questions are important ones because a holistic education should not only foster
students intellectual development but also their personal, social and moral development. This
concept of a holistic education parallels the mission of Catholic schools of educating the whole
person. Educating the whole person means getting to know students on a personal level and
accepting the diverse backgrounds that all students bring into the classroom. To successfully
educate the whole person, teachers must be effective educators as well as ethical educators. In this
article, we will discuss how the concepts of justice, care, and a model of enlightened education can
be foundations for promoting diversity in Catholic schools. A truly just and caring education
encourages students to value their uniqueness.
Justice and Care
What does it mean to be a just and caring teacher? Educational philosophers often speak
of justice and care in school and classroom contexts as two distinct orientations. Justice is often
defined in terms of the fairness or equity with which scarce educational goods (e.g., school funds,
teacher time, student access to resources and even grades) are allocated and distributed. It aims to
respect individual rights and apply laws and policies impartially based on what one is due. Caring,
by contrast, is concerned with interpersonal relationships and how we might best nurture the
personal and social growth of each individual. It aims to build community and respond to all
members as distinct individuals. In short, where the ethic of justice pushes from sameness in treatment based on rights and principles, the ethic of care pulls for differentiation based on individual
needs and circumstances.
As noted by Noddings (1999) and others, moral pluralism allows for, even demands, both:
promoting one without the other justice without care or care without justice is inadequate. In
a classroom, for example, a teacher may promote justice by promoting high standards for all
learners. The lens of care, however, suggests the teacher needs to help each and every individual
student achieve those high standards, differentiating the curriculum or instruction to meet unique
needs and interests. Though distinct, justice and caring are often complementary. Care theorists
usually seek ends compatible with justice, but we try to achieve them by establishing conditions
in which caring itself can flourish (Noddings, 1999, p. 19).
Care, however, should not be romanticized as merely an individuals desire to make a
difference for another person. In thinking about responding to educational issues with care, educa-

Justice and Care in Catholic Secondary Schools

tors need to focus both on who is caring and the response of the person who is being cared for. For
example, as educators think about promoting high standards in a classroom, they need to be
constantly aware of how this action actually affects students. Are these caring actions really benefiting students? Students need to be part of the conversation so that any action that teachers take
are truly done with the students best interests in mind. Teachers need to get to know their students
if they truly want to take on the attitude of care. They cannot presume to know what students need.
Caring now refers properly to the relation, not just to an agent who cares and we must consider
the response of the cared-for (Noddings, 1999, p. 13).
Any caring relationship should be, as much as possible, without ulterior or hidden
motives. Blizek (1999) notes, caring is not just a matter of doing something, of acting in a particular way. It is also a matter of attitude (p. 97). True caring is done without any hidden agendas or
motives. In the end, true caring leads students to care even more for themselves, others, the environment, or ideas.
Caring is an important aspect of culturally responsive pedagogy (Jones, 2007). Culturally
responsive pedagogy incorporates the different microcultures of students in the teaching and
learning process (Martin and Litton, 2005). Jones (2007) states that caring is important to teaching
and learning because caring and acceptance allows [students] to feel safe and break down barriers
to taking necessary risks in the learning environment (p. 15).
Wentzel (1997) found that 8th grade students use dimensions similar to Noddings (1992)
conclusions when she talked about teacher caring and support. More specifically, teachers who
care were described as demonstrating democratic interaction styles, developing expectations for
student behavior in light of individual differences, modeling a caring attitude toward their own
work, and providing constructive feedback (Wentzel, 1997, p. 411). In a later study, Wentzel
(1998) found that supportive relationships with teachers to be a positive predictor of academic
effort, social responsibility and goal pursuit (e.g., sharing and helping in the classroom) in a
sample of sixth graders. More recent research by Murdock, Hale and Weber (2001) found that
middle school students perceptions of their teachers as competent, fair, and caring were powerful
(negative) predictors of their self-reported cheating (see also Stephens, 2004a; Stephens & Roeser,
2003). Similarly, Roeser, Midgley, and Urdan (1996) found significant relations between students
perceptions of their relationships with teachers and their sense of school belonging, which in turn
was related to their academic achievement.

Justice, Care & Diversity

Caring Student-Teacher Relationships

Studentteacher relationships are an important aspect of Catholic education. Due to the
emphasis on education of the whole person, teachers in Catholic schools take on additional roles
in their relationships with students in and out of the classroom (Cook, 2004, p. 66). Teachers have
multiple opportunities to nurture the whole person in their role as scholar, counselor, and role
model. Many Catholic school teachers view their occupation as a calling (Cook, 2004), one that
includes developing positive and nurturing relationships with students.
Many psychologists (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Deci & Ryan, 1985) have suggested that
such positive relationships greatly facilitate the adoption of community goals, values and norms.
Additionally, sociologists (e.g., Hirschi, 1989) have explained deviant behavior (such as cheating)
as the result of a weak or broken bond between individuals and society. Thus, establishing a positive student-teacher relationship may not only lead to positive outcomes for students it may also
mitigate negative ones. The social climate of an educational setting matters and students act more
positively when they perceive their teacher to be just and caring (Stephens & Roeser, 2003).
Furthermore, Stephens (2004) conducted research on student cheating and the results showed that
students were less likely to cheat in classes where their teachers were perceived to be fair and caring.
Attitudes and values of a teacher, even those that are implicitly stated, influence student
outcomes. Schools are perfect places for students to experience justice and care. Educational
settings should be places where students can begin to understand what it means to treat others with
justice and care that could be applied to other aspects of life (Noddings, 1999). In many instances,
students learn about justice and care through the hidden curriculum in the schools.
Jackson (1968) first proposed the concept of the hidden curriculum. Martin and Litton
(2005) describe the hidden curriculum as the values, beliefs, and messages educators present to
students, mostly in informal interactions that permeate the entire school culture. Justice and care are
aspects of the hidden curriculum that need to be explored in greater detail especially since Wentzel
(1997, 1998) demonstrates that pedagogical caring has a positive affect on learner outcomes.

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Justice and Care in Catholic Secondary Schools

A Model of Enlightened Education

In order to create a more just and caring school environment, teachers must be both ethical
and effective as described in the model of Enlightened Education (Stephens, 2004b). This model
is illustrated in the following diagram:

Conceptual Model of Enlightened Education

(Stephens, 2004b)
Enlightened Education

Effective

Expert Knowledge1
human development
and learning
academic subject
matter
general and
domain-specific
teaching strategies
curriculum and
broader context
characteristics and
cultural background
of students

Ethical

Dispositions/Skills
reflective practitioner
effective problem
solvers
engaged members
of the learning
community
valuing learning
(continued
professional
development)

Just
clear learning objectives
and grading criteria
reasonable assignments
open dialogue and due
process
fair and equal treatment
of all learners
unbiased grading
policies and procedures
involvement of students
in decision-making

Caring
safe environment
open trust of and
concern for students
interest in and
support of personal
growth
inclusive sense of
belongingness
respect, appreciation,
and celebration of
student differences
individual treatment

Adapted from Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations for the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 19(2), 4-14.

Research shows that effective teachers are reflective practitioners who know the theoretical foundations behind their subject matter and practice. Effective teachers also integrate their
students cultural experiences in lessons. There are certain teacher characteristics that are
perceived to be just and caring (e.g., having high expectations for all students).
Brophy (1986) states that teachers who do not have a strong knowledge base of teaching
often make instructional decisions based on untested theories or personal experiences. While
teachers may have anecdotal information based on their personal experiences as learners, justice
and care are components that need to be tested so that teachers truly understand how these two
dimensions of an enlightened education influence learning outcomes and student behavior.

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Justice, Care & Diversity

Teaching is both an art and an applied science anda validated knowledge base, if used properly, should benefit practitioners without inappropriately constricting their creativity or professionalism (Brophy, 1986, p. 1075).
Steps Towards Creating a Just and Caring Environment
Creating a just and caring community often requires a paradigm shift. In a study involving teacher
interviews, Litton (2006) found that many Catholic school teachers believe in the concept of caring
and stated that they cared for their students, but they had a difficult time expressing this care.
Many of these teachers associated caring with being soft and they feared that students would
take advantage of their caring behavior. These teachers also acknowledged that caring often means
having to differentiate instruction for some students. Despite this belief that it was necessary to do
different things for students based on student needs, differentiated instruction was often associated
with lowering standards.
A model of enlightened education is neither about being lenient to students or lowering
standards. Caring relationships affirm students and allow them to care for themselves and others
even more. Caring communities in school can be created through various means:
Begin a dialogue with students on what they believe it means to be cared for by teachers.
How do students perceive fairness? How do students define effective teaching?
Allow students to take ownership of the school (Noddings, 1992). Encouraging student
participation in decisions that affect the entire school community helps students see that
the school is their responsibility. Student government is one of the best ways to
encourage student engagement in school decisions (Power & Makogonm, 1995).
Give students the opportunity to practice caring in school (Noddings, 1992). Many
Catholic secondary schools provide opportunities to practice caring through community
service.
Create theme-based lessons and units that allow students and teachers to explore
curriculum together. Constructivist-based learning environments foster student-teacher
relationships by honoring prior knowledge and lived experiences, and by distributing
expertise and shared responsibility for learning. Students will also feel more responsible
for their own learning.
Openly discuss issues that confront the classroom or school community. Do not allow
perceptions of racism, homophobia, classicism, ableism, or sexism to exist in a school.
Handled appropriately, these unfortunate manifestations of ignorance, intolerance and
fear can become rich teachable moments (See Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, & Stephens,
2003 for examples).

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Justice and Care in Catholic Secondary Schools

Examine the curriculum and create benchmarks that students must achieve. Set high
standards and use differentiated instruction (including culturally relevant pedagogy) to
help each student reach these high standards.
Working towards just and caring communities requires the transformation of institutions.
Some scholars (e.g., Noddings, 1992) advocate the end of competitive grading. While many
Catholic secondary schools may want to move cautiously as they transform their institutions,
change does need to take place if students do not feel cared for. Every school will need to evaluate
the response for creating a just and caring community. But it is clear that trusting relationships
between students and teachers need to be maintained and developed in an atmosphere where many
students distrust authority. However, if teachers truly recognize the unique gifts of the individual
students in their classroom and celebrate these gifts, the students will feel cared for and positive
things will happen.

Knowing that the teacher cares about me is the difference when

I know the answer for sure and raising my hand when I think I
know the answer. But I know for sure that if I answer wrong,
Ms. Smith will still like me and think I am smart.
An 8th Grade Student (Jones, 2007, p. 15).

Questions for Discussion

1. In your work as a teacher or administrator, what do you do on a daily basis to
develop a just and caring relationship with your students?
2. How do you balance justice and care in your educational practice?
3. Examine the mission statement of your school. How can the concepts of justice
and care be more fully integrated in the mission statement of your school?
4. Look back at your own educational experiences as a student. Who of your past
teachers would you consider just and caring? Why?

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Justice, Care & Diversity

References
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(Eds.), Justice and caring: The search for common ground in education (pp. 93-109). New York:
Teachers College Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Alienation and the four worlds of the child. Phi Delta Kappan, 46, 430-436.
Brophy, J. (1986). Teacher influences on student achievement. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1069-1077.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Alienation and the four worlds of the child. Phi Delta Kappan, 46, 430-436.
Colby, A., Ehrlich, T., Beaumont, E., & Stephens, J. M. (2003). Educating citizens: Preparing Americas
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Cook, T. (2004). Teachers. In T. C. Hunt, E. A. Joseph, & R. J. Nuzzi (Eds), Catholic schools still make a
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