Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.smmt.co .uk
David Linehan
LYNOAKS LTD
Steve Elvin
SMMT LTD
The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders limited. All rights reserved
Published in 2004 for SMMT bv Findlav Publications Ltd, Horton Kirby, Kent DA4 9LL
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Section 1
3
7
Contributors
Foreword
Section 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Introduction
Philosophy
Information from data
The uses of charting
Disturbances & state-of-control
Specifications
Measures of middle
Measures of spread
Other measures of shape
Using calculators to obtain statistical measures
A reason for chart sample sizes above one
9
9
9
10
11
12
14
16
17
18
18
20
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
20
21
22
23
25
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
25
28
29
Purpose
Chart design
Chart construction
Control lines
30
32
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
32
32
32
33
35
Introduction
Sample size
Sample selection
Special circumstances
Mean and range chart Cx&R)
Mean and standard deviation chart (x&s)
Median and range chart Cx&R)
37
38
40
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
40
40
General
Sample size
Sample selection
p chart for production of detectives
np chart for number of detectives
c chart for number of defects
u chart for production of defects
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42
43
43
43
44
7.1
72
73
74
75
7.6
7.7
78
79
44
44
45
45
47
51
52
52
53
Introduction
Examination of charts for variables (x&R, x&R, x&s)
Examination of charts for attributes (p, np, c, u)
Pattern recognition
Examples of out-of-control patterns
Other examples of patterns
Unusual patterns without special disturbances
Dealing with disturbances
Centring
Section 8- Capability
55
8. 1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
55
58
59
60
61
62
Capability statements
Capability indexes
Setting indexes
Interpretation of indexes
Estimation of conforming products
Example Reaction Plan following process monitoring
64
65
65
68
Sect1on 11
70
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
70
72
74
76
78
Probability plots
Distribution information from probability plots
Snap-shot capability estimations
Estimation s for non normal distributions
82
84
84
85
90
92
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2. Introduction
2.1 Philosophy
People
Supp "ers have a responsibility to meet or better customers'
expectations.
Customers are the people or mach ines at the next and later stages
in any process, they might be in other factories or companies but
they always include the people who use the ultimate product.
Objectives
Most companies operate in markets where it is vital that they are
competitive and profitable. Being competitive means being better
than competitors in quality, costs and delivery. Being profitable
entails operating without waste.
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2.4 Disturbances & State-of-Control
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Most at or nea r to
Economic Optimum
!1-
TJ
I
- -
+
-I-
+-
_,.
I
I
Nominal
SUPPLIERS'S TARGET
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For process control, the limits are used as criteria for process
design and in some methods of expressing process
capability. Product qua lity is safeguarded through control
lines on a cha rt (section 4.4).
Beware of standard tolerances that have been developed as
a basis for contractual payments to piece-workers and
suppliers rath er th an as a basis for custo mer satisfaction.
Figure 2.2: The roles of people in SPC
EXECUTIVE/MANAGERS
Nominate co-ord inator/
facilitators
Scrap/rework
CO-ORDINATOR
Identifies opportunities
- - Warr~~d coaches facil itators
_j
_j
Administration
--Etc
I
MANAGERS
Promote employee
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2.6 Measures of Middle
Although diagrams usua lly give th e best idea of th e shape of a
distribution, numbers are necessary for comparisons with other
distributions.
One such number is an estimate of the middle of a distribution,
sometimes it is called the location or central tendency of a
distribution.
Three ways of expressing an estimate of the middle of a distribution
are the mode, the median and the mean .
The fol lowing example is used in their descriptions below.
9 people were tested and the number of ma rks per person was
2, 5, 3, 6, 4, 3, 8, 5 and 3
Mode
The mode is the value which occurs most often .
lt does not have a standard designation but i is commonly used.
There are three 3s, t wo 5s and one of each of the other four
numbers therefore the mode is = 3.
Median
The median is the middle value when the data is arranged in
order of magnitude. lt is denoted by x.
Rearranging the numbers gives 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6 and 8, the
= 4.
middle number is 4, therefore the median is
Mean
The mean is the arithmetic average, sample mean is denoted by
underlying or population mean is denoted by J.L .
lt is calculated by adding the values and divid ing by their number,
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x,
A symmetrical distribution
The mode, median and mean are compared above for a symmetrica l
and a non-symmetrical distribution .
For a symmetrical distribution such as the normal distribution, all
three occur at the middle of the distribution .
The effect of a 'tail' in a non-symmetrical distribution is to pull the
median away from the mode and the mean even further.
In both situations the median has 50 % of the distribution,indicated
by 50% of the area under the curve, on each side of its value.
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Although the mean is the most common way of expressing
average. there are time s wh en the mode or median are preferred.
For example
Designers usually follow market su rveys. In practice, this
amounts to fo llowing t he mode.
The median tends to be used in salary negotiations, it seems
easier to ignore the extremes and to talk about a level which
has 50% of people above and below it.
The median is used in some manua l cha rting appl ica tions,
partly because it is easi ly ca lculated and understood
and partly because it avoids t he need for calculators.
2.7 Measures of Spread
The spread of a dist ribution is often more important than its average.
Range
Th e range is the maximum value minus the minimum value . lt is
designated R.
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Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance .
The advantage of using standard deviation rather than variance
is that its units are the same as the original data and the mean.
If standard deviation is doubled, then the spread of the data is
doubled and if standard deviation is halved, the spread is halved.
For normal distributions, the spread of data is about six
standard deviations.
Symmetrica l (c, = 0)
or not skewed
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whether the distribution is flat-topped or peaked which is
called kurtosis (a Greek word meaning bulging or convexity) .
ll
Flat-topped (platykurtic)
Peaked (leptokurtic)
Ck is high 'Yis positive
ck and 'Yare different coefficients of kurtosis that are quantified by some computer programmes.
ck reflects the shape of a distributions tails, 'Yreflects its central shape and
<Tn_ ,
or s for
18
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3. Getting Started
3.1 The People Involved
The executive or directors ' role is to support the practice of
statistics in process control, to the extent that they commit
re sources in the form of skills, time and occasionally facilitiesall of which mean money!
The managers' role is to ensure that information is obtained
from statistics in process control and is used to the best
advantage of the business.
Fact-holders need to be found by the executive and/or by
management. The se people are the lynch-pin of statistics in
process control. Their principal role is to coach others in the
methods.
They will have a knowledge of both statistics and the processes in
the business. Knowing the business is the pre-requisite,
knowledge of statistics can be obtained from educational
institutions, from consultants and from related software packages .
They are often called SPC facilitators or co-ordinators but they
might have other titles and responsibilities . Whatever the title, it
is important that facilitators are in touch with the work-teams. lt
is also important that they have a focus in the shape of a coordinator who can promote good practice and provide a special
li nk to the executive.
Work-teams are the people at the sharp-end. Their role is to
practise the methods and to provide information for all to use
and improve the business.
In very small companies (say two or three people) one individual
might carry out all the above roles .
In very large compames (say twenty or thirty thousand people)
there might be a facilitator in each work area, an overall co-ordinator
and others depending upon geography and diversity of processes.
In-bet een small and large compames the approach will be
somewhere between the extremes .
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When targets are not met, problems often rest with management.
Empowennent
People can be discouraged by being exposed to information that
leaves them helpless. The remedy is empowerment at all levels in an
organisation, in other words, give people authority to make decisions.
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3.3 Planning for Process Control
A process is often t hought of only as something to do with making a
product. In fact, it can be any activity that produces a result such as
a design, a purchase, a sale or a service. Also, it can be an
individual's activity or a company's activity which is made up of
many individuals' activities. Whatever the resu lt or sca le, a process
has input and output elements.
Identify process elements
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A cost effective and powerful tool in process con tro l, they are
simple and su pport empowerment of the work team.
The ability to distin guish between specia l and common
disturbances and provide a common language for communication
of process behaviour.
Initia lly, a mea ns of target ing special disturbances but when the
process is predictable, t he charts show common disturbances as
a chal lenge with greater rewards.
Object ive evidence of the effect of process change ca used by
people, materials, faci lit ies, methods and the environment.
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l !!.!.1
Figure 3.1: The application of charting
(section 3.3)
(section 5.3)
(section 6.3)
L------------T------------~
Collect data
(section 4.4)
L----------r--------~
[
[
Pattern in control?
Pattern centred?
[I
[
:=J
Assess capability
=-:1
Process capable?
(section 7.9)
~ (section 8.1)
~ (section 8.4)
=r=
Continue charting
=r=
Reduce common disturbances
24
(section 7.2)
(section 7.3)
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(sectio n 5.4)
(section 7.8)
mi!.UM
Charts add va lue even when the process is in control, capable and
centred at this stage the opportunity is to delight the customer.
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C')
I3
~
Location !geography)
"~
0
.~ .~
"''"( sjl_:r
Process !o peration/machine)
h't'll'~
'" (.\~.~t
Feature
Checking media
Specification
Sample
\1
.,
cE'
c
~
~ ~i~~~ JiJwrtr~
IU<
NOMINAL
SIZE
Af OOO o11w
I TOLERANCE
j FREQUENCY
c J ~o~~~~\
[(_,lA ,'\
)>
....
-<
"C
;:;
5'
c..
c
~
:::!.
~
"C
0
.
n
CD
VI
VI
....
:I
2.
=r
I
.,"'
-2
~
"'jg
a:
GRAPH
PAPER
SHIFT
).-
DATE
~ D~ IIIIIIIII
TIME
BY
J
----""1"' '
RECORD
...,
E-
I l' l I' I !
"'
4 LL!_
><
1.,,,1 'f l
.:~ 1
-~ 1
. ,,
:1 1 7.1
f'
,.
if
LX
P I /-{-
'
Mean of values =
i3
~
"~
N
-.1
lJ -1,1
Mean of Rvalues = R
~.
A 1 ,)(
Az
03
04
~.267
PARAMmR
'
5
1 574
~: 282
RECORD
"
n = sample size
2.114
dz
1.128
1.693
2.059
2.326
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4fiii!l.!.i
RAW DATA RECORD with identifications and calculations for the
plots.
PARAMETER RECORD with formulae used in their ca lculation.
These parameters are explained in following sections of this
handbook.
"'>
10
15
20
25
Sample number
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Jii41U!.M
The vertical scale shou ld be selected so that extreme values can be
plotted . Also. to help interpretation (described from section 7.1) there
shou ld be about 12 but not less than 8 steps at convenient equal
intervals between the control li nes which are explained in the next
section.
The horizontal scale should accommodate a minimum of 25 plots.
This is to allow th e cha rt to give a coherent picture of the process.
To help the picture, straight lines are drawn between successive
plots.
Figure 4.3: Control lines drawn on a control chart
"'
"'>
"C
Q)
..:!
Mean
Q)
t::
0
c::
10
15
20
25
Sample number
30
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Calculations of the mean and control lines are made from the data
using simple formulae that vary according to chart type and sample
size.
The formulae are set out with the detail chart descriptions.
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32
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4ifi!lolri
For the not so obvious changes, completion of a chart provides a
timely reminder to check the calculations before a replacement
chart is used.
Figure 5.1: Data for variables control charts
79 81 77 89 75 76 75 69 72 86
67 84
72 81
77 75 82
72
72 87 86 65 91 78 89 76 76 70
84 76 89 94 82 63 84
85 88 72 82 73 54 75 85 78 65 75 92 82 77 78 88 81
70 85 83 93 87 87 90 75 80 84 86 70 77 76 80 81 79 70 73 72 70 81 72 86 80
72 76 88 86 94 71 89 77 74 67 76 84 76 86 79 68 80 82 71 86 77 79 82 94 68
75.0 78.6 87.4 83.4 80.8 73.6 85.2 77.6 79.6 78.2 79.8 77.4 76.6 73.6 73.6 77.0 81.0 76.0 74.6 83.2 76.6 80.2 75.4 83.2 77.
17 13 21 26 25 24 13 10 11 21 14 14 15 32 15 17 9 21 24 20 12 14 13 22 18
72 76 88 86 82 71 86 77 80 77 82 80 76 76 75 79 80 77 73 86 77 79 76 86 80
6.8 5.0 7.0 10.0 9.3 9.1 4.6 3.5 3.8 7.3 5.1 5.8 5.2 10.8 5.8 6.2 3.2 7.7 7.9 8.2 3.9 4.8 4.5 8.1 6.9
:;;
Q)
80
E
Q)
c.
~
70
~---------------------------------------------------
x- A2R
60
50+-.-.-.-.-,-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-~
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Samp le number
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Figure 5.3: A ranges control chart from the data in figure 5.1
40
30
"'~
~
a_
"'
20
~
C/)
10
--,
2 3 4
5 6
y - y - - . . - -1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Sample number
The fol lowing stati stics are ca lculated from the measurements.
SAMPLE MEANS
:X
SAMPLE RANGES
Graph Paper
The statistics are plotted on a suitabl y scaled graph (see section
4.3) and the plots are joined by straight lines (see figures 5.2
and 53).
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8!1.!.1
Parameter Record
Two parameters are calculated from th e stati stics and drawn on
the chart as broken horizontal lines.
PROCESS MEAN
MEAN RANGE
Four control lines are ca lculated from the parameters using the
formulae shown in figures 5.2 and 5.3 and drawn on the chart as
solid horizontal li nes.
The constants A 2 , D3 and D4 depend upon sample size and are
obtained from statistical tables (see Appendix A, page 93).
Figure 5.4: A means control chart with control lines based on
standard deviations from the data in Figure 5.1
100
90
:;; 80
"'E
"'
Q_
70
Lower control lin e LCL, =
U)
x- A3s
60
5 0 + - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , -, _ . ,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Samp le number
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Figure 5.5: A standard deviations control chart
from the data in figure 5.1
15
c:
0
;;
10
Q)
"C
1"
"'
c:
"'
"C
Q)
Q_
"'"'
Lower contro l line LCL, = Bis I= 0 in this figure)
0+-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-. .
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Sample number
control lines are calcu lated from x and (the mean of the
sample sta ndard deviations) using the formu lae shown in figures
5.4 and 5.5.
The constants A3 , B3 and B4 depend upon sa mple size- see
Appendix A, page 93.
Note: they are all different to constants used for x&R charts.
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x+ A2R
90
w
"'
c_
"'
80
(/)
x- A2R
60
50+-.-.-.--.-,-,-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-,-,-,,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Sample number
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control lines for medians are about 25% further apart than those
for means but this is not of any practical significance.
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If the objective is to check the effectiveness of action to
eliminate a defect th at previously occurred at a rate of about
1 %, the required sample size wou ld be wel l over 1000.
Successive sample sizes need not be constant but there is the
advantage of less calcu lation with constant sample sizes.
np and c charts deal with constant size samples.
p and u charts deal with variable size samples.
Mean
10
15
20
25
Sample number
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6.2: Attribute chart statistics and formulae
f, + fz + .. + fm
P= n, + nz+ ... + nm
f, + fz + .. +fm
f=
np
m
C1+C2+ ... +Cm
C=
+ C2 + ... +Cm
il=
n,+nz+ ... +nm
m
C1
Key to symbols
c
Sample size
m Number of samples
= n, + nz + .... +nm
=C
= f
m
n
n
** The lower control line is drawn at zero when the ca lculation gives
a negative number.
6.4
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6.5 np Chart for Number of Detectives
The np chart is sim ilar to the p chart, the differences are that:
the sample size must be constant and
the plotted data can be the actual number of detectives
recorded.
The p and np charts look exactly the same if plotted for the same
data w hen there is constant sample size except that the
respective vertical scales wi ll be labelled differently.
6.6 c Chart for Number of Defects
The c chart is also used to il lustrate discrete data that is not of
attributes such as occurrences of accidents, live births or aircraft
movements and it is sometimes ca lled a simple run chart.
Defects are sometimes called faults.
The c chart is similar to the np chart except that it describes defects
rather than detectives.
Samples can be :
a single unit such as an assembly,
a measured production output such as an area of material or
a constant sized group of units such as an audit batch.
6.7 u Chart for Production of Defects
The u chart is similar to the c chart, the differences are that:
the sample size can vary and
the plotted data is the average number of defects per unit in the
sample.
Like the p chart, sample sizes must not vary by more than 25 % of
the average sample size.
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7. Chart Interpretation
7.1 Introduction
A control chart is a pictorial rep resentation of process behaviou r.
lt can illustrate:
e achievement of customer's targets,
e variation from targets,
e process stabi lity,
e the effect of process change and
e the presence of process disturbances.
In most practical situations, the picture is worth a thousand words
and there is little need to indulge in abstract explanations!
Occasionally, the significance of the picture might not be obvious
and there is either unnecessary action or there is inaction .
The key is to know some basic principles and in extreme cases,
who or where to go to next.
The following sections set out the principles and some
suggestions for a next step are in the Bibliography.
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4i#ii!I.!.M
Re-setting of unstable or out-of-control processes, without
allowing for special disturbances, could lead to deterioration in
product quality
The starting point is the plot distributions illu strated in figures 7.1
and 7.2 which represent a statistically in-control process.
Significant deviation from this ideal are unu sua l if the process is
in-control.
Exam ples of some unu sual patterns and their interpretation are
shown in section s 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7.
The illustrated patterns are by no means all that can occur.
Anything that looks unu sual should be investigated even if only to
confirm an occurrence has no particular cause (section 7.7) or that a
mistake has been made in measurement, calculation or plotting.
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Figure 7.1 : Plot proportions
UCL
Mean
--
2 of 3
in centre third
------1
LCL
19 of 20
in centre
two thirds
3 in 1000
- - - - - - - outsicteline s -
UCL,------------------------------------------------
Mean
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7.5 Examples of Out-of-Control Patterns
Figure 7.3
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Figu re 7.5
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Figure 7.7
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Figure 7.9
UCL,---------------------------------------------------
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UCL
......
Mean
....
\,
-----~~~---~~,:---~~~~-----~:--r-/
~v.
"'"
-~
LCL
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7.7 Unusual Patterns Without Special Disturbances
The patterns shown in section 75 can occur by ch ance without
there being a special disturbance.
Such occurrences are ran dom but infreque nt, fo r exam ple for
charts, they could happen as indicated in figure 7 11.
There are similar likelihoods of chance occurrence on other charts
but for practical purposes, think of them only as remote
possibilities!
once in about
--
6.3
740 plots
740 plots
6.4
750 plots
750 plots
6.5
390 plots
390 plots
6.6
320 plots
6.7
720 plots
720 plots
6.8
520 plots
520 plots
310 plots
6.9
--
--
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7.9 Centring
Customers expect the majority of products to be at or close to
nom inal and nominal should be the customer's optimum (section 2.5).
Except for one-sided distributions of ovality, taper. run-out, etc
chart means for x charts should be on nominal or at the middle
of the tolerance band when a target is not specified.
One-sided distributions are a special case where the mode,
rather than the mean. should be on nominal which usually is zero.
The mode of a distribution is its most frequently occuring value.
Idea lly, zero is the place for means on R, s, p, np, c and u charts.
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8. Capability
Figure 8.1: Capability in relation to specified tolerance
(a) A capable process
LSL
LSL
USL
LSL
USL
I
LSL and USL are respectively, the lower and upper specification limits
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USL
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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8.2 Capability Indexes
A capability index is the ratio of al lowable variation to actual
variation. The allowable variation is the tolerance band. The actual
variation is a quantity ca lled the process spread wh ich is calcu lated
from sample measurements.
The index can vary according to sam ple selection. Therefore it is
symbolised as Cm, Pp or Cp to cover the three most common
sampling procedures.
Cm indicating
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LSL
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
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The setting indexes Cpk Ppk and Cmk:
cannot be greater than the capability index (Cp. Pp and Cm
respective ly).
are equal to the capabi lity index when t he process is centred.
are negative when the process mean is outside the tolerance
band.
8.4 Interpretation of Indexes
Most high volume manufacturers would regard CP = 1 or less as
indicative of a low capability process. Targets are likely to be for
c p = 1.66 or more and there will be the expectation for c pk to be the
same as CP.
Note: 100% checking does not negate the need for or value of
charting.
to re-set and centre the process when Cpk is not the
same as Cp.
When tolerance is not specified, the indexes cannot be used.
However, customers still expect to be informed of expected levels
of variation so that risks can be evaluated and appropriate action
taken.
The alternative to a setting index is simply the deviation of the
process mean from nominal. This information is of course crucial
in any case, to people who have to re-set processes.
60
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1.00
1.20
1.30
1.33
13000
300
100
<60
Isixsigma
limits
eight sigma
limits
1.66
I <1
ten sigma
limits
2.00
<10"5
twe lvesigma
limits
Capability indexes are always greater than zero, they are often
between 1 and 2 and rarely are larger than 5.
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61
4'4!1.!.1
When the process is not centred
Z values (figure 8.3) indicate the follow ing very approximate
proba biliti es, the total quantity outside tolerance is the sum of ppm
or % for ZL and Zu.
1.00
1500
11.20
150
11.30
50
1.33 ~6 -~1!-2_.o_
o _ __
<30 - ~
<105
0.6
0.7
% below/above tolerance
0.8 1 0.9
1
0.4
I 62
1.33- 1.67
Is in control
100% inspect
62
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100% inspect
In spect 100% si nc e la st
control point
100% in spect
Ac ce pt product continue to
reduc e variation
I fill !I.!.M
7 Continuous improvement
Reduced common disturbances
,
I
I
I
In control,
capable and
centred
I
I
--1.
Suppliers' responsibilities
I
I
~
5 Set the process
In control and capable
but not centr ed
I
I
I
I
4 Identify and correct problems
In control but not capab le
specia l disturbances prese nt
~_/
""'--+1----j-----\--""'""---
//
1
I
I
~I
2 Gather data and draw a chart
I
1
64
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mo.!.M
10. Topics Related to Charting
10.1 The Normal Distribution
A set of 125 measurements is shown in figure 10.1.
A perceptive ind ividua l mig ht detect the highest and lowest
values but overa ll , it is a poor picture of the process that
produced the measurements.
Figure 10.1: A set of measured data
73
53
50
42
55
63
54
66
82
48
58
52
44
65
27
30
87
15
82
99
54
68
58
56
70
72
31
82
72
12
69
29
51
58
44
79
44
61
63
72
53
54
54
49
46
44
43
29
39
61
68
61
38
28
57
59
42
59
58
53
50
61
72
47
54
56
37
80
26
74
60
59
40
60
66
50
40
43
66
28
81
57
26
89
60
62
46
56
55
83
52
35
33
34
41
52
45
68
63
32
33
65
64
38
51
51
58
55
78
59
71
51
57
37
43
18
48
48
64
68
57
50
78
44
52
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65
I
IM!!.i,M
Figure 10.2: A histogram of the data in figure 10.1
"'
.0
~
z
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
The picture shown in figure 10.2 is not very clea r because the
horizontal scale of units is too precise for t he small amount of
avai lable data.
To improve the picture, the data is put into not less than 8
convenient equal sized groups (figure 10.3). In this example, the
convenient group size is 10.
Figure 10.3: A frequency table of the data in figure 10.1
Group
Limits
Tally chart
Number
below 10
10 to 19
Ill
2.4
-3
20 to 29
ifff/1
5.6
30 to 39
ifff ifff If
12
9.6
40 to 49
21
16.8
39
31.2
23
18.4
11
8.8
50 to 59
60 to 69
70 to 79
80to89 -
90 to 99
10
above 99
6.4
0.8
66
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30
20
10
10
Group
67
68
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mu.u;
They are a structured way of reducing the multiple possibilities that
usual ly arise from brainstorming to manageable proportions.
Pareto analysis
The analys is is a way of separating the vital few from the useful
many, in other words, of prioritising actions. lt is named after Vi lfredo
Pareto, an Italian economist who first suggested the 80:20 rule,
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69
li#41!.!.1
Re-set
required ...________
I>; ~
"'~
"'E
"'
l
IX
70
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4iM!I.!.M
Initially, data is collected over at least one process cycle, for
example between tool resets or replacements, and is plotted in
the same way as for a conventiona l x& R chart.
The x&R chart is described in section 5.5.
2
Average and con trol lines are drawn for the ranges plot and
provided the ranges are relatively stable (see section 72). a bestfit line is drawn through the means plots.
The best-fit and sloping control lines are used for chart
interpretation as if they were conventional horizontal mean and
control lines. They must be re-positioned on the chart for each
process cycle.
= x- 0.5
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71
lfu!!.UM
11.2 Charts for Sample Size of One
Figu re 11.2: Example of a control chart for sample size of one.
500
2400
UCL,
1 ---------------~A---------------------------~
"C
"'
.2
C>
"
300
LCL,
200
"'
C>
UCL
"=>
100
'C'
::>
---~--------
Un its
256 302 243 286 281 277 315 422 327 292 281 305 333 294
46 59 43
4 38 107 95 35 11 24 28 39
72
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4i41!.!.1
Mean and control line positions are calculated from about
20 measurements.
For the individuals plot, the mean line is at the average of the
measurements and upper and lower control lines are drawn at the
mean 3a.
u can be calculated from the mean range (see figure 5.3). the constant (d,) used in
For the ranges plot, mean and control lines are calculated and drawn
in the same way as for a conventional range chart (see section 5.5).
The constant (D.) used in control line calculation is that for sa mple size 2.
Chart interpretation is set out in sections 7.1 to 7.9.
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73
lW!I.!.M
11.3 Charts for Short Production Runs
This method is applicable to processes that produce several similar
products, each in low volume but often an overall large quantity.
For example, a simple plate is produced in batches to order, each
w ith a flange height (18mm, 12mm, 6mm, etc) specified by the
customer.
A conventional run chart could look like the actual results in
Figure 10.3. Such a cha rt and the alternative of a separate chart
for each plate would be of little use in monitori ng the process.
A solution to the problem is to zero the plate measurements by
subtracting the nominal for the plate from each measurement.
A plot of these values is ill ustrated as the zeroed results in
figure 11.3.
The control lines shown in figure 11.3 are positioned at nomina l
3s and s has been calcu lated from the first 25 zeroed values
- see Appendix C, page 99.
The plots in the il lustrations are of individ ual measurements and
therefore the con t ro l lines could be positioned also by using the
zeroed values and the method described for charts of sample
size one (section 11.2).
For sam ples above one, a conventional x&R chart (section 5.5) is
used with values that are zeroed sample ~eans (means minus
nom inal) and of course, the process mean (x) is zero.
74
www.smmt.co.uk
18mm unit
12mm un it
20
15
c:
0
v;
c:
.~
10
:r
Actual results
5.5
2
0.5
4.5
6
1 1.5 1
7.5 5.5 4
1.5 0.5 2
UCL
~1---------------------------------------------~L~
CL
-6
Zeroed results
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75
li5ii.UM
11.4
Standardised Charts
Standardised charts are used to monitor a process when
measurements are influenced by factors independent of the
process.
The same items checked by different people or using different
facilities often give results that differ according to the person or
facility, even though the item being checked does not cha nge.
Th is method is used to standardise results when it is
impracticable to sta ndardise the people or the facilities.
The results from each person or facility are converted onto a scale
where the process mean is zero and the control chart LC L and UCL
are -3CT and +3CT respective ly.
The first step is to determine the mean and standard deviation
of the first 25 results from each person or facility.
A plot is th en made of their actual results minus the mean of
their re sults divided by the standard deviation of their results.
This plotted va lue is known as th e standardi sed deviate or Z value of the
sam pl e ave rage.
At the bottom is a standa rdi sed chart w here Z values are plotted .
For the first time it can be seen that the process aimed at
ach ieving consistency in product noise suffers from specia l
disturbances.
76
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4ifii!I.!.M
Figure 11 .4: Illustration of a st andardised chart
120
UCL
100
"'
Q;
"""'"
"C
c;
80
60
40
LCL
20
Combined results
u;
Q;
.0
;:;
::s"'
~
c;
40
20
Separated results
% W % %
% %
% %
0.09 0.09 0.09 0.95 1.21 0.35 0.09 0.35 0.95 0.350.350.78 0.09 1.21 3.98 0.09 0.35 0.35 0.52 1.21 0.09 0.09 -0.35-1l.35 0.09
6
5
j +-------------------------~~-------------------U~C~L
2
6~
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
~..LL.~
V
. . . --~.,.
17
~L
--~----------------------------------~~
Standardised results
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77
Wi#4!1.!.1
11.5 Cusum Charts
Both attribute and variable cusum charts are used for monitoring and
for retrospective investigation of processes where changes in mean
values have particular importance, for example:
when any deviation from optimum must be detected.
when the point of any change needs to be identified.
Cusum charts are especially useful in relatively stable continuous
processes such as motor vehicle paint plants and the petrochemical
industry.
The practical detail of cusum charts and their interpretation is
set out in BS5703 obtainable from the British St andards
Institut ion .
Of particular interest in the sta ndard is the description of 'masks' that help the
identification of changes and patterns on cusum charts.
78
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E
"""
200
Q)
Q)
;; 150
0;
c.
"C
~ 100
~
c::
::::J
50
0
Week
10
15
20
25
30
170
292
118
410
96
506
161
667
139
806
91
897
21 1
197
4298
300
Indications of mean level relative to target
200
Horizontal
on
target
Slope down
below
target
Slope up
above
target
r=
k-
100
H"
- 100+-ro-r.-ro-r.-ro-r.-ro-ro-ro-ro-ro-..-,-,-,,-,.-,
Week
10
15
25
20
30
Cusum chart
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79
4ii!I.UI
This illustration shows a straight best-fit line and values at points where the best-fit line intersects
w ith other lines
INTERSECTION WITH
- 50"
LSL = 0
VALUE
- 26
0.05%
Lf% =50
These va lues can be used to ca lcul ate a 'sna p-shot' estimate of capabi lity (see section 12.3)
-
Tally chart
Class
I
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1 99
1 89
1 79
I 69
I 59
I 49
I 39
I 29
19
I
HH
HH
HH
HH
I
I
I Ill I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I HH I I I
I
I
I
I
I HH I HH I HH I Ill I
I
I
I HH I HH I HH I HH I HH I HH I ////
HH I HH I HH I HH I I
I
HH I HH I 11 I
I
I
HH I 1/ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Ill
I
I
1
8
11
23
39
21
12
7
3
Li
125
124
116
105
82
43
22
10
3
Li%
100
99.2
92.8
84.0
65.6
34.4
17.6
8.0
2.4
x. 140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
- 10
- 20
-30 -
lo-'""
rr- 5cr
80
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99.~
---26
0.0
m!!.!.M
ISL; 100
t5<T
0.2%
134
t51J
__j_
_J__
_J__
- 0.2
99 87 99 5 99 98
95
90
80 70 60 50 40 30
20
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
~I"'
f.-"
1- 1-
--
1--
1005
10
--
1o13
I
I
I
_I_
-.
k--"':'"
--
0 003
I' '
.....-
_ I_
-:::.+- - 134
I
USL
I
I
- - ----- - - - - - i-I
- 54
I
I
LSL
I
0.13
0.5 1.0
10
20 30 40 50 60 70
80
90
95
98 99 99.5 99.87
99.997
(100 + 90)/2; 95
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81
IW!I.!.M
12.1 Probability Plots
Estimates of capability need data whose distribution is known.
probability plots are a simple way of finding out about data distribution.
82
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83
Wi5!1.!.1
12.2 Distribution Information from Probability Plots
Figures A to E indicate normal and non normal or unusual
distributions of data wh en it is plotted on normal probability paper.
84
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Mean
- - - - --
~-------- P rocess
spre a d - - - - - - - - - +
If prel imina ry work ind icates t hat a distribution is non normal, there
are four approaches which might be adopted.
First and most important,
investigate the data more thoroughly.
Many non normal distributions only reflect measurement practice
such as:
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85
iffi!I.!.M
The mean of the distribution shown in figure 12.3 has little practical
use, however, the tail to the right of its mode is approximately
norma l.
Note: The mode is the value which occurs most often. lt does not
have a standard designation but x is commonly used.
86
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Third if necessary,
determine if a distribution other than normal will fit the data.
Amongst them is the use of probability papers other than the normal
paper, for example, the paper illustrated in figure 12.4 and in
Appendix J, page 124, wi ll give a straight best-fit line if the
distribution is an extreme skew.
When Process Spread is determined for a non normal
distribution, it is the value of the interval between the 0.13 and
99.87 percentile lines which are the vertical broken lines in
figure 12.4.
Horizontal lines are drawn from the vertica l lin es/best-fit line
intersections, the Process Spread is the distance between them
on the vertical axis scale w hich is 95.5- 84.5 = 110 in figure 12.4.
Finally
if there is a very large amount of data (that is, thousands of results),
simply studying a histogram will usually give sufficient information
about Process Spread and its relationship to the tolerance band.
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87
fMii.UM
Figure 12.4: Illustration of a paper used for extreme skew distributions
100 - 99 - -
99.99 99.87 99
70
50
-- -
20
30
10
97
96
90
98
------
95
- +-
-- -
- - - - - - r-- - - - - - - - - -
I
I
94
93
I
I
92
_.........
91
90
89
88
:I
87
86
85
84
--- -- - ~
83
...-
_.,.,-
........ .........
1..-o'
.........
i.,...o-' ..........
--
I
I
82
81
I
80 ------------~
0 -~
01~0~.1~
3-
10
Lf% -
88
30
50
70
80
90
95
97
9f
4ii4!i.UM
___J_
--t_1_
-----t1
~ -
--+I
0.5
----o:TI-
0.3
02
0.05
0.01
99.95
99.99
I
I
---
---- ~ -
..., ,..-
:
I
:
I
:
I
I
I
I
:
I
:
I
I
I
99.5
99.7
99.8 99.87
www.smmt.co.uk
89
13. Bibliography
The terms and symbols in this guide are widely accepted in
man ufacturing industry. However, readers should note that the texts
below sometimes use different conventions.
Dietrich, E and Schulze, A (1999) Statistical Procedures for Machine and
Process Qualification, ASQ Quality Press, ISBN 0- 87389-447- 2
A comprehensive text for machine and process qualification.
Dietrich, E and Schulze, A (1998) Guidelines for the Evaluation of
Measurement Systems Hanser Publishers, ISB N 3- 446- 19572- 6
Explains how to manage the acceptance of measurement systems and
production facilities as well as process evaluation.
Betteley,G, Mettrick,NB, Sweeney, E and W ilson, D (1994) Using
Statistics in Industry, NewYork: Prentice Hall
Comprehensive work-place reference text.
Oakland,JS (1984) Statistical process control: A Practical Guide,
Oxford: Heinemann
A brief overview of process capability and the main control charts.
Walpole,RF and Myers,RH (1993) Probability and Statistics for
Engineers and Scientists, 5th edition, New York: Macmillan
A brief account of the main types of control chart.
Grant, EL and Leavenworth, RS (1988) Statistical Quality Control, 6th
edition, NewYork: McGraw Hi ll
Technical details of the main types of control chart.
Montgomery, DC (1985) Introduction to Statistical Quality Control,
New York: Wiley
Detailed treatment of process capability and the main control charts.
Mitra,A (1993) Fundamenta ls of Quality Control and Improvement,
NewYork: M acMillan
Detailed treatment of process capability
90
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91
14. Appendices
A Constants for variables control charts
93
92
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94
99
102
106
110
114
118
122
124
"'
"'
:
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8
~
.<::
:!:
..
c.
;;;
E
"'
"'
nT
2
3
4
5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
"'
"'E"'
c:
a:
oll
IX
A2
1.880
1.023
0.729
0.577
0.483
0.419
0.373
0.337
0.308
0.285
0.266
0.249
0.235
0.223
0.212
0.203
0.194
0.187
0.180
0.173
0.167
0.162
0.157
0.153
"'
-'"'=
"'"'
c:
"f3
"'c:
"'
'0
""
.<::
"'
:
8
Q;
;;:
-'"'=
~c:
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-'"'=
~c:
8
c:
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~
u
~
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A2
AJ
BJ
84
C4
d2
1.880
1.187
0.796
0.691
0.548
0.508
0.433
0.412
0.362
2.659
1.954
1.628
1.427
1.287
1.182
1.099
1.032
0.975
0.927
0.886
0.850
0.817
0.789
0.763
0.739
0.718
0.698
0.680
0.663
0.647
0.633
0.619
0.606
0
0.030
0.11 8
0.185
0.239
0.284
0.321
0.354
0.382
0.406
0.428
0.448
0.466
0.482
0.497
0.510
0.523
0.534
0.545
0.555
0.565
3.267
2.568
2.266
2.089
1.970
1.882
1.815
1.761
1.716
1.679
1.646
1.618
1.594
1.572
1.552
1.534
1.518
1.503
1.490
1.477
1.466
1.455
1.445
1.435
0.798
0.886
0.921
0.940
0.952
0.959
0.965
0.969
0.973
0.975
0.978
0.979
0.981
0.982
0.984
0.985
0.985
0.986
0.987
0.988
0.988
0.989
0.989
0.990
1.128
1.693
2.059
2.326
2.534
2.704
2.847
2.970
3.078
3.173
3.258
3.336
3.407
3.472
3.532
3.588
3.640
3.689
3.735
3.778
3.819
3.858
3.895
3.931
"'
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IX
"'
c.
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IX
c:
0
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1::::
"'u
.<::
'-'
a:
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0
0
0.076
0.136
0.184
0.223
0.256
0.283
0.307
0.328
0.347
0.363
0.378
0.391
0.403
0.415
0.425
0.434
0.443
0.451
0.459
"''=
-gc:
8
~
c.
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1::::
"f3"'
a:
04
3.267
2.574
2.282
2.114
2.004
1.924
1.864
1.816
1.777
1.744
1.717
1.693
1.672
1.653
1.637
1.622
1.608
1.597
1.585
1.575
1.566
1.557
1.548
1.541
www.smmt.co.uk
93
tO
~
)>
"C
"C
i~
m
::1
c.
;;;:
Location (geography)
Process (operation/machine)
Component (part number)
"~
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Specification
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xvalues; x
Mean of R values ;
.m
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cs:>
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4!1.!.1
Appendix C - Mean and Standard Deviation Process Control Charts
either
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www.smmt.co.uk
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120
www.smmt.co.uk
SHIFT
DATE
TIME
BY
c (faults)
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F
c-
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I
.
CAPABLITV ASSESSMENT
f---f----
Tally chart
Class
I
I
I
I
I
I
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rr-
f------
Lf%
f-
I
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f---f----
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f------ I -
f---- t-f---- I -
f------ I -
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I- 5rr
MEASURED VALUES
122
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101
106
111
116
121
12
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
JJ
82
87
92
97
102
107
112
117
122
13
18
23
28
33
38
43
48
53
58
63
68
73
78
83
BB
93
98
103
108
113
118
123
14
19
24
29
34
39
44
49
54
59
64
69
74
79
84
89
94
99
104
109
114
119
124
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
www.smmt.co.uk
4Mii.UM
REPORT
Date
Delete as appropriate
CAPABLE
NOTCAPABLE
SffiiNG ON NOMINAL
9.997
99.87 99.5 99 98
95
90
80 70 60 50 40 30
20
10
80
90
95
2 1.0 0.5
0.003 -
0.13
t5rr
I
I
I
.003
0.13
0.5 1.0 2
10
20 30 40 50 60 70
98 99 99.5 99.87
99.997
l:l%
INFORMATION SUMMARY
Upper spe cification limit
Nomin al
N
L
A
B
Xu at line/-5a intersection
Difference I= A - B)
rr estimate (=C/10)
Tolerance band(= U- L)
Process sprea d(= 6rr)
Caoabilitv index(= Ti P)
Process mean
Pro cess settin Q(= x- NI
% above specification
c
rr
T
c
X
% below specification
www.smmt.co.uk
123
CAPABLITY ASSESSMENT
----.;;-
_-
l:l
Ta lly chart
Cl ass
--=--- ff__ - f_ - f_ - f- f-
r-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1---
r--r--r--r--MEASURED VALUES
I
124
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101
106
111
116
121
12
17
22
27
32
37
42
47
52
57
62
67
72
77
82
87
92
97
102
107
112
117
12i
13
18
23
28
33
38
43
48
53
58
63
68
73
78
83
88
93
98
103
108
113
118
12:
14
19
24
29
34
39
44
49
54
59
64
69
74
79
84
89
94
99
104
109
114
119
12
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
www.smmt.co.uk
4ff4!1.!.1
REPORT
Location (geography)
Process (or operation)
Equipment (or machine)
Date
Delete as appropriate
CAPABLE
NOT CAPABLE
SETTING ON NO MINAL
-t--t--t-
-r
_L
99
9987
99
90
70
50
30
20
05
10
or-olr
0 13
0 05
0 01
99.95
99.99
I
I
I
I
I
I
!0- 1
----L
-l-1-
10
30
50
70
80
90
95
97 98
99
99.87
l:f%
-+-
-t-----J-
--r0.13
INFORMATION SUMMARY
Up pe r specification limit
Nominal
Xu at
line/99.87 pe rcentile
Xu at line/0.13 pe rcentil e
Process spread I= A- B)
Tolerance band I= U- L)
Capability index I= T/PI
Proc ess mode
B
p
T
C,
X
Process setting I= x- NI
% above specifi ca tion
% below spec ifi cation
www.smmt.co.uk
125
AMM
assignable causes
attributes charts
average movement of the mean
c chart
capability estimation (snap-shot)
capa bility indexes
capability index interpretation
centring
chance causes
chart design
chart for moving mean
chart for sample size of one
chart for small batch runs
chart pattern interpretation
chart pattern chance occurrence
chart scales
charting purpose
charting strategy
charting summary
Cm, Cp and Pp
Cmk, Cpk and Ppk
co-ordinators
common disturbances
control lines
cusum chart
126
www.smmt.co.uk
Page
71
11
28, 42
71
43, 118
84
85
60
53
11
28
71
72
74
44
52
29
25
21
23
58
59
20
11
30
78
Page
customers
9
detectives charts
40
defects charts
40
distribution
65
disturbances
11
disturbance elimination
52
executive role
20
expectation
12
facilitators
20
fact -holders
20
frequency table (illustrated)
66
histogram (illustrated)
66, 67
individuals and moving range chart
72
lim its
12, 60
management ro le
20
mean and range chart
35, 94
mean and standard deviation chart 37, 99
mean
14
median and range chart
38, 102
mode
14
nominal
12
non normal distribution
85
non normal process spread
87
normal
84
normal distribution (check for)
67
np chart
43, 110
one-sided distribution
optimum
p chart
performance limits
probability paper
probability plot interpretation
probability plots
process capa bility
process control
process elements
process spread
R
R (R bar)
range
s
(s bar)
a (lower case Greek sigma)
(sigma circumflex)
sample size for attributes
sample size for variables
sample size of one charts
sampl ing of attributes
sample of variables
setting
setting indexes
short production run chart
Page
86
12
42, 106
12
82
84
82
55
22
22
84
35
36
35
37
37
57
57
40
32
72
40
32
53
59
74
Page
sigma limits
skewed distrib ution
special disturbances
specification limits
standard deviation of process
standard deviation of sa mple
standard tolerances
standardised chart
standardised deviate
statistical control
suppliers
tally chart (illustrated)
targets
tolerance
truncated distribution
u chart
variables charts
variables charts constants
work-teams
(x bar)
~ (x double bar)
(x wavy bar or x tilde)
(x bar wavy bar)
Z values
Z values interpretation
x
x
61
83
11
12
57
99
13
76
76
11
9
66
12
12
85
43, 114
28, 32
93
20
35
36
38
39
59
62
www.smmt.co.uk
127
Tel
+44 (0)20 7344 1612/16 11
Fax +44 (0)20 7344 1603
e-mail: publications@smmt.co.uk