TNPSC Geography Material

mstw;w mUshsDk;> epfuw;w md;GilNahDkhfpa Vf,iwtdpd; jpUg;ngauhy;...
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TNPSC exam material
Gtpapay;
[Gjpa ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;]
nghUslf;fk;
G+kpAk; R+hpaf; FLk;gKk;
Rod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kp
ehk; thOk; G+kp
tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;
Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs;
Gtp Nkw;gug;G - khwpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; epyf;Nfhsj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G
thdpiyAk; fhyepiyAk;
Nghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik
Nguhopapay; - Xh; mwpKfk;
ts Mjhuq;fs;
ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk;
Kjy; epiy njhopypd; tiffs;
Ruq;fj; njhopy;
gaph;fs;
,uz;lhk;epiy njhopy;
njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs;
tzpfk;
Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;
kf;fs;njhif tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; guty;
kf;fs;njhifAk; ts Mjhuq;fSk;
jkpo;ehL
jkpo;ehl;bd; ,aw;if mikg;Gfs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy
jkpo;ehL - tsq;fs;
jkpo;ehL - Ntshd;ik
jkpo;ehL - cw;gj;jp njhopw;rhiyfs;
Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
jkpo;ehL - thzpgk;
jkpo;ehL - kf;fs; njhif
Rw;Wr;R+oYk; mjd; njhlh;Gila epfo;TfSk;
tsq;fs; ghJfhj;jYk; epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;rr
; pAk;
,e;jpah - miktplKk; ,aw;if mikg;Gk;
,e;jpah - fhyepiy
,e;jpah - ,aw;if tsq;fs;
,e;jpah Ntshz;ik
,e;jpah - njhopyfq;fs;
Rw;Wr;R+oy; gpur;rpidfs;
tzpfk; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;
njhiy Ez;Zzh;T
MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)
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Gtpapay;
rdpf;Nfhspd; tisak; :

njhiyNehf;fp
topNa ghh;jj
; hy;
rdpf;Nfhisr;
Rw;wp
Nfhs;fs; (Planets)
:
(
tisak;
Nghd;
w
mikg;
G
fhzg;
g
Lk;
.
Ez;
f
w;
f
Sk;
JhRk;
njhiyNehf;fp
Nghd;w
fUtpfs;
,y;yhky;
ntWk;
gdpAk; nfhz;l njhFjpNa ,e;j tisak;.
fz;fshy; Gjd;> nts;sp> nrt;tha;> tpahod;> rdp Mfpa
rdpapd; tisak;jhd; vLg;ghdJ vd;whYk; tpahod;>
Ie;J Nfhs;fis kl;LNk ghh;f;f KbAk;.
ANud];> neg;bA+d; Mfpa Nfhs;fSf;Fk; tisaq;fs;
Mdhy; ANud]; kw;Wk; neg;bA+d; Mfpa Nfhs;fisj;
cs;sd.
njhiyNehf;fpahy; kl;LNk fhz ,aYk;.
Gjd;> nts;sp Mfpa Nfhs;fs; R+hpa cjaj;jpw;Fr; rw;W
Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs; :
Kd;Gk; khiyapy; kiwe;j gpd;Gk; Gyg;gLk;.
GSl;Nlh> nru];> Vhp];> Nkf;Nkf;> `t;kpNa Kjypad
nts;spf; Nfhs; fhiyapy; R+hpa cjaj;jpw;Fr; rw;W Kd;G
2006Mk;
Mz;L
Fs;sf;Nfhs;fs;
vd
Gjpjhf
Gyg;gLk; NghJ tpbnts;sp vd miof;fpd;wdh;.
tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
G+kp Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;F Nehf;fpr; Roy;tjhy;jhd; R+hpaDk;
ve;jf; NfhSf;Fk; jhdhf xsp ckpOk; jd;ik ,y;iy.
tpz;kd
P f
; Sk; kw;Wk; thd; nghUs;fSk; fpof;fpypUe;J
mjhtJ
Nfhs;fSf;Fr;
Ra
xsp
fpilahJ.
R+hpa
Nkw;F Nehf;fpr; nry;tJ Nghd;wnjhU Njhw;wk; fpilf;fpwJ.
xspiaNa mit gpujpgspf;fpd;wd.
R+hpaf; FLk;gk; (Solar
system)) :
(
FWq;Nfhs;fs; (Asteroids)
) :
(
njhiyNehf;fpfs; topNa Muha;ej
; hy; ANud];> neg;bA+d;
nrt;tha;
NfhSf;Fk;
tpahod;
NfhSf;Fk;
,ilapy;
Mfpa
Nfhs;fisAk;>
FWq;Nfhs;fisAk;>
,yl;rf;fzf;fhd FWq;Nfhs;fs; cs;sd.
Fs;sf;Nfhs;fisAk;>
thy;el;rj;jpuq;fisAk;
gy
Mapuf;fzf;fhd tpz;kd
P f
; isAk;> mz;lq;fisAk;> thAj; ,e;jpahtpd; thdtpay; mwpQh; itZghg;G> tpz;ntsp
Jiwapd;
je;ij
rhuhgha;>
fzpjNkij
,uhkhD[k;
jpus;fisAk; fhzyhk;.
MfpNahh; ngah;fspy; FWq;Nfhs;fs; cs;sd.
R+hpaDf;F nkhj;jk; cl;Lf; Nfhs;fs;> vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk;
re;jpud; :
R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUfpd;wd. G+kpAk; xU Nfhs;jhd;. G+kpapd;
tspkz;lyj;jpy; caph;tsp (Mf;]p[d;) ,Ug;gjhy; gw;gy epyT> epyh> kjp. jpq;fs; vdg; gy ngah;fspy; re;jpud;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
caph;fSk;> ehKk; tho KbfpwJ.

re;
jpud; xUNfhs; ,y;iy.
R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; vl;Lf; Nfhs;fisAk; jplf;Nfhs;fs;>
thAf;Nfhs;fs; vd ,uz;L gphpYfshf gphpf;fyhk;. Gjd;>
Nfhs;
Nfhs;fisr; Rw;Wk; Jizf;Nfhs;fs;
nts;sp> G+kp> nrt;tha; Mfpa ehd;Fk; jplf;Nfhs;fs;.
tpahod;>
rdp>
ANud];>
neg;bA+d;
Mfpa
ehd;Fk;
Gjd;
0
thAf;Nfhs;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
nts;sp
0
vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; ePst
; l;lg;ghijapy; R+hpaidr; rw;Nwwf;
G+kp
1
Fiwa xNu rkjsj;jpy; Rw;wp tUfpd;wd.
nrt;
t
ha;
2
R+hpad; :
tpahod;
63
R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; ehafd; R+hpad; jhd;.
rdp
60
R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpd; xsp kw;Wk; ntg;gj;jpw;F %y Mjhuk;
R+hpad;jhd;.
ANud];
27
,J G+kpapypUe;J Rkhh; 15 Nfhb fp.kP. njhiytpy; cs;sJ.
neg;bA+d;
13
R+hpaf; FLk;gj;jpy; jhNd xspUk; xNu thd;nghUs;
Rhpad;jhd;.
R+hpa xsp G+kpia te;jila MFk; fhyk; - 8 epkplk; nehb.
G+kpAk; #hpaf; FLk;gKk;
Nfhs;fs; jd;idj;jhNd Rw;w MFk; fhyKk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tu vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; fhyKk;
Nfhs;
R+hpaidr; Rod;wthW
Rw;wp tUk; fhyk;
R+hpadplkpUe;J njhiyT
Nfhspd; jw;Row;rpf; fhyk;
Gjd;
87.97 ehs;fs;
5.79 Nfhb fp;kP
58.6 ehs;fs;
nts;sp
224.7 ehs;fs;
10.82 Nfhb fp.kP
(-) 243 ehs;fs;
G+kp
365.24 ehs;fs;
15 Nfhb fp.kP
23 kzp 56 epkplq;fs;
nrt;tha;
687 ehs;fs;
22.79 Nfhb fp.kP
tpahod;
11Mz;Lfs; 10khjq;fs;
77.83 Nfhb fp.kP
9 kzp 55 epkplq;fs;
rdp
29Mz;Lfs; 5khjq;fs;
142.7 Nfhb fp.kP
ANud];
84Mz;Lfs;
287.1 Nfhb fp.kP
(-) 17 kzp 14 epkplq;fs;
neg;bAd;
164Mz;Lfs; 9khjq;fs;
449.7 Nfhb fp.kP
16 kzp
(-) Fwpapl;l nts;sp kw;Wk; ANud]; Nfhs;fs; jw;Row;rpapy; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhfr; Rw;Wfpd;wd. Mdhy; kw;w midj;Jf;
Nfhs;fSk; jw;Row;rpapy; Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhfr; Rw;Wfpd;wd. Mjhuk; : NASA-USA

re;jpud;
R+hpaid
Neubahfr;
Rw;Wtjpy;iy.
mJ
G+kpiaj;jhd;
Rw;wp
tUfpwJ.
vdNt
re;jpuidj;
Jizf;Nfhs; vd miof;fpd;wdh;.
re;jpud; G+kpapd; tpl;lj;jpy; Rkhh; fhy;gq;F msT kl;LNk
cs;s NfhskhFk;. G+kpf;F kpf mUNf cs;sjhy;jhd;
mJ nghpjhfg; Gyg;gLfpwJ. mJ ruhrhp 3>84>401 fp.kP
njhiytpy; G+kpiar; Rw;wp tUfpwJ.
re;jpud; G+kpiar; Rw;wptu Vwj;jho 27.3 ehs;fs; vLj;Jf;
nfhs;fpwJ. re;jpud; jd;idj;jhNd Rw;wpf;nfhs;s Vwj;jho
27.3 ehs;fs; vLj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ. vdNtjhd; G+kpapypUe;J
ghh;jj
; hy; re;jpudpd; xU gf;fk; kl;LNk njhpfpwJ.
re;jpudpd;
kWgf;fj;ij
Yhdh
3
vd;w
nraw;iff;Nfhs;jhd; 1959 ,y; Kjd; Kjypy; Gifg;glk;
vLj;jJ.
G+kpapy; cs;sJ Nghd;w tspkz;lyk; ,y;iy. re;jpudpy;
<ug;gir cs;sJ. Mdhy; jput epiyapy; ePh; ,y;iy.
re;judpd; kw;nwhW rpwg;gk;rk; mjd; fpz;zf; Fopfs;
MFk;.
ek;
R+hpaf;
FLk;gj;jpy;
R+hpad;
kl;LNk
xspUk;
thd;nghUs;.
,uT
thdpy;
re;jpud;
xsph;tJNghyj;
Njhd;wpdhYk; cz;ikapNyNa R+hpadpd; xspiaj;jhd;
re;jpud; gpujpgypf;fpwJ.
mkhthirad;W G+kpf;Fk; R+hpaDf;Fk; ,ilNa re;jpud;
mikfpwJ.
KOr;re;jpud; md;W R+hpaDf;F vjph;jj
; pirapy; re;jpud;
fhl;rp mspf;fpwJ.
vhpel;rj;jpuk; :
,uT thdpy; jpBnud vhpel;rj;jpuk; vdg;gLk; cspf;fw
P i
; wf;
fhzyhk;.
,it cz;ikapy; fPNo tpOk; tpz;kd
P f
; s; my;y.
rpwpa ghiwfs; ntFNtfkhf CLUTk; NghJ tsp
kz;lyj;NjhL Vw;gLk; cuha;tpdhy; vhpe;J xsph;fpwJ.
,JNt xspf;fw
P w
; ha;g; Gyg;gLfpwJ.
thy; el;rj;jpuk; :
gdp> JhR Kjypa nghUs;fs; epiwe;j gdpg;ghiwjhd;
mJ. R+hpaDf;F mUNf mJ tUk;NghJ gdp cUfp
MtpahjyhYk;> R+hpaxsp gpujpg;gypg;gjhYk; thy; Nghy;
ePzL
; Njhd;WfpwJ.
thy;
el;rj;jpuj;jpd;
thy;
vg;NghJk;
R+hpaDf;F
vjph;jj
; pirapy; mikAk;.
N`ypthy; el;rj;jpuk; 76 tUlq;fSf;F xUkiw Njhd;Wk;.
Last - 1986 : Next - 2062.
Nguz;lk; :
gy Nfhbf;fzf;fhd tpz;kd
P f
; spd; njhFjpNa mz;lk;
vdg;gLk;.
gy Nfhbf;fzf;fhd mz;lq;fisf; nfhz;l njhFjpNa
Nguz;lkhFk;.
Nguz;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; gy;NtW mz;lq;fspd; xd;W
ghy;tsp mz;lk; MFk;.
ghy;ntsp mz;lk; :
R+hpad; cl;gl fz;fSf;Fg; Gyg;gLk; tpz;kd
P f
; s; vy;yhk;
ghy;ntsp mz;lj;ijr; (Milk Way Galaxy) rhh;ej
; it.
,jid ekJ Kd;Ndhh; ghy;ntsp (Milk Way) vdTk;>
Mfha fq;if vdTk; mioj;jdh;.
G+kp Xh; caph;fN

; fhsk; :
R+hpadplkpUe;J %d;whtJ Nfhsfg; G+kp mike;Js;sJ.
nts;spAk;> GjDk; kpFe;j ntg;gk; nfhz;l Nfhs;fs;.
nrt;tha;> tpahod;> rdp> ANud];> neg;bA+d;> Mfpa
Nfhs;fs; R+HpadpypUe;J ntF njhiytpy; ,Ug;gjhy;
fLq;Fsph; epyTfpwJ.
G+kpapy; kl;LNk ePUk;> fhw;Wk; cfe;j ntg;g epiyAk;
,Ug;gjhy; caph;fs; cUthfpg; ngUFfpd;wd.
1. njhiyNehf;fpapy; kl;LNk Gyg;gLk; Nfhs;
m) Gjd;
M) ANud];
,) tpahod;
tpil : M
2. vy;yhf; Nfhs;fSk; R+hpaid ................apy;
apy;
tUfpd;wd.
m) tl;lg;ghij
M) ePst
; l;lg;ghij
,) rJug;ghij
tpil : M
3. FWq;Nfhs;fspd; ghij ................
m) G+kpf;Fk; nrt;tha;fF
; k; ,ilNa
M) nrt;tha;fF
; k; tpahoDf;Fk; ,ilNa
,) tahoDf;Fk; rdpf;Fk; ,ilNa
tpil : M
Rw;wp
Rod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kp

G+kp vg;NghJk; gw;gy ,af;fq;fs; efh;Tfisf; nfhz;lJ.
,tw;Ws; jw;Row;rp (Rotation) kw;Wk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp
tUjy; (Revolution) Mfpa ,af;fq;fs; Kf;fpakhdit.
jw;Row;rp (Rotation) :
Rkhh;
23
Kjy;
56
epkplj;jpw;F
xUKiw
G+kp
jd;idj;jhNd Rw;wpf; nfhs;fpwJ.
,jd; fhuzkhfj;jhd; gfy; ,uT khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd; gfyhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ G+kpapd; kWgf;fk;
cs;s mnkhpf;fhtpy; ,uTg;nghOjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Mhpag;gl;lh
,th;
gz;ila
,e;jpa
thdtpay;
mwpQh;fSs; xUth;> ,th; G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;WfpwJ
vd;W mwptpay; topapy; tpsf;fpf; $wpdhh;.
G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;WtJ kl;Lkpy;yhky; R+hpaid
ePst
; l;l tbtg; ghijapy; Rw;wp tUfpwJ.
Rw;wp 365.24 ehs;fs; nfhz;lJ Xh; Mz;L MFk;.
G+kpapd; Roy; mr;R G+kp R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; jsj;jpy;
; s;sJ.
Neh;Fj;jpw;F 23 0 rha;eJ
,g;gb rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy;jhd; gUt fhy khw;wk;
Vw;gLfpwJ.
R+hpaidr; Rw;
; ptUjy; (Revolution)
) :
Rww
(
Nfhilf;fhyk;> tre;jfhyk;> Fsph;fhyk;> ,iyAjph;fhyk;
vd ehd;F gUt fhyq;fs; cs;sd.
G+kp R+hpaidr; Rw;wp tUk; Rw;Wg;ghij ePst
; l;lkhdJ.
xUrkak; G+kp R+hpaDf;F mUNf mikAk;. xU rkak;
R+hpaDf;Fj; njhiytpy; mikAk;.
(aphelion) nghJthf [Piy 4> khjj;jpy; G+kp R+hpaDf;F
ntFnjhiytpy; ,Uf;Fk;> [dthp 3> khjj;jpy; jpd
mUNf ,Uf;Fk; (perihelion).
tlNfhsj;jpy;
cs;s
jkpofj;jpy;
brk;gh;
khjk;
Fsph;fhykhf ,Uf;Fk;. mNj rkak; njf;Nfhsj;jpy;
cs;s M];jpNuypahTf;F NfhilfhykhFk;.
tlNfhsj;jpy; Nfhilf;fhyk; vd;why; njd;Nfhsj;jpy;
Fsph;fhyk;> tlNfhsj;jpy; Fsph; fhyk; vd;why; njd;
Nfhsj;jpy; Nfhil fhyk; vd khwpkhwp mikAk;.

G+kpapd; mr;R rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy; gUtfhy khw;wk;

Vw;gLfpwJ.
,uz;L ehs;fs; kpfr; rhpahff; fpof;F Kfkhfr; R+hpad;
cjpf;Fk;. ,JNt rk ,uT gfy; ehs;fs; (Equinox).
khh;r; 21 kw;Wk; nrg;lk;gh; 23 Mfpa ,U ehs;fs; rk ,uT
- gfy; ehs;fshf ,Uf;Fk;.
brk;gh; 22> M];jpNuypahtpy; Nfhil vdNt mq;Ff;
fpwp];Jk]; gz;bif Nfhil tpohthf mikfpwJ.
jkpo; kugpd;gb gUt fhyq;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; ,uz;L
khjq;fs;nfhz;l MW gUtfhyq;fshf cs;sd.
fhh;
(kio)>
Fsph;>
Kd;gdp>
gpd;gdp>
,sNtdpy;>
KJNtdpy; vd;gitjhk; ,e;j MW gUtfhyq;fs;.
cyfyhtpa
ghh;itapy;
ehd;F
gUtfhyq;fis
tFj;Js;shh;fs;. mit ,iyAjph;fhyk;> Nfhilfhyk;>
tre;jfhyk;> Fsph;fhyk; vd;git MFk;.
1. G+kpapd; mr;R................bfphp
bfphp rha;e;
eJ
; s;sJ
M) 660
,) 900
tpil : m
m) 230
2. G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;Wtjhy; Vw;gLk;
tpisT
Lk;
m) gUtfhy khw;wk;
M) ,uTg;gfy; khw;wk;
,) njd; Xl;lk;
tpil : M
3. yPg; Mz;by; gpg;uthp khjj;jpYs;s ehs;fs;
m) 28
M) 29 ,) 27 tpil : M
ehk; thOk; G+kp

Rw;wpAs;s epyg;gFjpfistplr; rw;Nw caukhfTk; mjd;
Nkw;gFjp jl;ilahfTk; cs;s epymikg;G
gPlG+kp
vdg;gLfpwJ. jpngj; gPlG+kpjhd; cyfpd; kpf caukhd
gPlG+kp MFk;.
gue;J tphpe;J jho;thd rkkhd epyg;gug;G rkntsp
vdg;gLfpwJ. fq;if MW ghAk; tl ,e;jpag; gFjp
cyfpd; Kf;fpar; rkntspfspy; xd;W.
Mrpah>
Mg;hpf;fh>
tlmnkhpf;fh>
njd;mnkhpf;fh>
INuhg;gh> M];jpNuypah> mz;lhh;lb
; fh vd nkhj;jk; VO
fz;lq;fs; cyfpy; cs;sd.
VO fz;lq;fs; :
1. Mrpah
VO fz;lq;fspy; kpfg; nghpaJ Mrpah. ,J G+kpapd;
tlmiuf;Nfhsj;jpy; cs;sJ.
ehk; thOk; ,e;jpah Mrpahf; fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ. Nfhgp
Fsph;ghiytdk;> caukhd ,kakiyj;njhlh; Kjypait
,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sd.
2. Mg;gp;hpf;fh
gug;gstpy; ,J ,uz;lhtJ nghpa fz;lk; MFk;.
epyeLf;NfhL ,e;jf; fz;lj;ij ,uz;lhfg; gphpf;fpwJ.
cyfpy; kpf ePskhd iey;ejp (6695 fp.kP) ,f;fz;lj;jpy;
gha;fpwJ.
kpfg;nghpa ghiytdkhd rfhuhTk; ,f;fz;lj;jpy;jhd;
cs;sJ.
3. tlmnkhpf;fh
ml;yhz;bf;> grpgpf; kw;Wk; Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;fshy;
R+og;gl;l fz;lk; ,J. ,jd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapYs;s uhf;fp
kiyj;njhlh; kpf ePzl
; kiyj;njhlh;.
4. njd; mnkhpf;fh
cyfpd;
ePykhd
Mz;b];
kiyj;njhlh;
,e;jf;
fz;lj;jpy;jhd; cs;sJ. cyfpd; kpf mfd;w mNkrhd;
MW (6586 fp.kP ePsk;) ,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
5. INuhg;gh
Mrpahtpd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s fz;lk; ,J.
My;g]
; ; kiyj;njhlh; INuhg;ghtpy; cs;sJ
6. M];jpNuypah
ehd;F gf;fKk; fly;fshy; R+og;gl;l
M];jpNuypah
xU
jPTf;
fz;lk;
(Island Continent).
,f;fz;lk;
epA+rpyhe;J> gp[p Nghd;w gy jPTfisf; nfhz;lJ.
gp[pj; jPTfs;> ghg;Gth> epA+fpdpah Kjypa jPTfs;
nghJthf xrpahdpaj; jPTfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
fpNul;
ghhpah;
hPg;
vdg;gLk;
cyfpd;
kpfg;nghpa
gtsg;ghiw M];jpNuypaf; flw;fiwapy; cs;sJ.
7. mz;lhh;lb
; fh
ngd;Fapd; gwit> rPy; Nghd;w caphpdq;fspd; tho;tplk;
,J.
,q;F Ma;Tfs; Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf jl;rpz; fq;Nfhj;hp
ikj;Nuap
kw;Wj;
ghujp
(2012)
vDk;
Ma;Tf;
FbapUg;Gfis ek; ehL epWtpAs;sJ.
jPT :
ehd;F gf;fq;fSk; ePuhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjpiaj; jPT
vdf; $WfpNwhk;.
ngUq;fly;fs;
G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; Rkhh; 71rjtPjk; (%d;wpy; ,uz;L
gq;F) ePh; cs;sJ.
cyfpy; Ie;J ngUq;fly;fs; cs;sd.
mit
grpgpf;
ngUq;fly;>
ml;yhz;bf;
ngUq;fly;>
,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;> Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; kw;Wk; mz;lhh;bf;
ngUq;fly;.
jkpofj;jpd; fpof;Nf cs;s gFjpia tq;fhs tphpFlh
vdTk;> Nfusj;jpd; Nkw;Nf cs;s fly; gFjpia
mugpf;fly; vdTk; $WfpNwhk;.
grpgpf; ngUq;fly; :
cyfpd; Mokhd ngUq;fly; grpgpf;ngUq;fly;jhd;.
vhpkiyfs; neUg;Gf; Fok;igf; ff;Ftjhy; ,g;gFjp
grpgpf; neUg;G tisak; (Pacific Ring of Fire) vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahdh mfop (Mariana Trench)
vDk; fly;gFjp. ,g;ngUq;flypy;jhd; cs;sJ Mok;
111nr.kP.
,e;j khpahdh mfop vDk; gs;sj;jpw;Fs; ,kakiyapd;
vtnu];L rpfuk;$l mkpo;eJ
; tpLk; mt;tsT Mok;.
ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;
,J cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ ngUq;fly; kpf typik nfhz;l
R+whtspfs; ,g;ngUq;flypy;jhk; mjpfkhfj; Njhd;Wfpd;wd
,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;
,J cyfpd; %d;whtJ nghpa ngUq;fly; ,g;ngUq;flypy;
cUthFk; gUtf; fhw;W kioapdhy;jhd; ,e;jpah tsk;
ngWfpwJ.
mz;lhh;
lhh;lb
; f; ngUq;fly; (South Ocean - 550South)
njd;JUtg; gFjpapy; cs;s mz;lhh;b
; fh fz;lj;ijr; Rw;wpg;
gue;Js;s fly; njd; ngUq;fly; vdg;gLfpwJ. ,jid
mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly; vd;Wk; miog;gh;.
Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;
tlJUtg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s
Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; MFk;.
kpfr;
rpwpa
ngUq;fly;
epyg;gFjpfs; nfhz;l G+kpapd; Nkw;gFjp epyf;Nfhsk;

(Lithosphere) vdTk;> ePh; Njq;fpa gFjpfs; ePh; f
; N
; fhsk;
(Hydrosphere) vdTk; fhw;W glh;ej
;
gFjp tspkz;lyk;
(Atmosphere) vd;Wk; $wg;gLk;.
,uz;L ePhg
; g
; ug;Gfis ,izf;Fk; FWfpa ePhg
; g
; Fjpf;F
ePhr
; r
; e;jp vd;W ngah;. ,e;jpah> ,yq;if ,uz;Lf;Fk;
,ilapy; cs;sJ ghf; ePhr
; ;re;jp (Palk Strait).
epyf;Nfhsk;> ePhf
; N
; fhsk; kw;Wk; tspkz;lyk; vDk; %d;W
Nfhsq;fspd; $l;L tpisTjhd; caph;fN
; fhsk; (Biosphere)
MFk;.
flypy; kPdf
; s; kl;Lky;yhky; kPdf
; Sf;F czthf cs;s
gpshq;fl
; d; vdg;gLk; fly; caphpfSk; cs;sd.
tphpe;j ,uz;L epyg;gug;GfSld; kpff; FWfpa epyg;gug;G
,ize;jpUe;jhy;
mjid
epyr;re;jp (Isthmus)
vd
miog;gh;. njd; mnkhpf;fh kw;Wk; tl mikhpf;fhit
,izg;gJ gdhkh epyr;re;jp MFk;.
,Uk;G> epf;fy; (Nife) Nghd;w cNyhfq;fs; ,e;j
ikag;gFjpapy; nrwpthf ,Uf;fpd;wd ,jid G+kpf;fU
(Core) vdf; $WfpNwhk;.
ikaf;fUtpw;F Nky; nkd; ,ilkz;lyk; (Mantle) vd;w
mLf;F ,Uf;fpwJ.
Mg;gpspd; Njhy;Nghy kpf nky;ypa Nky;mLf;F G+kp XL
(Crust) vdg;gLfpwJ.
ngUq;fly; mbapy; Xl;bd; jbkd; Rkhh; 5 Kjy; 10 fp.kP.
tiukl;LNk. Mdhy; fz;lq;fs; cs;s gFjpapy; Xl;bd;
jbkd; Rkhh; 30 Kjy; 50 fp.kP. tiu MFk;.
1. ehd;F gf;fKk; flyhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjp
m) ePhr
; r
; e;jp
M) jPT
,) jPgfw;gk;
tpil : M
2. cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahd mfop
mike;Js;s
ngUq;fly;
m) grpgpf;
M) ml;yhz;bf; ,) Mh;bf; tpil : m
3. ,yq;if xU
m) jPT
M) jPgfw;gk;
,) ePh;rr
; e;jp tpil : m

1.
2.
3.

tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;

G+kpapd; tbtk; jdpj;jd;ik tha;ej
; J. Mq;fpyj;jpy; mij
[paha;l; (Geoid) vd;fpwhh;fs;.
tiuglq;fspd; tiffs;
kiyfs;> gPlg+kpfs;> MWfs;> fly;fs; Nghd;w ,aw;iff;
$Wfis
tiue;J
fhl;LtJ
,aw;if
mikg;G
tiuglq;fs; (Physical maps) vdg;gLk;.
ehLfs;> khepyq;fs;> khtl;lq;fs;> efuq;fs;> fpuhkq;fs;
,tw;wpd; vy;iyfisf; fhl;b tiuag;gLk; glq;fs;
murpay; tiuglq;fs; (Political maps) vdg;gLk;.
ntg;gepiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk; tiuglk; fhLfisg; gw;wp
kl;Lk
; ;
fhl;Lk;
tiuglk;
fUj;Jr;rhh;
tiuglq;fs;
(Thematic maps) vdg;gL;k.;
G+kp jdJ mr;rpy; 23 bfphp rha;eJ
; Roy;fpwJ.
cyf cUz;ilapy; (tiuglj;jpYk;$l) fpiltrkhf
my;yJ fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gidf; Nfhl;bw;F
ml;rf;NfhL (Latitude) vd;W ngah;.
nrq;Fj;jhf
my;yJ
njw;F
tlf;fhfr;
nry;Yk;
Nfhl;bw;Fj; jPhf
; f
; f;NfhL (Longitude) vd;W ngah;.
G+kpapd; ikaj;jpy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; NfhL

epyeLf;NfhL (Equator) (G+kj;jpa Nuif) vdg;gLk;.
G+kpapd; nkhj;jf;Nfhz msT 3600 MFk;. epyeLf;NfhL 00
ml;rf;Nfhlhf mikfpwJ. ,J Kf;fpa ml;rf;NfhL.
Kjd; Kjyhf tiuglj;jpy; ml;rf;NfhL jPhf
; f
; f;NfhLfis
tiue;jth; lhykp fp.gp.2 Mk; Ehw;whz;by; tho;ej
; fpNuf;f
thdtpay; mwpQh;.
00 ml;rf;Nfhl;Lf;F tlf;Nf cs;s G+kpg;gug;igj; tl
miuf;Nfhsk; vd;gh;.
njw;Nf cs;s G+kpg;gug;ig njd; miuf;Nfhsk; vd;gh;.
,yz;ldpy; cs;s fphPdt
; pr; vd;fpw ,lj;jpy; xU
thdtpay; Muha;rr
; pf;$lk; mike;Js;sJ.
; f
; f;NfhL MFk;.
mjd; topNa nry;Yk; jPhf
; f
; f;NfhL 00 jPhf
,e;jpah 80 t.ml;rf;NfhL Kjy; 370 t.ml;rf;NfhL
tiuAk; 680 fp.jPhf
; f
; f; NfhL Kjy; 970 fp.jPhf
; f
; f;NfhL
tiuAk; gutpAs;sJ.
cyf cUz;ilapy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gid
NfhLfspd; ngah;
m) ml;rf;NfhL
M) G+kp mr;R
,) jPhf
; f
; f;NfhL
tpil : m
0o jPhf
; f
; f;NfhL vd;gJ
m) fphpd;tr
P N
; fhL
M) ml;rf;NfhL ,) G+kp mr;R
tpil : m
ehLfs;>
fz;lq;fs;>
jiyefuq;
Nghd;wtw;iw
jiyefuq;fs;
cs;slf;fpa tiuglj;ij ................ vd miog;gh;
m) ,aw;if mikg;G tiuglk;
M) murpay; tiuglk;
,) fUj;Jrhh; tiuglk;
tpil : M
Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh;Tfs;
ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;if (Big Bang Theory) Nfhl;ghNl
ngUk;ghd;ikapduhy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l xd;whFk;.
10 gpy;ypad; Kjy; 20 gpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;G
fh];kpf; ntbg;G epfo;ej
; J. ,e;epfo;Nt ngU ntbg;Gf;
nfhs;if MFk;.
,g;Nguz;lkhdJ
,d;Dk;
tphptile;J
nfhz;Ljhd;
tUfpwJ vd mnkhpf;f thdpiy Muha;rr
; pahsh; vl;tpd;
`gps; tpsf;fpdhh;.
Nk khjk; 30> 2010 Mk; Mz;L ek;Kila mwptpay;
mwpQh;fs; yhh;r; n`l;uhd; nfhyha;lh; (Large Hadron
Collider-LHC) Rtpl;rh;yhe;J vd;w fUtpia cUthf;fp
ngU
ntbg;Gf;
nfhs;ifia
ghpNrhjid
nra;J
ghh;jj
; hh;fs;. (flTspd; Jfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ-`pf;];
Ngh]hd;)
fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; Nguh

Nguhopfs; cUthFjy;
jw;nghOJ cs;s midj;J fz;lq;fSk; njd; JUtj;jpy;
xd;wpize;J ,Ue;jJ. ,g;nghpa epyg;gug;ig ghd;[pah
(Pangea) vd;W miof;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;epyg;gug;ig Rw;wp ,Ue;j nghpa Nguhopia nge;jyhrh
(Penthalasa)
my;yJ
gpuk;khz;lkhd
Nguhop
vd;W
miof;fg;gl;lJ.
ghd;[pah gy jl;Lfshf cile;jJ. ,t;thW cile;j
jl;LfNs epyf;Nfhs; jl;Lfs; (Lithiphere Plate) vd
mwpag;gLfpwJ.
ghd;[pah VO nghpa jl;LfshfTk; cilgl;Ls;sd.
ANurpah> mz;lhh;bfh> tl mnkhpf;fh> njd; mnkhpf;fh>
grpgpf;> Mg;gphpf;fh kw;Wk; ,e;Njh-M];jpNuypah Nghd;wit

nghpa jl;LfshFk;.
G+kpapd; cs;sikg;G
G+kp (cs;sikg;G) mikg;G gw;wpa Nfhl;ghl;il Kjypy;
Kjypy; cUthf;fpatH Irf; epA+l;ld; MthH.
Ntjpg;nghUl;fspd;
fl;likg;G
kw;Wk;
gz;Gfspd;
mbg;gilapy;
%d;W
mLf;Ffshf
gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
mitfs; G+kp NkNyhLfs;> ftrk; kw;Wk; fUtk; MFk;.
#a]; vd;w M];jphpah ehl;bd; Gtp mikg;gpay; ty;YdH
NkNyhL> ftrk; kw;Wk; fUtj;jpw;F rpahy;> rpkh kw;Wk;
ie/g; vd KiwNa ngahpl;Ls;sdH.
NkNyhL
G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;G NkNyhL (Crust) my;yJ epyf;Nfhsk;
(Lithosphere) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
fz;lj;jpd; Nky; mLf;fhdJ rpahy; (; SIAL) vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,J rpypf;fh kw;Wk; mYkpdpaj;hyhdJ. flyb NkNyhL
grhy;l; mLf;Ffshy; cUthdjhFk;. ,ij rpkh (SIMA)
vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,J
rpypf;fh
kw;Wk;
nkf;dr
P paj;jhy; MdJ.
rpahy; mLf;fhdJ rpkh mLf;fpd; kPJ kpje;J nfhz;L
cs;sJ.
NkNyhl;bd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz; 3 MFk;.
ftrk;
ftrk; G+kpapd; NkNyhl;bw;Fk; fUtj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapy;
mike;Js;sJ.
,f;ftrk; G+kpapd; vilapy; 83 rjtPji
; j nfhz;Ls;sJ.
,t;tLf;fpd;
Nkw;gFjpia
m];jpNdh];gpaH
(Asthenosphere) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,f;ftr mLf;fpd; fPog
; g
; Fjp Fok;G (Magma) epiyiaAk;
kw;Wk; nefpOk; jd;ikiaAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,jd; ruhrhp
mlHj;jp vz; 8 MFk;.
fUtk;
G+kpapd; cs;ika mLf;if fUtk; my;yJ Nghp];gpaH
(Barysphere) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
epf;fy; kw;Wk;l ,Uk;G ,Ug;gjd; fhuzkhf ,ij ie/g;
(NIFE) vdTk; $wg;gLfpwJ.
,tw;wpy; ,uz;L gphpTfs; cs;sd mitfs; ntspf;fUtk;
kw;Wk; cl;fUtk; MFk;.
ntspf;fUtkhdJ
jput
epiyapYk;>
cl;fUtkhdJ
Rw;wpAs;s mLf;fspd; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf nghUl;fs;
jplepiyapYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz;
12 MFk;.
Gtpapd; ikag;gFjpapd; ntg;gepiy
ntg;gepiyahdJ
Gtpapd;
ikag;gFjpapy;
ntg;gepiyahdJ 50000C ,Uf;Fk; vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,ay;ghd ngUtpfpj (Normal Gain Rate) ntg;gepiyahdJ
xt;nthU 32 kPll
; h; Moj;jpw;Fk; 10C mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
vz;Nlhn[dpf; (my;yJ) cs; ,af;f rf;jp
GtpNahl;bd;
kPJ
nghpasT
khw;wq;fs;
Vw;gLtij
vz;Nlhn[dpf;
my;yJ
fz;l
efh;Tfs;
(Tectonic
Movements)
mq;fhuh kw;Wk; Nfhz;Lthdh vd;w ,uz;L nghpa

epyg;gFjpfSf;F ,ilNa mike;jpUe;j Mok; Fiwe;j
fly; gFjp nlj;jp]; MFk;.
ilal;Nuhg;gp]k; my;yJ nkJthf efh;jy;
vgpNuhn[dpd; my;yJ fz;l Mf;f efh;T
nrq;Fj;J
efh;thdJ
G+kpapd;
NkNyhl;L
gFjpia
Nky;Nehf;fp my;yJ fPoN
; ehf;fp gytPdkhd Nfhl;bd;
topahf nry;tijNa gpsTfs; (Faults) vd;fpNwhk;.
gpsTNfhl;bw;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; gFjp Nky; Nehf;fp
js;sg;gl;lhy; mJ xU gpjph;T kiy (Block Mountain)
my;yJ gPlG+kp (Plateau) vdTk;
khwhf fPoN
; ehf;fp js;sg;gl;lhy; mij gpsT gs;sj;jhf;F
nfhg;giu (Basin of Rift Valley) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
G+kpapd; NkNyhl;by; kpfg; nghpastpw;F nrq;Fj;J efh;T
Vw;gLtij fz;l Mf;f my;yJ vgpNuhn[dpf; efh;T
vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; nghpa gpsT gs;sj;jhf;F nfhg;giu kw;Wk;
eh;kjh
gs;sj;jhf;F
Mfpad
,t;tifahd
tb
epyq;fSf;Fr; rpwe;j cjhuzq;fs; MFk;.
xNuhn[dpf; my;yJ kiyahf;f efh;T
rhjhuz kbg;Gfs; xU Nky; tisitAk; (Anticline)
kw;Wk; xU fPo; tisitAk; (Syncline) nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
GtpNahl;by;
kpfg;nghpa
mstpw;F
fpilkl;l
efh;T
Vw;gLtij kiyahf;f efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ>
cjhuzk; ,kakiy.
vf;N]hn[dpf; my;yJ ntsp ,af;f rf;jp
epyeLf;fq;fs;
,J ,kakiy epyeLf;fk; (Volcanic Earthquake) kw;Wk;
fz;l efh;T epyeLf;fk; (Tectonic Earthquake) vd
,Utifg;gLk;.
epyeLf;fk; Njhd;Wk; ,lj;ij epyeLf;f ikak; (Focus)
vd;Wk;
,k;ikaj;jpw;F
Neh;
vjpNu
G+kpapd;
Nkw;gug;gpy;
mike;jpUf;Fk; Gs;sp ntsp ikak; (Epicenter) vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
rP]N
; khfpuhk; vd;w fUtpiaf; nfhz;L epyeLf;fj;jpd;
miyfs; gjpT nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
,e;epyeLf;fj;ij
kjpg;gL
P
nra;a
msTNfhs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
epyeLf;f miyfspd; tiffs;
,t;tiyfis cl;Gw miyfs; (Body wavws) vd;Wk;
Nkw;Gw miyfs; (Surface Wavws) vd;W ,Utifahf
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
P miy
cl;Gw miyfis ,uz;L tifahf gphpf;fyhk;.
Kjy;epiy miyfs; my;yJ P miyfs; kpf Ntfkhf
gazpf;fpwJ. ,it xyp miyfisg; Nghd;Nw thA> jput
kw;Wk; jpl epiyapYs;s nghUl;fspy; CLUtpr; nry;Yk;.
P miyfs; gazk; nra;Ak; jpirapYs;s G+kpapd;
nghUl;fis
Kd;Dk;
gpd;Dk;
mOj;jpf;
nfhz;L
nry;fpwJ. ,J xU nehbf;F 8 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy;
gazpf;fpwJ.
S miy
,uz;lhk; epiy miyfs; my;yJ S miyfs;> ,itfs;
P miyfis tpl nkJthf gazpg;git.
,it jpl epiyapy; cs;s nghUl;fspy; kl;LNk CLUtpr;
nry;Yk; jd;ikAilaJ.
jhd;
gazk;
nra;Ak;
jpirapy;
cs;s
G+kpapd;
nghUl;fis nrq;Nfhz jpirapy; mirj;J nfhz;L
nry;Yk;.
xU nehbf;F 5 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;af;$bajhFk;.
L miy
Nkw;Gw miyfs; epyeLf;fkhdpapy; ,Wjpahf gjpthfpwJ.
,it G+kpapy; kpf mjpfg;gbahd mopTfs; Vw;gLtjw;F
fhuzkhf mikfpwJ.
,ij L-miyfs; vd;Wk; mwpag;gLfpwJ. ,t;tiyfs; xU
nehbf;F 4 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;fpwJ.
vhpkiyfs;
G+kpapd; cl;gFjpapypUe;J ntg;gkhd ghiwf; Fok;ig
(Magma) xU jpwg;G (Vent) my;yJ Jis topNa G+kpapd;
Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ gbaitg;gij vhpkiy vd;fpNwhk;.
mt;thW ckpOk; (Eruption) ghiwf;Fok;G yhth (Lava)
vd vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;
nray;glk; vhpkiyfs;
`tha; jPtpy; cs;s Nkhdh Nyhth
cyfpNyNa
kpfg;nghpa nray;gLk; vhpkiy MFk;.
,e;jpahtpy; xs;s xNu xU nray;gLk; vhpkiy ghud;
(me;jkhd;) jPtpy; cs;sJ.
,e;jpahtpYs;s jf;fhz gPlG+kpapd; tlNkw;F gFjpahdJ
vhpkiy Fok;ghy; cUthf;fg;gl;lhjhFk;.
vhpkiyfspd; tiffs;
vhpkiyfs;
nray;gLk;
jzpe;j
capuw;w
jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;
,t;tif vhpkiyfs; cwq;Fk; vhpkiyfs; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,j;jhypapYs;s ntR+tpay; (Vesuvius) vhpkiy kw;Wk;
`tha; jPtpYs;s nksdfpah (Mauna Kea) vhpkiyfis
cjhuzkhf $wyhk;.
capuw;w vhpkiyfs;
,t;tif
vhpkiyfis
,we;j
vhpkiyfs;
vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Mg;hpf;fhtpy;
cs;s
kTz;l;
fpspkhQ;Nuh
kw;Wk;
,e;jpahtpy; cs;s ehh;fz;lk; jPT Mfpatw;iwf;$wyhk;.
,J tlf;F me;jkhd; jPtpd; tlfpof;F gFjpapy;
mike;Js;sJ.
jkpo;ehl;bYs;s Gfo;ngw;w jpUtz;zhkiy Fd;W kw;Wk;
Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpYs;s gdfh Fd;W Mfpad ,we;j
vhpkiyfshf fUjg;gLfpwJ.
ePh;
epuk;gpa
vhpkiy
thia
ngUtha;
Vhp
vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
1. ................ Nfhspy; kl;Lk;jhd; caphpdq;fs; cs;sd
m) G+kp
M) nts;sp
,) nrt;tha;
<) Gjd;
tpil : m
2. ghd;[pah ................ nghpa jl;Lf;fshf cilgl;Ls;sJ
m) 6
M) 7
,) 10
<) 12
tpil : M
3. G+kp ................ epiyahdjhf ,y;iy
m) fUtk;
M) ie/g;
,) NkNyhL
<) ftrk;
tpil : ,
4. Gtp NkNyhl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F nrq;Fj;J efh;T
Vw;gLtij ................ efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ
m) vz;Nlhn[dpf;
M) vf;N]hn[dpf;
,) vgpNuhn[dpf;
<) Nja;TUjy;
tpil : M
5. epyeLf;fk; Njhd;Wk; ikak; (,lk;) ................ vdg;gLk;
m) ntspikak;
M) epyeLf;fikak;
,) ikak;
<) vhpkiy kz;lyk; tpil : M
1.
2.
fz;l NkNyhL rpNahy; mLf;fhy; MdJ.

rpahy; mLf;F rpkh mLf;fpd; kPJ kpje;
;
nfhz;L
kpjeJ
cs;sJ.
3. G+kpapd; NkNyhl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F fpilkl;l
efh;tpid
Vw;gLj;JtJ
kiyahf;f
efh;T
vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
4. Nkw;Gw miyia L miyfs; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.
5. vhpkiy vd;gJ G+kpapd; xU jpwg;G my;yJ Jis topNa
Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ gbaitg;gJ MFk;.
1. Nkhdh Nyhth
`tha;
2. ntR+tpay;
,j;jhyp
3. kTz;l; fpspkhQ;Nuh Mg;gphpf;fh
4. gpA+[pahkh
[g;ghd;
5. ehh;fz;lk;
,e;jpah
Gtp Nkw;gug;G - khwpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; epyf;Nfhsj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G
thdpiyr; rpijT
ghiwfs;
ciljy;
my;yJ
rpijtiljy;
nraNy
thdpiyr; rpijT vd;fpNwhk;.
thdpiyr; rpijthdJ ngsjPf (my;yJ cUkhw;w)
,urhad
kw;Wk;
caphpd
rpijT
vd
tifg;gLj;jg;glfpwJ.
ntg;g mOj;jk; (Thermal Shock)
ghiwfspd; njhlh;rr
; pahd tphpjy; kw;Wk; RUq;Fjyhy;
mOj;jk; cUthf;fg;gl;L ghiwfs; cilfpd;wJ.
,e;j nray;KiwahdJ ntg;g mOj;j rpijT vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ntg;g mjph;rr
; p (Thermal Shock) kw;Wk; ntg;g jzpT
(Thermal Fatique) MfpaitfshFk;.
cg;G gbfq;fspd; tsh;rr
; p
cg;G gbfkhjiy `hNyh`pyh];b (Haloclasty) vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
fiujy;
tspkz;ly fhh;gd;il Mf;i]L my;yJ ry;gh; il
Mf;i]L my;yJ iel;u[d; il Mf;i]L kiog;
nghoptpy; fiuAk; nghOJ mkpukhf khWfpd;wJ.
Rz;zhk;G gpuNjrq;fspy; jhJf;fs; fiujiyAk; kw;Wk;
ghiwfspy; rpijitAk; Vw;glj;Jfpd;wd.
XLk; ePh;
mhpj;jy;> flj;Jjy; kw;Wk; gba itj;jy; Mfpa
gzpfis nra;fpd;wd.
MNwhL njhlh;Gila epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; kiyg;ghij
nrq;Fj;J rhpT kw;Wk; Mw;wpd; mjpf Ntfk; fhuzkhf
nrq;Fj;J mhpj;Jj; jpd;dy; nray; ,q;F Kjd;ikahf
,Uf;fpwJ.
ghiw ,Lf;F (Gorges) Mw;Wg; gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; (Canyons)
kw;Wk; V-tbt gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; cUthfpd;wd.
Mw;Wf;fth;T
,J Mw;W fth;T (River Piracy) my;yJ Mw;wpd;
jiyjpir
khw;wk;
(River
Beheading)
vdTk;
mwpag;gLfpwJ.
gs;sj;jhf;Fg; ghij
Jhpjkhd mhpj;jy; nrayhy; V-tbt gs;sj;jhf;fpd;
fiufs; mfykhfpd;wd.
FWl;lhWfs;
nghJthf FWl;lhWfs; vd;gJ Mw;wpd; tise;J nry;Yk;
ghijfspYs;s tisthFk;.
Mw;WePh; Gtp <h;gG
; tpirapdhy; XLk;NghJ mJ Neuhf
ePzl
;
Jhuj;jpw;F XLtJ mhpjhf ,Ug;gjhy; tise;J
nry;Yk; Nghf;F vspjpy; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
Mw;W Xq;fy;fs; (CLIFF)
)
(
Mw;W tistpy; Mw;WePh; nry;Yk;NghJ mJ tistpd;
Nky; Neubahf Nkhjp mhpj;J td; rhpTila Mw;W
Xq;fiy Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
rkntsp;gg
; hij
MwhdJ
nghpa
mstpy;
gUg;nghUl;fis
rkntsp
gFjpfspy; gba itj;Jk; kw;Wk; gy;NtW rpf;fyhd
Jiz MWfshfTk; gphpe;J nry;fpwJ. ,JNt gpd;dpa
MWfs; (Braided Streams) vdg;gLfpd;wd.
Mw;W ePh; ,ay;ghf nry;Yk;NghJ mJ nfhz;L te;j
gbTfs; kw;Wk; gUg;nghUs;fs; Mw;wpd; fiuapy; gbtjhy;
mjd; fiu caUfpwJ. ,jid nytp]; (Levees)
vd;fpNwhk;.
Fjpiu Fsk;G Vhp (OX-Bow - Lake)
ePuhdJ Mw;W tistpd; FWfpa fOj;J gFjpia
cilj;J Neuhf nry;tjhy; mjdhy; tplg;gl;l tisTg;
gFjp Fjpiu Fsk;G Vhp vdg;gLfpwJ.
nly;lh
Mw;wpd; Kfj;Jthg;gFjpapy; tprpwp tbtpy; tz;liy gba
itf;fpwJ. ,JNt nly;lh vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

gwit ghj nly;lh (Bird Foot Delta)> tpy; my;yJ
tprpwp tbt nly;lh (Arcute or Fan Shaped Delta)>
nghq;FKf nly;lh (Estuarine Delta) kw;Wk; $hpa tbt
nly;lh (Cone Shaped Delta).

tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; kpf ePzl
; MW kprprpgp MFk;.

,J tl mnkhpf;fhtpy; cs;s kpNdh];lhtpd; ,l;]f
; h
Vhpapy; cUthfpwJ.

gwit ghj nly;lh mikg;G ,q;Fs;sJ.
fq;if

fq;if ,e;jpa Jizf;fz;lj;jpd; ePzl
;
MW tl
,e;jpahtpypUe;J fq;ifr; rkntsp topahf fpof;F
Nehf;fp Xb gq;fshNjir milfpwJ.

cj;ufhz;bYs;s ,kakiyapy; ,Ue;J 2510 fp.kP ePsk;
nfhz;l ,e;j MW cWthfpwJ.

,e;jpahtpd;
Njrpa
Mwhf
fq;if
MW
mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ Mz;L - 2008.
Xq;fy;fs; (Cliff)
)
(

nghJthf
nrq;Fj;jhd
ghiw
fliy
Nehf;fp
mikAk;NghJ Xq;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
gdpahWfs;
gdpahWfs

gdpg;ghiwfs;
efh;jNy
gdpahWfs;
vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

gdpahWfs;
M];jpNuypahitj;
jtpu
midj;J
fz;lq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

jpl epiyia miltjhy; cUthFk; mOj;jj;jpd;
fhuzkhfTk;> <h;gG
;
tpirapdhYk; gs;sj;jhf;Ffspd;
topahf nkJthf efUfpd;wJ.

gs;sj;jhf;F
gdpahWfs;
(Valley Glaciers)
kw;Wk;
kiyabthug;
gdpahwfs;
(Piedmont Glaciers)
vd
tifg;glj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
gs;sj;jhf;F gdpahWfs;
gdpahWfs;

,t;tif gdpahWfs; kiyfspd; Nky; mike;Js;sd.
gs;sj;jhf;F my;yJ My;/igd; gdpahWfs; vdTk;

miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
fz;lg; gdpahWfs;

JUtg;gpuNjrq;fspy; gdpj;
Jfs;fshdJ gue;j
mstpy; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

,t;thW gutp fhzg;gLk; gdpj; Jfs;fspd; njhFg;Ng
fz;lg; gdpahWfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
kiyabthug; gdpahWfs;

kiyabthug; gFjpapy; gdpj;
Jfs;fs; Ftptjhy;
cUthFk; gdpahWfs;.
rh;f;

gdpahWfs;
gwpj;njLj;jy;
nraypdhy;
cUthFk;
ehw;fhyp
Nghd;w
mikg;gpid
nfhz;bUf;Fk;
epyj;Njhw;wNk rh;f; MFk;.
mnul;Lfs;
fs kw;Wk; gpukpL rpfuq;fs;

,uz;L rh;fF
; fSf;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; fj;jp Nghd;w
ePzl
; njhlh; epyg;gFjpNa mnul;L MFk;.

mUfUNf cs;s ,uz;Lf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l rh;fF
; fshy;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s gFjp cile;J cah;eJ
;
epw;Fk;
rpfuk; Nghd;w mikg;Ng gpukpL rpfukhFk;.
U - tbt gs;sjhf;F
gs;sj;jhf;fhdJ
gdpahw;wpdhy;
mhpf;fg;gl;L
Mog;gLj;jg;gLtjhy; cUthFk; epyj;Njhw;wNk U - tbt
gs;sj;jhf;F MFk;.
V-tbt gs;sj;jhf;fhdJ gdpahw;wpdhy; Mog;gLj;jg;gl;L
mfyg;gLj;jg;gLtjpdhy; cUthfpd;wJ.
njhq;Fk; gs;sj;jhf;F
Kjd;ikf; fz;lg; gzpahW> Jizg;gzpahw;wpid tpl
mjpf msT mhpg;Gj;jpwd; nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJ njhq;Fk;
gs;sj;jhf;F cUthfpd;wJ.
gdpahWfspdhy;
cUthf;fg;gLk;
kw;w
epyj;Njhw;wq;fshtd>
nrk;kwp
Ml;Lg;ghiw
(Rocke
Mountonnee)> thy; tbtg; ghiw (Crag and Tail),
nghUj;jhg;ghiw my;yJ jphpAk; ghiw (Boulder Clay or
Glacial) kw;Wk; vuhbf;fs; (Erractics).
gbTfs;
nkhiud;fs;
nkhiud;fs; vdg;gLgit ghiwj;Jfs;fs;> Jz;Lfs;>
ghiw cUz;ilfs; kw;Wk; NrWfshy; Mdit.
mitfs; tpspk;G nkhiud;fs; (Terminal Moraines)> gf;f
nkhiud;fs;
(Lateral
Moraines)
kw;Wk;
kj;jpa
nkhiud;fs; (Medial Moraines) vd gphpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
buk;ypd;fs;
ghiwj;Jfs;fs; kw;Wk; NrW fyitayhd epyj;Njhw;wNk
buk;ypd;fs; MFk;.
,itfs;
ghh;gg
; jw;F
Kl;ilfs;
Gijj;Js;sJNghy;
Njhw;wkspf;Fk;.
tz;ly; rkntsp kw;Wk; v];fh;fs; Mfpad ,ju
gbtpj;jyhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; MFk;.
flj;jy; nray;Kiwfs;
flj;jy;
nrayhdJ
gpd;tUk;
epfo;Tfs;
%yk;
eilngUfpwJ. mitfshtd jhTjy; (Saltation) kw;Wk;
njhq;Fjy; (Suspension) MFk;.
fhw;wpdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mhpg;Gr; nray;fs;
fhw;whdJ Gilj;njLj;jy; (Deflation) kw;Wk; mhpj;J
jpd;dy; (Abration) Mfpa nray;fs; %yk; gy;NtW
tifahd
epyj;Njhw;wq;fis
Fwpg;ghf
ghiytdg;
gFjpfspy; cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
gPlg;ghiwfs; my;yJ fhshd; ghiwfs;
ghiwj;JhzhdJ
fhshd;
Nghd;W
Njhw;wkspf;fpwJ.
,t;thwhd
ghiwfs;
gPlg;ghiwfs;
vdTk;
miof;fg;glfpwJ.
R+fd;
nkd;ghiw
mlf;fpd;Nky;
jl;ilahd
fbdg;ghiw
mLf;Ffs; fpilahf mile;jpUe;jhy; mit fhw;wpdhy;
FWf;fhf mhpf;fg;gl;L ePzl
; Fd;W Njhd;WfpwJ.
ahh;lhq;
ghiytdr;
R+oypy;
fhw;wpdhy;
mhpf;fg;gl;L
ePzl
;
kiyj;njhlh; Nghy fhzg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wNk ahh;lhq;
MFk;.
ahh;lhq;Ffs;
mfd;w
ePst
; l;l
tbtKila
epyj;Njhw;wq;fshFk;.
,d;ry;gh;fF
; fs;
mhpf;fg;glhj vQ;rpa Fd;Wfshf jiug; gFjpapypUe;J
cah;eJ
; fhzg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wNk ,d;ry;gh;fF
; fs; MFk;.
fhw;wpd;
mhpg;NghL
njhlh;Gila
kw;w
epyj;Njhw;wq;fshtd> Nkrh (Dreikanter) kw;Wk; CJ
gs;sq;fs; (Deflation Hallows)
fhw;wpd; gbtpj;jNyhL njhlh;Gila epyj;Njhw;wq;fs;
gh;fhd;
hd
,itfs; gpiwr;re;jpu tbt epiyahf efUk; jd;ik
nfhz;lit> fhw;W tPRk; jpirahdJ td; rhptpidAk;
kw;Wk; vjph; jpirahdJ nkd; rhptpidAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs;
fhw;WtPRk; jpirf;F ,izahf gy fpNyh kPll
; h;fs;
ePsj;jpw;F mike;jpUf;Fk; FWfshd kzw;Fd;WfNs
nr/g; my;yJ ePs; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs; mFk;.
Nyha];
Nyha];
ghiytdj;jpw;F mUfhikapYs;s gFjpfspy; gbe;jpUf;Fk;
Ez;zpa Jfs;fNs Nyhah]; MFk;.
1. Mf;]pfuz nray;KiwahdJ ,t;thW mwpag;gLfpwJ
m) ,Uk;G JUgpbj;jy; M) Ntjpg;nghUl;fs; $l;likg;G
,) ntg;g mjph;rr
; p
<) `hNyh`pyh];b
tpil : m
2. FUl;lhWfs; cUthf;fg;gLtJ ..................
m) kiyg;ghijapy;
M) gs;sj;jhf;F ghijapy;
,) rkntspg;ghijapy;
<) nly;lh ghijapy;
tpil : M
3. gPrR
; fs; vjDld; njhlh;Gilait
m) MWfs; M) gzpahWfs; ,) fhw;W
<) miyfs; tpil : <
4. gPlg;ghiwfs; ,g;gbAk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd
m) R+fd;
M)fhshd; ghiw
,) ahh;lhq;
<) gh;fhd;fs;
tpil : M
5. gh;fhd; ve;j nraNyhL njhlh;GilaJ
m) gbaitj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk; M) mhpj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk;
,) flj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk;
<) ,aw;if epyj;Njhw;wk;;
tpil : m
Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf :
1. ntg;g mOj;jk; ,t;thW $l
miof;fyhk; ntg;g
mOj;jr; rpijT
2. ,uz;L Fiffs; xd;NwhL xd;W Nrh;eJ
;
mZFtJ
,t;thW $l miof;fg;gLfpwJ fly;tisT
3. Mw;wpd; %g;G epiyapy; cUthFk; tprpwp tbt tz;ly;
epyj; Njhw;wkhdJ tpy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ghiwfs; cilf;fg;gLtJ kw;Wk; rpijf;fg;gLtJkhd

nray;fshdJ thdpiy rpijT vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
fhw;wpdhy; gba itf;fg;gLk; nghUl;fs; tskhd Ez;zpa
kw;Wk; kQ;rs; epwKs;s kzy;Jfs;fs; MFk;.
cg;G gbfq;fspd; tsh;rr
; p
Fjpiu Fsk;G Vhp
kzy; jpl;Lf;fs;
nkhiud;fs;
nr/g;
-
- `hNyh`pyh];b
rkntspg;ghij
miyapd; gbaitj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk;
gdpahW gbaitj;jy;
fhw;W gbaitj;jy;
thdpiyAk; fhyepiyAk;
ntg;gkz;lyg; gFjpfspy; Kf;fpag; gapuhfTk;> kpj ntg;g
kz;lyg;
gFjpfspy;
NfhJik
Kf;fpag;
gapuhfTk;
gaphplg;gLfpd;wd.
thdpiy
thdpiy vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; 24 kzp
Neuj;jpw;Fs; epyTk; tspkz;lyj;jpd; epiyahFk;.
fhyepiy
fhyepiy vd;gJ nghJthf xU ePzl
; fhyj;jpy; kw;Wk;
xU ngUk; gug;gstpy; fhzg;gLk; thdpiyapd; ruhrhp
MFk;.
xU
jpl;lkhd
ruhrhp
fhyk;
vd;gJ
30
Mz;LfshFk;.
fhyepiy vd;w nrhy; fpiskh (Kilaima) fpNuf;fr;
nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ.
thdpiy kw;Wk; fhyepiyfis jPhk

; hdpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
ml;rNuif
epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg;gFjpahdJ
R+hpadpd;
ntg;gf;fjph;fis
Neh;ff
; jph;fshfg; ngWfpd;wJ.
JUtg;
gFjpapd;
R+hpadpd;
rha;Tf;
fjph;fisg;
ngWfpd;wJ.
G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J ntg;gepiyahdJ Rkhh; xt;nthU
1000 kPll
; Uf;Fk; Rkhh; 6.50 nry;rpa]; vd;w tpfpjj;jpy;
Fiwfpd;wJ. ,J Lapse Rali vd miof;fg;gLk; (or) 165
m f;F 10C FiwAk;.
fly; ePNuhl;lq;fs;
s
fly; ePNuhl;lq;fshdJ ntg;gepiyiag; nghWj;J> ntg;g
ePNuhl;lq;fs;
kw;Wk;
Fsph;
ePNuhl;lq;fs;
vd
tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ntg;g kw;Wk; Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; re;jpf;fpd;w ,lq;fs;
Kjd;ikahd kPdg
; pbj;jsq;fshf ,Ug;gjw;F fhuzk;
kPdf
; spd; czthd fly;tho; Ez;Zaphpfs; (Plankton)
tsu ,q;F jf;f R+o;epiy epyTfpwJ.
vy;epNdh tpisT
ekJ ehl;by; gUtf;fhw;W ngha;jj
; y; (Monsoon failure)
vd;gij mbf;fb Nfs;tpg;gLfpNwhk;.
vy;epNdh vd;w fhuzpAk; Kf;fpakhdjhfpwJ. vy;epNdh
vd;why; ];ghdpa nkhopapy; Foe;ij VR (Chirist Child)
vd;W nghUs;.
,J fpU];Jk]; fhyq;fspy; Njhd;wp rpy khjq;fs;
ePbf;Fk;.
ngU
kw;Wk;
<f;tlhh;
ehl;Lf;
flw;fiuNahuq;fspy;
Jhpjkhf mjpfhpg;gjhy; mq;F jho; mOj;j kz;lykhdJ
Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
,jd; tpisthf grpgpf; Nguhop kw;Wk; ,e;jpa Nguhopfspy;
tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs; tYtpoe;J jpir tpyf;fkiltjhy;
ePzl
; twl;rpahd epiyia ,e;jpahtpy; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
vy;epNdhtpd;
kw;w
tpisTfshtd
M];jpNuypahtpy;
Vw;gl;l gQ;rk;> gpNurpy; kw;Wk; njd;fpof;F Mrpahtpy;
Vw;gl;l fhl;Lj; jP.
kdpjdpd; Mjpf;fk;
ek;Kila tho;fi
; fg; Gtp ntg;gkhjy; (Global Warming),
gRq;Fby; tpisT (Green House Effect). khriljy;
(Pollution), Nghd;wit fhpakpy thAit (Corbon-di-Oxide)
fhw;wpy; mjpfhpf;fr; nra;Js;sjhf czh;fpd;Nwhk;.
efu ntg;gj;jT
P
(Urban Heat Island) vd;gJ xU ngU
efukhdJ mjidr; Rw;wpAs;s gFjpfisf; fhl;bYk;
mjpf ntg;gj;JlNd ,Ug;gjhFk;.
ntg;gepiy
Gtp
ngWk;
xsp
kw;Wk;
ntg;gj;jpw;F
%yhjhuk;
R+hpadhFk;.
,J Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;ig mila 8 epkplq;fs; 20
tpdhbfs; vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ.
xU ehspy; epyTk; mjpf msT kw;Wk; Fiwe;j msT
ntg;g epiyf;F ,ilNa cs;s ntg;gepiy NtWghNl
jpdrhp ntg;g tpahg;jp (Diurnal Range of Temperature) vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
tspkz;lyj;jpy;
fjph;tr
P y;
(Radiation)
KiwapYk;>
epyj;jpy; flj;jy; (Conduction) KiwapYk;> ePhpy; ntg;gr;
ryid (Convection) KiwapYk; eilngWfpwJ.
G+kpapd; tspkz;lykhdJ R+hpa fjph;tr
P iytpl (Insolation)
Gtpf;
fjph;tr
P yhy;
(Terrestrial
Radiation)
mjpfk;
ntg;gkilfpwJ.
xU tUlj;jpy; epyTk; ntg;gkhd khjj;jpw;Fk; Fspuhd
khjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd NtWghNl tUlhe;jpu ntg;g
tpahg;jp (Annual Range of Tempereture).
Gtpapd; tspkz;lyk;
Gtpapd; tspkz;lykhdJ thAf;fshy; R+og;gl;Ls;sJ.
,itfs; Gtp <h;gG
; tpirapdhy; epiy epWj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
tspkz;lyj;jpid mjd; gz;Gfspd; mbg;gilapy; ehd;F
mLf;Ffshf gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mitahtd mbaLf;F
(Troposhphere)
gilaLf;F
(Stratosphere)>madpaLf;F
(Ionosphere) kw;Wk; ntspaLf;F (Ezosphere).
mbaLf;F(Troposhphere)
mbaLf;F Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J JUtg; gFjpfspy; 8
fp.kP tiuapYk;> G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpapy; 18 fp.kP
tiuapYk; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
thdpiy
%yq;fshd
ntg;gepiy>
fhw;W>
fhw;wpd;
mOj;jk;> Nkfq;fspd; cUthf;fk; kw;Wk; kiog;nghopT
Mfpa
midj;J
khw;wq;fSk;
,e;j
mLf;fpNyNa
eilngWfpd;wJ.
Nrzpil mLf;F (Troposhphere) vd;w nky;ypa mLf;fhdJ
mbaLf;F
kw;Wk;
gilaLf;F
,itfSf;fpilNa
mike;Js;sJ.
gilaLf;F
gilaLf;fhdJ Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J Rkhh; 50 fp.kP
tiu fhzg;gLfpwJ.
n[l; tpkhdq;fs; ,e;j mlf;fpy;jhd; gadpf;fpd;wd.
gilaLf;fpd; cr;rp tpspk;gpy; XNrhd; thA mjpf mstpy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,it R+hpadplkpUe;J tUk; Gw Cjhf;
fjph;fis tbfl;b nfljy;fspypUe;J ghJfhf;fpd;wJ.
,e;j mLf;fhdJ rkntg;g mLf;F (Isothermal Layer)
kw;Wk; XNrhd; mLf;F vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
gLifaLf;fpid njhlh;eJ
;
kPzL
; k; nky;ypa mLf;F
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J kPtsp ,ilaLf;F (Stratopause) vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,ilaLf;F (Mesophere). 50-80 fp.kP cauk; tiu
ngw;Ws;sJ. cauk; mjpfhpf;f mjpfhpf;f ,q;F ntg;gk;
FiwAk; (80 fp.kP y; - 1000C)
tpz;ntspapy; ,Ue;J G+kpf;F tUk; ghiwfs; ,q;Fjhd;
vwpe;J rhk;gyhfpwJ.
madpaLf;F
madpaL Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 80 fp.kP Kjy; 500 fp.kP
tiu gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
,it thndhyp miyfis G+kpf;F jpUg;gp mZg;Gtjhy;
etPd njhiy njhlh;gpw;F kpfTk; cjTfpd;wJ.
xU jpwg;nghd;ndd;wiof;fg;gLk; (Auroras) tz;zkakhd
fhl;rpaikg;gpid
tlNfhsj;jpy;
tlKid
tsnuhsp
(Northern lights) my;yJ tlJUt tpz;nzhsp (Aurora
Borealis) kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; njd;Kid tsnuhsp
(Southern lights) my;yJ njd;JUt tpz;nzhsp (Aurura
Australis) MfpaitAk; ,q;Nf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
ntspaLf;F
vf;N]h];gpah; mLf;fhdJ ngUksT i`l;u[d; kw;Wk;
`Pypak; thAf;fis nfhz;Ls;sJ.
ntg;gepiyia msf;f cjTk; cgfuzj;jpd; ngah;
ntg;gkhdpahFk; (Thermometer)
xNu msTila ntg;gepiyia nfhz;bUf;Fk; ,lq;fis
,izf;Fk; fw;gid Nfhl;bw;F rkntg;gf; NfhLfs;
(Isotherms) vd;W ngah;.
ntg;g kz;lyk;
flf Nuiff;Fk; (23 0 t) kfu Nuiff;Fk; (23 0 nj)
,ilg;gl;l gFjpapy; ntg;g kz;lykhdJ fhzg;gLfpwJ.
kpj ntg;g kz;lyk;
yk
flf Nuiff;Fk; (230 t) Mh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (660 t)
,ilg;gl;l gFjpia tl kpjntg;g kz;lyk; vd;Wk;
kfu Nuiff;Fk; (230 nj) mz;lhh;lb
; f; tl;lj;jpw;Fk;
(660 nj) ,ilgl;l gFjpia njd; kpj ntg;g kz;lyk;
vd;Wk; $WfpNwhk;.
Fsph; kz;lyk;
Mh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (660t)tl JUtj;jpw;Fk; (900 t)
,ilgl;l gFjpiaAk; mz;lhh;lb
; f; tl;lj;jpw;Fk;.
(660 nj) njd; JUtj;jpw;Fk; (900 nj) ,ilgl;l
gFjpiaAk; Fsph; kz;lyk; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.
fhw;W mOj;jk;
fhw;wpd;
moj;jkhdJ
G+kpapd;
Nkw;gug;gpy;
fhw;wpd;
epiwapdhy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; moj;jNk MFk;.
fly; kl;lj;jpy; epyTk; fhw;wOj;jj;jpd; ruhrhp msT 1013
kpy;yp ghh;fshFk;.
tsp kz;ly mOj;jj;ij mstplg; gad;glk; cgfuzk;
my;yJ fUtp moj;jkhdp (Barometer) MFk;.
G+kj;jpaNuif jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;
,e;j kz;lykhdJ 50 tlf;F Kjy; 50 njw;F ml;rNuif
gFjpfspy; mike;Js;sJ
,e;j kz;lyj;jpid mikjp kz;lyk; (Belt of calm)
my;yJ Nlhy;Luhk;]; vd;wiog;gh;.
Jiz maz cah; mOj;j kz;lyk;
,e;j kz;lykhdJ 250 Kjy; 350 tlf;F Kjy; njw;F
tiuapyhd ml;rNuiffSf;F ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ. ntg;g
10
kz;lyj;jpypUe;J NknyOk;gpa fhw;W> Fiwe;jntg;gepiyapd;

ml;rNuifg;
gFjpfspy;
fhuzkhf
Fsph;eJ
;
300-350
jiug;gFjpia Nehf;fp fPopwq;FfpwJ.
,k;kz;lykhdJ Fjpiu ml;rNuif (Horse Latitudes)
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Jiz JU
JUt jho; mOj;j kz;lyk;
,e;j kz;lykhdJ 600Kjy; 650 tiu tl kw;Wk; njd;
Nfhsq;fspy; mike;Js;sJ.
fhw;wpd;
Ntfk;
kw;Wk;
tPRk;
jpirapid
mstpl
fhw;Wkhdp (Anemometer) vd;w fUtp gad;gLfpwJ.
fhw;Wfs;
fhw;Wfs;
Nfhs; fhw;Wfs;
Mz;L KOtJk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpiria Nehf;fp tPRk;
fhw;WfSf;F Nfhs; fhw;Wfs; vd;W ngah;.
tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs; (Trade Winds) madkz;lyq;fSf;F
,ilNa tPRfpd;wd.
,it tl Nfhsj;jpy; tlfpof;F tpahghuf; fhw;WfshfTk;>
kw;Wk;
njd;
Nfhsj;jpy;
njd;fpof;F
tpahghuf;
fhw;WfshfTk; tPRfpd;wd.
Gtp Row;rpapd; fhuzkhf tlNfhsj;jpy; tyg;GwkhfTk;>
njd;Nfhsj;jpy; ,lg;GwkhfTk; tpyfpr; nry;fpwJ. ,e;j
khw;wkp;yy
; hj tpjp ng/uy; tpjp my;yJ nfhhpahyp]; tpir
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
/nguy; tpjpapd; gb ,t;tifahd fhw;whdJ tpyfp
tPRfpd;wJ.
Nkiyf; fhw;WfshdJ (Westerlies) ,U Nfhsq;fspYk;
Jiz mad kz;ly cauOj;j gFjpapypUe;J Jiz
JUt jho;tOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ.
,t;tifahd fhw;Wfs; Nkw;fpypue;J fpof;fhf tPRfpd;wJ.
JUtf;
fhw;Wfs;
(Polar Winds)
JUt
cauOj;jg;
gFjpapypue;J Jiz JUt jho;tOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp
fPiof;
fhw;Wfshf
tPRfpd;wd.
,it
fLq;Fsph;
fhw;WfshFk;.
gUtfhy
gUtfhy kw;Wk; gFjp Neuf; fhw;Wfs;

Gtpapd; kPJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gg;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; Fspuhjy;
epfo;rr
; pfspdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; NtWghl;bd; fhuzkhf
,f;fhw;Wfs; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
gUtf; fhw;Wfs;

khd;R+h; vd;w nrhy;yhdJ kTrpk; (Mausim) vd;w mNugpa
nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ.

njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf;fhw;whdJ mnjd; ,e;jpa kw;Wk; njd;
grpgpf; Nguhopfspy; ,Ue;J Mrpag; gFjpfis Nehf;fp
tPRfpd;wJ.
fly; fhw;Wfs;

<ug;gjk; kpf;f Fsph;ej
;
njd;wyhdJ gpe;jpa khiyg;
nghOjpy; flypypUe;J epyj;ij Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ.
Fsph;ej
;
twz;l
fhw;whdJ
mjpfhiyg;
nghojpy;
epyj;jpypUe;J ePh;gg
; ug;ig Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ.
Gay;fs;

Gay; vd;gJ jho;tOj;j mikg;gpd; ikakhFk;

Gaypd; ikag;gFjp ntw;wplkhFk; mJNt Gay; fz; (Eye
of the Cyclone) vdg;gLfpwJ.

Gay;
fhw;W>
ilG+d;fs;
(Japan>
China)
kw;Wk;
mhpf;Nfd;fs;; (fhpgpad; fly;) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpd;wd. tpy;yp
tpy;yp - M];jpNuypah> rKdh];> Mg;gphpf;fh.

tlNfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw;W jpirapYk; kw;Wk; njd;
Nfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; Rw;whfTk; efh;fpd;wd. nlhuz;Nlh mnkhpf;fh.
vjph; #whtspfs;
#whtspfs;

vjph; R+uhtspfs; vd;gJ cah; mOj;j mikg;gpd;
ikakhFk;.

vjph; R+uhtspfs; tlNfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; Rw;Wj; jpirapYk;
kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw;W jpirapYk;
efh;fpd;wd.
jyf;fhw;Wfs;
ntg;gjyf; fhw;Wfs;
,lq;fs;
/gphpf; gPyl
; h;
M];jpNuypah
rpd;D}f;
mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehLfs;
/ghd;
tlf;F ,j;jhyp
rpuhf;Nfh
rfhuh ghiytdk;
Y}
,e;jpahtpd; jhh; ghiytdk;
Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs;

Mh;kj;jhd;
kp];lu; y;
Gh;fh
ehh;l;
/ghk;ngNuh
,lq;fs;
kj;jpa Mg;gphpf;fh
My;g]
; ; kiy
,u\;ah
nkf;rpNfh tisFlh
mh;n[d;ildh
Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;

tspkz;lyj;jpYs;s ePuhtpahdJ ePh;
Ez;zpa
ePh;
jptisfshfNth
RUq;Fjy;
my;yJ
%yk;
gdpg;
11
gbfq;fshfNth khw;wg;gLtjpd; njhFg;Ng Nkfq;fs; vd;W

miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
fPwW
; Nkfq;fs; (Cirrus)

fPww
;
Nkfq;fs; cah; Nkfq;fs;; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ
Vnddpy; ,it fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Vwj;jho 5000 kPll
; h;
cauj;jpy; cUthfpd;wd.

xUNghJk; kiog;nghoptpid nfhLg;gjpy;iy.
gil Nkfq;fs; (Stratus)

gil Nkfq;fs; fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 2000 kPll
; Uf;Fk;
,ilapNyNa cUthtjhy; jho; Nkfq;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ.

mlh;
rhk;gy;
epw
tphpg;G
Nghd;w
Njhw;wj;ijAk;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
jpus; Nkfq;fs; (Cumulus)

tbj;j gUj;jpiag; Nghd;W fhzg;gLk;.

Nkfq;fSld;
kiog;nghopT>
kpd;dy;
kw;Wk;
,b
Mfpatw;NwhL njhlh;GilaitfshFk;.

,it fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Rkhh; 12000 kPll
; h; cauk; tiu
fhzg;gLk;.
fhh;gil
gil Nkfq;fs; (Nimbus)

fhh; gil Nkfq;fshdJ nrq;Fj;jhd Nkfq;fshFk;.

fdj;j kiog; nghoptpid nfhLg;gjhy; ,it Gay;
my;yJ kio Nkfq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
kiog;nghopT
kiog;nghopT ntg;gr;ryd kio> kiyj; jLg;G kio kw;Wk;
Gay; kio vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
kio msit mstplg; gad;gLk; cgfuzq;fs; my;yJ
fUtp kiokhdp MFk;.
kiof;NfhLfs; (Isohytes) vd;W ngah;.
kiog;nghopT ,b kw;Wk; kpd;dypidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
khiy Neuq;fspy; Fwpg;ghf 4 kzpf;F tUtjhy; khiy
Neu ehd;F kzp kiog;nghopT (40 Clock rain fall) vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
epy mikg;G my;yJ kiyj;jil kio
flw;gFjpapypUe;J tPRk; fhw;whdJ Fsph;eJ
;
fhw;W kfg;
gFjpapy; (Windward side) mjpf kioia cUthf;FfpwJ.
gpwF mit vjph; Kff; fhw;W jpirapy; (Leeward side)
<ug;gujk; Fiwthd fhw;whf fPopwq;Ftjhy; Fiwe;j msT
kioiaNah my;yj kiog;nghoptpidNah nfhlg;gjpy;iy.
Nfush fhw;W Kfg;gFjpapYk; jkpo;ehL vjph;Kf fhw;W
jpirapYk; mike;Js;sNj fhuzkhFk;.
kpd;dy;
kpd;dy;
xU
nehbf;F
96560
iky;fs;
Ntfjj;jpy;
gadpf;fpwJ.
kpd;diyg;
gw;wp
gbf;Fk;
mwptpayhdJ
kpd;dypay;
(Fulminology) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Neh; kw;Wk; vjph; kpd;Dhl;l gz;Gfisf;nfhz;l Nkfq;fs;
xd;Wf;nfhd;W re;jpf;Fk;NghJ kpd;dyhdJ cUthFk;.
,bAld; $ba Gay;
Gay
,bAld;
$ba
Gay;
vd;gJ
fhh;jpus;
Nkfq;fshy;
cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 4 Kjy; 20 fpNyh kPll
; h;
cauj;jpy; ,it cUthfpd;wd.
1. fpiskh vd;w fpNuf;fr; nrhy; vd;gJ
fhyepiyiaf;
fhyepiy
Fwpf;Fk;.
2. G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J ntg;gepiyahdJ xt;nthU 1000
kpl;lUf;F
Rkhh;;
6.50
nry;rpa];
vd;w
tpfpjj;jpy;
Fiwfpd;wJ.
3.
vy;epNdh vd;why; ];ghdpa nkhopapy; Foe

; j VR vd;W
Foei
nghUs;.
4. efu ntg;gj;jT
P vd;w ngU efukhdJ mjidr; Rw;wpAs;s
gFjpfisf; fhl;bYk; mjpf ntg;gj;jlNd fhzg;gLtjhFk;.
5. Nrzpil mLf;F vd;gJ tspkz;lyj;jpd; mikjp kz;lyk;
my;yJ Nlhy;buk;]; vd;wiog;gh;.
6. G+kj;jpaNuif jho;tOj;j kz;lyj;jpid mikjp kz;lyk;
my;yJ Nlhy;buk;]; vd;wiog;gh;.
7. fpilkl;lkhf
efUk;
thAtpid
fhw;W
vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
8. ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s jhh; ghiytdj;jpy; tPRk; jyf;fhw;wpd;
ngah; Yh MFk;.
9. kpd;diyg; gw;wp gbf;Fk; mwptpayhdJ kpd;dypay;
ypay vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
10. ,bAld;
$ba
Gay;
vd;gJ
fhh;jpus;
Nkfq;fshy;
cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;en
; jL :
1. ntg;g kz;lyj;jpy; ....................... Kf;fpag; gapuhFk;
m) ney;
M) NfhJik
,) Njapiy
<) ghh;yp
tpil: m
2. vy;epNdh fhyf;fl;lq;fspy; Rkhh; %d;W Kjy; vl;L
Mz;LfSf;F xU Kiw ntg;gepiyahdJ ............................
flw;fiu Xuq;fspy; Jhpjkhf mjpfhpf;Fk;.
m) ngU kw;Wk; <f;tlhh; M) ];ngapd; kw;Wk; gpuhd;];
,) ,e;jpah kw;Wk; ghfp];jhd;
<) rPdh kw;Wk; [g;ghd;.
tpil: m
3. xU
ehspy;
epyTk;
mjpfgl;r
kw;Wk;
Fiwe;jgl;r
ntg;gepiyapd;
NtWghL
.....................
vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) Gtpf;fjph;tr
P y;
M) jpdrhp ntg;g tpahg;jp
,) tUlhe;jpu ntg;g tpahg;jp <) R+hpa fjp;tr
P y;
tpil: M
4. .....................
fUtp tspkz;ly mOj;
mOj;jj;ij mstplg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
m) ntg;gkhdp
M) kiokhdp
,) mOj;jkhdp
<) fhw;Wkhdp
tpil: m
5. Jiz mad cah;mOj;j kz;lj;jpid ..................... vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) Nlhy;lu; k;];
M) Fjpiu ml;rNuiffs;
,) nfhhpahyp]; tpir
<) mikjp kz;lyk;
tpil: M
6. .....................
.....................,y;
.........,y; R+hpaf; fjph;fs; kpd;nrwpT+l;lg;gLfpd;wd
m) mbaLf;F
M) gilaLf;F ,) madpaLf;F
<) ntspaLf;F
tpil: ,
7. ..................... Nkfq;fs; kiog;nghopT> ,b kw;Wk; kpd;
dNyhL
kpddNyhL
njhlh;Gilait
m) fPwW
; Nkfq;fs;
M) gil Nkfq;fs;
,) jpus; Nkfq;fs;
<) fhh;gil Nkfq;fs; tpil: ,
8. ..................... kiog;nghopthdJ 4 kzp kiog;nghopT vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) ntg;gr;ryd M) kiyj;jil ,) R+whtsp
<) gUtf;fhw;W
tpil: m
9. fly; kl;lj;jpy; epyTk; fhw;wOj;jj;jpd; ruhrhp msT
..................... kpy;ypghh;fshFk;
shFk
m) 1008
M) 1020
,) 1033
<) 1013
tpil: <
10. ...................... Nkfq;fs; nrq;Fj;jhd Nkfq;fshFk;
m) fPwW
; Nkfq;fs;
M) gilNkfq;fs;
,) jpus; Nkfq;fs;
<) fhh;gil Nkfq;fs; tpil: <
1. Gtp ntg;gkhjy; - kdpjdpd; jhf;fk;
2. ntg;gkhdp
- ntg;gepiyia msf;Fk; fUtp
12
3.
4.
5.
fhw;Wkhdp
- fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtp
R+whtspapd; fz; - ntw;wplk;
,b> kpd;dy;> Gay; - thdpiy njhopw;rhiy
Nghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik
Nghplh;fs; ,aw;if Nghplh; (Natural Disaster) kw;Wk;
kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh; (Man Made Disaster) vd
,U tifg;gLj;jg;gLfp;wd.
,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs;
epyeLf;fq;fs;> vhpkiy ntbg;Gfs;> epyr;rhpTfs;> gdpg;ghiw
tPor
; r
; p>
Gay;>
nts;sg;
ngUf;ffs;>
twl;rpfs;>
R+iwf;fhw;Wfs; kw;Wk; gpw.
kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh;fs;
s
Nghh;> jP-tpgj;Jfs;> rhiy tpgj;Jfs;> fg;gy; %o;Fjy;>
mZFz;L ntbg;Gfs;> kpd;rhu tpgj;Jfs; kw;Wk; gpw.
epyeLf;fk;
Gtpj;jl;Lefh;Tfs;> vhpkiy ntbg;Gfs;> gUg;nghUs; rpijT>
epyr;rhpTfs;
kw;Wk;
epyg;gpsTfs;
Mfpafhuzq;fshy;
epyeLf;fk; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
,jdhy; Xj miyfs; kw;Wk; Mopg;NguiyfSk; (Rdhkp)
Vw;gLfpd;wd.
[dthp 26> 2001 y; 51 tJ FbauR jpd tpohtpd; NghJ
F[uhj;jpy;
kpfg;nghpa
epyeLf;fk;
Vw;gl;lJ.
(G[;
epyeLf;fk;)
Gtp
ntg;grf;jpia
(Geothermal
Energy) jahhpf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ. kzpf;fhud; Fd;Wfs; (,khr;ry gpuNjrk;)
vhpkiy gutiyg; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;s gad;gLk; rha;T
kzp (Tilt Meter) fUtpiag; gw;wp kf;fSf;F tpopg;Gzh;T
Vw;Lj;j Ntz;lk;.
flw;Nfhs;fs;
flw;Nfhs;fspd; Mq;fpyr;nrhy; Rdhkp (Trunamis) ,r;nrhy;
[g;ghdpa nkhopapypUe;J te;jJ. Tsu vd;gjd; nghUs;
Harbour (JiwKfk;) Nami vd;gjd; nghUs; (miyfs;)
brk;gh; 26>2004-y; njd;fpof;F Mfpa ehLfspy; Vw;gl;l
Rdhkpfspd; jhf;fj;jpdhy; 1>50>000 f;Fk; Nkw;gl;Nlhh;
,we;jdh;.
ghiwj;Jfs;fs; ePUld; Nrh;eJ
;
efh;tij NrW topjy;
(Debris flow) vd;fpNwhk;.
Gay;fs;
jho;tOj;jg; gFjpapy; ntg;g kw;Wk; Fsph; tspKfq;fs;
re;jpg;gjhy;
cUthFk;
gyj;jf;
fhw;iwNa
Gay;fs;
vd;fpNwhk;.
1999
mf;Nlhgh;
29-y;
tq;fhs
tphpFlhtpy;
Vw;gl;l
jho;tOj;jj;jpdhy; xhp];]htpy; khngUk; Gay; (Super
Cyclone) cUthdJ.
Riwf;fhw;Wfs;
fhw;wpdhy; cUthFk; fhh; jpus; Nkfk; G+kpapd; jiug;gFjp
Gdy; tbtj;jpy; njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
jPtpu jho; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf ,itfs; cUthfpd;wd.
R+iwf; fhw;wpid mnkhpf;fh If;fpa ehl;by; (USA)
Ltp];lh; (Twister) vd miof;fpd;wdh;.
1. twl;rp Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd fhuzk;
m) gw;whf;Fiwthd kiog;nghopT
M) Rw;Wr;Roy; rPhN
; fL
,) fhLfis tsh;jj
; y;
<) njhopw;rhiyfs;
tpil: m
2. nghJthf R+iwf;fhw;W Vw;gLtJ
m) ,e;jpah M) gq;fshNj\;
,) rPdh
<) mikhpf;f If;fpa ehL
tpil: <
3. epyr;rhpT mbf;fb Vw;gLtJ
m) ghiytdg; gpuNjrk;
M) fhl;Lg; gpuNjrk;
,) Jhe;jpug; gpuNjrk; <) kiyg; gpuNjrk;
tpil: <
4. Rdhkp vd;w nrhy;
nrhy.; .................... nkhopapypUe;
nkhopapypUe;J te;jJ
m) jkpo;
M) gpnud;Q;
,) [g;ghd;
<) yj;jd
P ;
tpil: ,
5. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sjpy; ,aw;ifahd Nghplh; ,y;iy
m) mZFz;L ntbg;G M) fhLfs; mopjy;
,) fhl;Lj;jP
<) kpd;dy;
tpil : m
6. Nghplh; vd;gJ xU NguopT
7. ,e;jpah ehd;F mjph;tiy kz;lq;fshf gphp;ff
; g;gLfpd;wd.
8. ,e;jpahtpy; Rdhkp vr;rhpf;if
ikak; i`juhghj;jpy;
py
epWtg;gl;Ls;sJ.
9. ghiwj;Jfs;fs; ePUld; Nrh;eJ
;
efh;tij NrWtopjy;
vd;fpNwhk;.
10. gdpg;ghiw
tpo;rr
; pfs; cah; ml;rg;gFjpfspYk;
FjpfspYk kw;Wk;
caukhf kiyfspYk; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
1. R+iwf;fhw;W
- fhw;wpd; Row;rp
2. ,Wfpa ghiwf;Fok;G
- vhpkiy ntbj;jy;
3. epyr;rhpT
- fdj;j kiog;nghopT
4. twl;rp
- kiog;nghopT gw;whf;FiwT
5. epyeLf;fk;
- Rdhkp
Nguhopapay; - xU mwpKfk;
Nguhop vd;gJ xU fpNuf;f nrhy; XNfd]; Nguhopfs;
vd;gJ
xU
cth;gpa
ePhpd;
ngUk;
gFjp
kw;Wk;
ePhf
; N
; fhsj;jpd; Kjd;ikahd $l;likg;ghFk;.
Nguhopapay;
Nguhopapay; vd;gJ fly;ehP pd; ,aw;if kw;Wk; Ntjpj;jd;ik>
Mok;> ntg;gepiy> cth;gg
; pak;> fly; ePNuhl;lq;fs; kw;Wk;
flyb gFjpapy; fhzg;glk; jhtu kw;Wk; tpyq;fpdk; gw;wp
gbf;ff;$ba xU mwptpayhFk;.

NguhopfshdJ G+kpapd; nkhj;jg;gug;gpy; 71 rjtPjk; kw;Wk;
G+kpapd; nkhj;j ePhpy; 97 rjtPjk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.

G+kpahdJ
ePhf
; N
; fhsk;
(Water
Planet)
vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

Gtpapy;
caphpdkhdJ
Kjd;
Kjypy;
flypy;
Njhd;wpapUf;ff;$Lk; vd ek;gg;gLfpwJ.

grpgpf;> ml;yhz;bf;> ,e;jpa> Mf;bf; kw;Wk; mz;lhh;bf;
Mfpa Ie;J NguhopfSk; ehk; ed;F mwpe;jitfs; MFk;.
grpgpf; Nguhop

grpgpf;
NguhopahdJ
Kf;Nfhz
tbt
mikg;ig
ngw;Ws;sJ.

grpgpf; NguhopahdJ kpfg; nghpaJk; kw;Wk; Mokhd
NguhopAk; MFk;.

njd; grpgpf;fpy; cs;s NryQ;rh; Mopf;FopNa (khpahdh
Mopf;Fop) cyfpd; Mokhd gFjp MFk;. ,jd; Mok;
11.033 kpl;lh;fs; MFk;.

epA+rpyhe;J>
,e;NjhNdrpah>
[g;ghd;
kw;Wk;
`tha;
Mfpad ed;F mwpag;gl;l jPTfshFk;.
ml;yhz;bf; Nguhop

ml;yhz;bf; NguhopahdJ ePzl
; S tbtj;jpid nfhz;lJ.

ml;yhz;bf; Nguhopapy; fhzg;gLk; kf;fpaj; jPTfhshd
fphPdy
; he;j> gphpl;b\; jpTfs;> epA+gTz;ly
; he;J> Nkw;F
,e;jpaj; jPTfs;> nth;bkid kw;Wk; fhdhP]; MFk;.

ml;yhz;bf; Nguhopapy; th;jj
; f topahdJ cyfpd; kpfTk;
Nghf;Ftuj;J epiwe;j xd;whf fUjg;gLfpwJ.
,e;jpa Nguhop

me;jkhd;> epf;Nfhghh;> khyj;jT
P > klfh];fh;> ,yq;if>
Rkj;uh kw;Wk; [hth Mfpad ,e;jpa Nguhopapd; ed;F
mwpe;j jPTfshFk;.
13
mz;lhh;bfh Nguhop

,J njd; Nguhop vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

mnyf;]hz;lh; jPTfs;> ghypdp kw;Wk; Nuh]; jPTfs;
,g;Nguhopapy; cs;s rpy jPTfs;.
Mh;bf; Nguhop
,jd; Kf;fpa jPTfs; tpf;Nlhhpah jPTfs;> vyprngj; jPTfs;>
I];yhe;J
];gpl;ngh;n[d;
kw;Wk;
Nehthf
Nrhk;ypah
MfpadthFk;.
cyfj;jpd; fly;fs;
njd; rPdf;fly;> fhPgpad; fly;> kj;jpa jiuf;fly; Mfpad
cyfpd; Kf;fpakhd fly;fshFk;.
Nguhopapd; jiu mikg;G
m) fz;lj;jpl;L> M) fz;lr;rhpT> ,) fly;jiu MFk;.
fz;lj;jpl;L

,f;fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpahdJ kpfr;rpwe;j kPd; gpbj;jskhf
tpsq;Ffpd;wJ.

,q;F
kPdf
; spd;
czthf
fly;tho;
Ez;Zaphpfs;
(Plankton) mjpf msT fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpfspy; epiwe;J
;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

epagTd;ly
; he;jpy; cs;s fpuhz;l; Ngq; kw;Wk; gphpl;ldpy;
cs;s lhfh; jpl;LfshFk;. ,f;fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpfspy;
ngl;Nuhypa Mo;Foha; fpzWfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. v.fh:
Kk;ig i` (,e;jpah)
fz;lr;rhpT

fz;lr;rhpT kw;Wk; fz;lj;jpd; gFjpfis fz;l tpspk;G
(Continental Margin) vd miof;fp;Nwhk;.

flybf; Fd;Wfisr; Rw;wp fPo; kl;lj;jp;y; Mo;fly;
rkntsp (Abyssal Plain) cs;sJ.

eLfly; kiyj; njhluhdJ (Ocean Ridge) fz;ljjpl;L
tpirapdhy; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
fly; kiyfs;

fly; kl;l
; j;jpw;F Nky; cs;s jPTfs; miy kw;Wk;
thdpiy
nray;fshy;
mhpf;fg;gl;L
fpo;gg
; Fjpf;F
nrd;wpUe;jhy;
mit
fahl;
(Guyot)
vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

Nguhopapd;
mfopfs;
(Oceanic
Tranches)
vd;git
Nguhopapd; Mokhd gFjpahFk;.
ePh; R+ow;
R+ow;rp
fly; ePhpy; Nrhbak; FNshiuL> nkf;dr
P pak; FNshiuL>
nkf;dr
P pak; ry;Ngl;> fhy;rpak; ry;Ngl;> nghl;lhrpak; ry;Ngl;>
fhyrpak; fhh;gNdl; kw;Wk; nkf;dr
P pak; GNuhikl; Mfpa
cg;Gf;fs; ngUksT fye;Js;sd.
Nguhopfs; cth;gg
; J Vd;?

Gtpapy; cs;s ghiw kw;Wk; Mw;W gLifapd; kz;fspy;
cs;s cg;ghdJ kioePuhy; fuhf;fg;gLk; MWfspy;
gha;fpd;wJ. vdNt jhd; fly;ehP ; cg;Gj; jd;ikAld;
fhzg;gLfpwJ
cth;gg
; pak;

Nguhopapy; fiue;Js;s cg;gpd; msNt cth;gg
; pak; MFk;.
cth;gg
; pak; vd;gJ xU ypl;lh; ePhpy; vj;jid fpuhk; msT
cg;G fiue;Js;sJ vd;gij Fwpg;gpLtuhFk; (FwpaPL 0/00)

cyfpy; cs;s Nguhopfspd; ruhrhp cth;gg
; pak; 35 fpuhk;
MFk;.

fly;fspNyNa rh;ff
; lypy; kpf mjpf msT cth;gg
; pak;
cs;sJ.
Nguhop ePNuhl;lq;fs;
s

Nguho ePNuhl;lq;fs; jho; ml;rNuifapypUe;J cUthfp
JUtq;fis Nehf;fp XLfpd;wd.
Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; cah; ml;rNuif gFjpfspy; cUthfp

G+kj;jpa Nuifia Nehf;fp XLfpd;wd.
Nguhopfspd; cUthFk; epNuhl;lq;fis ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
1. ntg;gepiyapy; NtWghL
2. Nguhop ePhpd; mlh;jj
; p (cth;gg
; pak;)
3. fhw;W kw;Wk; tspkz;ly mOj;jk;
4. nfhhpahyp]p]; tpir
5. GtpaPhg
; G
; tpir
6. kio tPor
; r
; p kw;Wk; Mtpahjy;
7. gdp cUFjy;
Xjq;fs; :

R+hpad; kw;Wk; re;jpudpd; <h;gG
;
tpiradhy; xt;nthU
ehSk; 6 kzp Neu ,ilntspapy; fly;ehP py; kl;lk;
cah;eJ
; jho;tij Xjk; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

fly; kl;lk; cah;tij cah; Xjk; (High Tide) vd;Wk;
jho;tij jho; Xjk; (Low Tide) vd;Wk; miof;fg;glfpwJ.

kpfit XjkhdJ (Spring tide) mkhthir kw;Wk;
ngsh;zkp ehl;fspy; Vw;gLfpwJ.

,e;j ehl;fspy; R+hpad;> re;jpud; kw;Wk; G+kp Mfpad xNu
Neh;fN
; fhl;by; ,Uf;fpd;wd.

jho;it XjkhdJ (Neap tide) epytpd; Kjy;kw;Wk;
%d;whtJ tsh;rr
; p epiyapy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.

,e;epiyapy; R+hpad;> re;jpud; kw;Wk; G+kp Mfpad
nrq;Nfhzj;jpy; ,Uf;fpd;wd.

fly;
R+hpa
ntg;gj;jpid
cl;ftUjyhy;
Nguhopfs;
ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gl;L
ePNuhl;lq;fs;
Vw;gLfpd;wd.
,ij
kpd;dhw;wyhf khw;w ,aYk;. ,e;epfo;rr
; pahdJ Nguhopapd;
ntg;g Mw;wy; khw;wk; (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion OTEC) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
1.
ePhpdhy;
R+og;gl;L
,Uf;Fk;
tprhykhd
ngUk;gug;G
.....................
..................... vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) Nguhop M) fly;
,) tisFlh
<) tphpFlh
tpil: m
2.
ml;yhz;bf; Nguhop ePz
; l
; ..................... tbtk;
m) Kf;Nfhzk;
M) S
,) tl;lk;
<) ePhr
; ;re;jp
tpil: M
3.
fly;ehP pd; cah;T kw;Wk; jho;T ..................... vdg;gLk;
m) Xjq;fs;
M) Nguhop ePNuhl;lq;fs;
,) Rdhkp
<) miyfs;
tpil: m
4.
ePhpd; mbapy; cs;s kiyfspd; caug;gFjp
m) fahl; M) Mo;fly; rkntsp
,) fly;kiy
<) flybj;njhlh;
tpil: ,
5.
ePhpay; Row;rp ,t;thW miof;fg;gLfpwJ
m) i`l;u[d; Row;rp
M) Mf;]p[d; Row;rp
,) ePh; Row;rp
<) fhh;gd; Row;rp tpil: ,
1. Gtpapd; kw;nwhU ngauhdJ ePhf
; N
; fhsk;
2. Nry
NryQ;rh; Mopf;Fop njd; grpgpf; Nguhopapy; cs;s Mokhd
mfop (kL)
3. epyj;jpdhy; R+og;gl;l ePh; gFjp fly;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ.
4. flyb rkntspahdJ flybFd;
Wfshy R+og;gl;Ls;sJ.
flybFdWfshy;
Wfshy
5. fhw;Nwhl;lk; fhuzkhf flyiyfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
ts Mjhuq;fs;
ts Mjhuq;fSk; mjd; tiffSk;

ekJ
Gtpf;Nfhs;
%d;W
Kf;fpa
$Wfshy;
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mit ghiwf;Nfhsk; my;yJ epyk;>
ePhf
; N
; fhsk; my;yJ ePh; kw;Wk; tspf;Nfhsk; my;yJ
Gtpiar; Rw;wpAs;s fhw;W kz;lyk; MFk;. ,k;%d;W
$WfSk; caph;Nfhsj;jpw;F Mjhukhfj; jpfo;fpd;wd.
14
kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Kbahj R+oypy; cs;s ts

Mjhuq;fs;
,ayhw;wpy;
ts
Mjhuq;fs;
vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
irgPhpah>
mz;lhh;bf;fh
Nghd;w
,lq;fspy;
fhzg;gLk;
ts
Mjhuq;fis
,jw;F
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfshff; $wyhk;.

kdpjh;fshy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
ts
Mjhuq;fis
tsh;rr
; pAw;w ts Mjhuq;fs; vd;W miof;fg;glfpd;wd.
epyf;fhp>
,Uk;Gj;jhJ
Nghd;wit
,jw;F
vlj;Jf;fhl;LfshFk;.
GJgpf;f ,ayhj ts Mjhuq;fs;

cNyhff; fdpkq;fs; vd;gJ cNyhfj; jhjf;fs; mlq;fpa
%yg;nghUl;fs; MFk;.

epyf;fhp>
vz;nza;.
,aw;ifthA
kw;Wk;;
mZrf;jp
fdpkq;fs; Mfpait tpiutpy; jPhe
; J
;
NghFk; kf;fpakhd
vhpnghUs; fdpkq;fs; MFk;.
epyf;fhp
Gij vhpnghUs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Gtpapd; ntg;gk; kw;Wk; mOj;jk; fhuzkhf Gije;JNghj
jhtuq;fs; epyf;fhpahf khw;wk; mile;jd.

jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s nea;Ntypapy; epyf;fhp mjpfkhf ntl;b
vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,q;F ypf;idl; my;yJ gOg;G epyf;fhp
mjpf mstpy; fpilf;fpwJ.
vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthA
nghJthf vz;nza; flYf;fbapYs;s gbTg; ghiwfsh
Nrw;Wkz;gbTfs; (Mudstone) nkd;fspfy; (Shale) kw;Wk;
kzw;ghiy (Sandstone) Nghd;w mLf;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk;.

vz;nza; gbTfs; epyg;gFjpfspYk; (Onshore) fly;
gFjpfspYk; (Offshore) fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpakhd vz;nza; tay;fs; m];]hk;
epyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa Kk;ig i` vd;Dk; vz;nza;
tay; flw;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.

jkpo;ehl;by; fhtphp nly;lh gFjpfspy; vz;nza; tsk;
fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
mZrf;jp fdpkq;fs;
s

ANudpak;> Njhhpak; Nghd;w fdpkq;fs; mZrf;jpia
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpy;
jkpo;ehL
kw;Wk;
Nfus
flw;fiu
kzw;gug;Gfspy; ,y;kidl; mjpfsT fhzg;gLfpwJ.

cyfpNyNa mjpfsT (30%) mZrf;jpia cw;gj;jp
nra;Ak; ehL mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehL MFk;.

mZrf;j
; p vhpnghUis njpfstpy; (75%) gad;gLj;Jk; ehL
gpuhd;R MFk;.
GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ts Mjhuq;fs;
ePhk
; pd;rf;jp

rPdhtpy; cs;s ahq;brp Mw;wpd; FWf;Nf mike;jpUf;Fk;
Kg;gs;sj;jhf;F
mizapy;
(jphp
fhh;[y;)
cyfpd;
kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd;rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;sJ.

,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePhk
; pd; rf;jp gf;uheq;fs; mizapy;
cs;sJ.
R+hpa Mw;wy;

xspkpd; Nthy;lh kpd;fyk; (Photo Voltic Cells) R+hpa
rf;jpia Nrkpg;gjw;F Njitg;gLfpwJ.

cyfpd; mjpf msT R+hpa Mw;wiy cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
ehL n[h;kdp MFk;.
fhw;W Mw;wy;

INuhg;gh
fz;lk;
fhw;W
Mw;wiy
mjpf
mstpy;
gad;gLj;JfpwJ.
nlf;khh;ff
; pd; 20% kpd;rhuk; fhw;W Mw;wy; %ykhfg;
ngwg;gLfpd;wd.

,e;jpahtpy; kfhuh\;buk; kw;Wk; jkpo; ehl;by; fhw;W
Mw;wy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

jkpo;ehl;by;
fd;dpahFkhp
khtl;lj;jpy;
cs;s
Muy;tha;nkhop vd;Dk; gFjpapy; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa
fhw;whiy epWtdk; cs;sJ.
caphp Mw;wy;

rhz vhpthA my;yJ kPjN
; jd; khl;Lr; rhzj;jpypUe;J
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

jw;nghOJ caphp vhpnghUs; fUk;gpypUe;Jk;>

Mkzf;F
tif
jhtuq;fspypUe;Jk;
cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
1. ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; ve;j xU nghUSk; kdpjh;fSf;F
gadspg;gjhf ,Ug;gpd; mJ ts Mjhuk;
Mjhuk vdg;gLk;.
2. Gtpapd; fdpkr; Ruq;fq;fspypUe;J xU Kiw ntl;b
vLf;fg;gl;lij kPzL
; k; ek;khy;; cUthf;f ,ayhJ.
3. xU ehl;bd; nghUshjhu Nkk;ghl;bw;F ts Mjhuq;fs;
s kpf
Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.
4. ANudpak; xU mZrf;jp fdpkkhFk;.
5. mad kz;lyk; R+hpa Mw;wiy kpf mjpf mstpy; cw;gj;jp
nra;a VJthf cs;sJ.

; jL :
1. kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq;fs;
m) tsh;r;rpAw;w tsk;
M) ,ayhw;wy; tsk;
,) Nghf;Ftsk;
tpil: m
2. fdpkq;fs; tsq;fs; vd;git
m) GJgpf;ff;$ba tsq;fs;
M) GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;
,) caphpay; tsq;fs;
tpil: M
3. fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fz;lk;
m) INuhg;gh
M) njd; mnkhpf;fh
,) mz;lhh;bfh
tpil: m
4. ekJ khepyj;jpy; ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; epyf;fhp
m) gOg;G epyf;fhp M) Md;ju; irl;
,) fpuhigl;
tpil: m
5. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd; rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;s
,lk;
m) gf;uheq;fs;
M) Nkl;^h;
,) jhNkhjh;
tpil: m
ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk;
Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fs;

,k;Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fsp;y; kdpjh;fs; ,aw;if ts
Mjhuq;fNshL Nehpilahf ,ize;J nray;gLfpd;wdh;.

fdpkq;fis ntl;bnaLj;jy;> kPd; gpbj;jy;> kuk; ntl;Ljy;>
Ntshz;ik ,itaidj;Jk; Kjy;epiy njhopy;fs; MFk;.

,j;njhop;yf
; spy; <Lgl;lth;fis rptg;G fOj;Jg;gl;il
gzpahsh;fs; (Red collar workers) vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.
,uz;lhk; epiy njhopy;fs;

kdpjh;fs;
%yg;nghUl;fis
cw;gj;jp
KiwfSf;F
cl;gLj;jp mtw;iw KbTw;w nghUshf khw;Wtjd; %yk;
%yg;nghUs;fspd;
gad;ghl;bidAk;>
kjpg;gpidAk;
ngUf;Ffpd;wdh;.

,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; GhpAk; gzpahsh;fs; ePy
fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Blut collar workers) vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wdh;.
15
%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

tzpfk;> Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;G Nritfis
%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.

%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fspy; gzpGhpNthiu ntsph;rptg;G
fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Pink Collar workers) vd;W
miof;fpNwhk;.
ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

fy;tpj;Jiw>
ePjpj;Jiw.
kUj;Jtk;>
nghOJNghf;F>
Nfspf;iffs;> eph;thfk;> Muha;rr
; p kw;Wk; tsh;rr
; p Mfpa
jdpj;jd;ik nfhz;l R+oy;fspy; Nrit GhpNthh; ehd;fhk;
epiyj; njhopy;fspy; mlq;Fth;.

,j;Jiwapy;
gzpGhpAk;
gzpahsh;fs;
nts;is
fOj;Jg;gl;il
gzpahsh;fs;
(White Collar workers)
vd;wiof;fg;gLth;.
Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

MNyhrid toq;FNthh; kw;Wk; jpl;lk; tFg;Nghh; Nghd;w
cah;epiyapy; cs;Nshh; ,t;tif njhopypy; mlq;Fth;.

rl;lG+h;tkhd mjpfhhpfSk; Ie;jhk;epiyj; njhopy;fspy;
mlq;Fth;. ,th;fs; fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Gold
Collar workers) vd miof;fg;gLth;.
Nfhbl;l ,lq;
; is Njh;en
; jL :
,lqf
1.
Kjy;epiy njhopy;
njhopy;
m) kuk; ntl;Ljy;
M) tq;fp Ntiy
,) MNyhrid toq;Fjy;
tpil: m
2.
....................... njhopy; GhpNthiu nts;is
fOj;Jg;gl;il
gzpahsh;fs; vd miof;fpNwhk;.
m) Kjy;epiy
M) ,uz;lhk; epiy
,) %d;whk; epiy
<) ehd;fhk; epiy
tpil: <
3.
njhopw;rhiyfs; tsh;rr
; paila
paila cjtpGhpAk; Nrit
m) Nka;jj
; y;
M) Nghf;Ftuj;J
,) Ntl;ilahLjy;
tpil: M
4.
Ie;jhk;epiyj; njhopy; mjpfkhf fhzg;gLk; ,lq;fs;
m) fpuhkq;fs;
M) gs;spfs;
,) ngUefuq;fs;
tpil: ,
5.
jpl;lk; tFg;Nghh; mlq;fpa njhopy;epiy
m) Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;
M) Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;
,) %d;whk; epiyj; njhopy; tpil: M
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ePyfOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs;
nghOJ Nghf;F
tzpfk;
Kjy; epiy
gzpahsh;fs;
,uz;lhk;epiy
ehd;fhk; epiy
%d;whk; epiy
kPdg
; pbj;jy;
njhopy;El;gk; njhpe;j
kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gk;
njhpahj
Kjy;epiy njhopypd; tiffs;

kdpjd; Neubahf ,aw;ifr; rhh;eJ
;
cs;shd;. ,jid
Kjd;ik njhopy;fs; vd miof;fyhk;.
czT Nrfhpj;jy;
y

kf;fs; jq;fSf;F Njitahd czit ,aw;ifaplkpUe;J
Nrfhpj;dh;.

vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf Mg;gphpf;f fhLfspy; trpf;Fk; G\;nkd;
,dj;jth;fs;. me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghhpd; gok;ngUk; kf;fshd
[hh;th]; kw;Wk; XQ;r];.
Ntl;ilahL
lahLjy;

vLj;jf;fhl;L : Mg;gphpf;fh gpf;kpf;fs;> mNkrhd; tbepyg;
gFjpapd; mnkhpz;bad; kw;Wk; fdlhtpd; v];fpNkh];.
Nka;jj
; y;
ehNlhbfs;
krha;
gNlhapd;
Nyg;];
lhnuf;];
fh;l]
; ;
,uhghp
,lk;
Mg;gphpf;fh - nfd;ah lhd;Nrdpah
mNugpah
];fhz;bNetpah
Mg;gphpf;fh nj.Nk.Mrpah
Nkw;F Mrpah
,e;jpah - ,uh[];jhd;
tpyq;Ffs;
fhy;eilfs;
xl;lfk;
fiykhd;
xl;lfk;
ML> nrk;kwp
ML
xl;lfk;
kPdg
; pbj;jy;
cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa Nlhd;Nyrhg; (Donle sap) cs;ehl;L
kPdg
; pb Vhp MFk;.
fz;lj;jpl;Lg; gFjpfspYk;> Mokw;w gFjpfspYk; gpshq;ld;
vdg;gLk; kPd; czT ngUkstpy; fpilf;fpwJ.
[g;ghd;> ngU> fdlh> tlfly; gFjp kw;Wk; tlNkw;F
ml;yhz;bf;
fly;
Mfpa
gFjpfs;
Kf;fpa
kPdg
; pb
jsq;fshFk;.
kuk; ntl;Ljy;
jy
cyfpy; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy;
,uz;L
gq;F
kpjntg;g
kz;ly
fhLfspypUe;J
ngwg;gLfpd;wd.
Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf
1. kdpjd; Neubahf ,aw;ifiar; rhh;eJ
; nray;glk; njhopy;fs;
Kjd;ikj; njhopy;fs;
s vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
2.
Nka;jj
; y;
njhopypy;>
Nka;rr
; y;
epyq;fspy;
mjpf
y
vz;zpf;ifapyhd tpyq;Ffis Nka;gg
; h;.
3. czTg; nghUl;fisr; Nrfhpj;jy;
y kw;Wk; Ntl;ilahLjy;
lahLjy
Nghd;wit
Kjy;epiyj;
njhopy;fSs;
goikahd
njhopy;fshFk;.
4. kpjntg;g kz;lyf;fhLfspy; nkd;ikahd kuq;fs;
s kw;Wk;
fhl;L kuq;fs; fhzg;gLtjhy; kpfg; gutyhfg; gad;glfpwJ.
5. flypy; kPd; gpbg;gJ vd;gJ kpfTk; rpf;fyhd nrayhFk;.
; jL :
1. [huhth]; vdg;gLk; njhd;KJkf;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk;
m) me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh;
M) Mg;gphpf;fh
,) fdlh
tpil: m
2. fdlhtpy; fhzg;glk; v];fpNkhf;fs;
m) Ntl;ilahLgth;
M) czT Nrfhpg;gth;
,) Nka;jj
; y; njhopy; Ghpgth;fs;
tpil: m
3. kpd; czT ..................... f;F mUfhiapy; ngUksT
fpilf;fpd;wJ.
m) fz;lj;jpl;L
M) fz;lr;rhpT
,) ngUq;fly;Fop
tpil: m
4. cyfpd; njhopw;rhiyfSf;Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy;
,uz;L gq;F .................... fhLfspypUe;J ngwg;gLfpd;wd.
m) kpjntg;g kz;ly; fhLfs; M) mad kz;ly fhLfs;
,) Jhe;jpuf; fhLfs;
tpil: m
5. ngUkstpy; eilngWk; Kjd;ikj; njhopy;
m) czT Nrfhpj;jy;
M) Ntl;ilahLjy;
,)Ruq;fj;njhopy;
tpil: m
1. G\;nkd;
- Mg;gphpf;fh
2. [g;ghd;
- kPdg
; pbjsk;
3. Njf;F
- madf;fhLfs;
4. Crpapiyf;fhLfs;
- nkd;ikahd kuq;fs;
5. jPtdk;
- fhy;eil czT
Ruq;fj;njhopy;
fdpkq;fs; xU GJgpf;f Kbahj tskhFk;. vdNt
Ruq;fj;njhopy; xU nfhs;isj;njhopy; vd;W miof;fg;gL;k.;
16
jhJf;fspd; gbtq;fs; ghiwfspDhNl Fiwe;j msT

,Ug;gpd; mJ Fiwe;j msT jhJg;gLif (veins) vdTk;>
mjpf mstpy; ,Ug;gpd; ngUksT jhJg;gLif (lodes)
vdTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
vz;nza; fpzWfspy; ,Ue;J Jise;J vz;nza; vLf;f
vz;nza; hpf; (Rigs) vdg;gLk; xUtif Nkiliag;
gad;gLj;Jth;.
Jisapl;L vz;nza; vLf;Fk; vz;nza; tay;fs; ,Uf;Fk;
,lq;fis mq;F fhzg;gLk; nlhpf; (derricks) vdg;gLk;
,ae;jpuq;fspdhy; Md NfhGuk; Nghd;W Njhw;wkspf;Fk;
fl;likg;Gfisf; nfhz;L fhzyhk;.
fdpkq;fspd; guty;
Nkf;idl;> N`kill;> ypNkhidl; kw;Wk; rpliul; Mfpait
,Uk;Gj; jhJtpd; tiffshFk;.
ghf;i]l;
ghf;i]l; mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJ MFk;.
jufk;
jfuj;jpd; jhJ Nfrpliul; (Cassiterite) MFk;.
jq;fk;
jq;fk; xU tpiyAah;ej
;
cNyhfk;
vd;gij mwpNthk;.
jq;fk; ngUk;ghYk; tz;ly; gphpj;jy; Kiw %yk; gphpj;J
vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
fhul; (carat) vd;w nrhy; jq;fj;jpd; Jha jd;ikia
njhpe;Jf;nfhs;sg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
1. Ruq;fj;njhopy; xU Kf;fpakhd Kjy;epiyj; njhopy; vdTk;
fUjg;gLfpwJ.
2. jpwe;jntspr; Euq;f Kiw vd;gJ Fthhpaq; vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
3. fdpkq;fs; xU GJgpf;f ,ayhj tskhFk;.
4. ikf;fh
kpd;rf;jp
jahhpf;Fk;
njhopw;
rhiyfspy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
5. nlhpf; vd;gJ vz;nza; tay;fspy; NfhGuk; Nghd;w
Njhw;wKila fl;likg;ghFk;.
rhpahd tpiliaj Njh;en
; jL :
1. tz;ly; kz; gbTfNshL fhzg;gLk; fdkk;
m) jq;fk;
M) ,Uk;G
,) epyf;fhp
tpil: m
2. mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJ
m) fe;jfk; M) ghf;i]l;
,) epyf;fhp
tpil: M
3. Nkf;dirl; jhJit nfhz;l fdpkk;
m) ,Uk;G
M) rpliul;
,) jq;fk;
tpil: m
4. ,J xU cNyhfkw;w fdpkkhFk;
m) ngl;Nuhypak;
M) fe;jfk;
,) jfuk;
tpil: m
1. vhpnghUs;
- epyf;fhp
2. kNyrpah
- jfuk;
3. tz;ly; gphpj;njLj;jy; - jq;fk;
4. Rz;zhk;Gf;fy;
- fl;llg;nghUs;
5. nrk;G
- rpyp
kz;lyg; gapuhFk;. NfhJik tsu Fsph;ej

;
fhyepiyj;
Njitg;gLfpwJ.
cah; gFjpfspy; kpjntg;g kz;ly gapuhfpa fhul; (Carrot)
Nghd;w gsph;fis tpistpf;fyhk;.
gUj;jp Nghd;w gaph;fs; KOikahd tsh;rr
; p ngw 200
gdpnghoptw;w ehl;fs; Njitg;gLtjy; Fiwe;j ntg;gk;
epyTk; gUt fhyq;fspy; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
gy;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiw
fhy;thy; mkqkiyg; gFjpapy; xNu tpisepyj;jpy; 12 f;Fk;
Nkw;gl;l gy;NtW tpjkhd gPd]
; >; gUg;G kw;Wk; jpid tif
gaph;fs;
gaph;
nra;ag;gl;L
mg;gaph;fspd;
mWtil
fhyq;fl;lq;fSf;F Vw;wthW mWtil nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
fyg;Gg;gz;iz
,jpy; gaph; tpistpj;jy; kw;Wk; fhy;eil tsh;jjy; Mfpa
,uz;Lk; eilngWfpwJ.
1. Ntshz;ik xU Kf;fpakhd Kjd;ik
njhopyhFk;.
2. Ntshz; gaph;fis> czTg; gaph;fs; kw;Wk; gzg; gaph;fs;
vd ,U ngUk;gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
3. nrhl;LePh;
ghrd
Kiwapy;
ePh;
nrbfspd;
NtUf;F
mUfhikapy; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
4. ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; kioapd; msT Ntshd; njhopiy
ghjpf;Fk; fhyepiy fhuzpfshFk;.
5.
tpisepyj;jpy;
xNu
xU
gaph;
kl;Lk;
xUKiw
tpistpf;fg;gl;lhy; mJ xU gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiw vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
; jL :
1.
................... Ntshz; njhopYf;F Vw;w ,lkhFk;,
m) gPlG+kp
M) rkntsp
,) kiyg;gFjp tpil: M
2. .................... Ntshz; njhopy; tifapy; mjpf msT gaph;fs;
tpistpf;
tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) jd;dpiwT
M) khw;wpl
,) tzpf
tpil: ,
3. gpNurpy; ehl;by; ,lg;ngah;T my;yJ khw;wpl Ntshz;ik
....................... vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) [Pk;
M) Nuhf;Nfh
,) Njhl;lg;gaph; tpil: M
4. ney; xU ......................... gapuhFk;
gapuhFk
m) kpjntg;g kz;ly
M) gz
,) madkz;ly
tpil: ,
5. kio Fiwthf fpilf;fg; ngw;w gFjpfspy; .........................
mtrpak;
m) ePhg
; g
; hrk;
M) fpzWfs;
,) xU gaph;
tpil: m
1. jd;dpiwT Ntshz;njhopy; - rpWepyg;gFjpfs;
2. iey; gs;sj;jhf;F
- vfpg;J
3. tzpf Ntshz;njhopy;
- tpw;gidf;fhd gaph;
4. tl;ltbt epyk;
- ika Row;rp Kiw
5. Njapiy
- kiyr;rhpTfs;
gaph;fs;
ney;
Ntshz;ik
rPdhtpd; ahh;bq; Mw;Wr; rkntspapy; ,g;gaphpd; gad;ghL
Kjd;Kjypy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ vd;w fUj;Jk; epyTfpwJ.
Mw;Wr;rkntsp
ehfhpfk;
fz;lk;
ney; tsh;rr
; pf;Fj; Njitahd R+y;
; piyfs;
R+ye
rpe;J
ùg;gh - nkhfQ;rjhNuh Mrpah
ney; tsh;tjw;F ruhrhpahf 240 nr jl;gntg;gepiyAk;>
iey;
vfpg;J
Mg;gphpf;fh
ruhrhpahf 150 nr.kP kioasTk; Njitg;gLfpwJ.
A+g;uB];
nkrgNlhkpah
Mrpah
98% tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; ney; cw;gj;jpapy; gq;F
ntg;gepiy
ngWfpd;wdh;.
ney;> mad kz;lyj;jpy; tpistpf;fg;gLk; Kjd;ik ney; cw;gj;jpapy; rPdh> ,e;jpah> ,e;NjhNdrpah kw;Wk;
gapuhFk;. Vnddpy;> mjpf ntg;gKk;> mjpfsT ePUk;
tq;fhsNjrk; Mfpa ehLfs; cyfpy; Kjy; ehd;F cw;gj;jp
new;gaph; tsu Njitg;gLfpwJ. NfhJik xU kjntg;g
ehLfshfj; jpfo;fpd;wd.
17
NfhJik
NfhJik xU kpjntg;g kz;lyg; gapuhFk;.
cyfpd;
25%
epyg;gFjp
NfhJik
tsh;ff
;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Nfhjikg; gapUf;F 150 nr.ypUe;J 200 nr tiu cs;s
jl;gntg;gepitNa rhpahd ntg;gj;Njit MFk;.
,jw;F 50-60 nr.kP ruhrhp msT Njitg;gLfpwJ.
gUj;jp
,ioapypUe;J tpijfisg; gphpf;Fk; Kiw (Ginning) vd;w
nray;Kiw ,jpy; gad;glj;jg;gLk;.
jl;gntg;gepiy 200 Kjy; 300 nr ,Uf;Fk;.
mad kz;lyg; gFjpfspy; 500-1000 nr.kP kio msT cs;s
gFjpfspy; gUj;jp tpisfpwJ.
rzy;
300 nr cs;s mjpf ntg;gKk; 150 nr.kP Nkyhd kioasTk;
rzy; tsu Njitg;gLfpwJ.
rzy; nrfis ePhpy; Cuitj;J kf;fr;nra;J ,iofis
gphpj;njLf;Fk;
nra;iff;Fj;
(retting)
njhopyhsh;fs;
Njitg;gLfpd;wdh;.
,e;jpahTk; tq;fhs NjrKk; rzy; cw;gj;jpapy; Kjyplk;
tfpf;Fk; ehLfshFk;.
fUk;G
fUk;G xU caukhd madkz;ly Gy;tif jhtukhFk;. ,J 3.5
kPll
; h; tiu tsuf;$ba jhtukhFk;.
fUk;G tsu ruhrhpahf 240 nr ntg;gk; Mz;L KOtjk;
njitg;gLfpwJ.
Njapiy
ruhrhpahd 210 nr ntg;gKk;> 150 nr.kP kioAk; ey;y kz;
tskk; Njapiy tsuj; Njitg;gLfpwJ.
1. jhdpaq;fNs kdpjdJ mbg;gil czthFk;.
2. cyfpd; rpwe;j tif NfhJikg; gaph;fs; kpj ntg;g
kz;lyg; Gy;ntspfspypUe;J fpilf;fpwJ.
3. ,e;jpahtpy; kfhuh\;buk;> F[uhj; kw;Wk; jkpo;ehL Mfpa
khepyq;fs; gUj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kf;fpa khepyq;fs;
MFk;.
4. ney; xU mad kz;lyg; gapuhFk;.
,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;

%yg; nghUs;fis KbTw;w nghUl;fshf khw;Wk; nray;fs;
,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
epyf;fhp njhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Kjy; vhpnghUs;
MFk;.
Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;
epug;Gf
1. ,aw;ifapy; %yg;nghUl;fs;
s tbtpy; fpilf;Fk; tsq;fis
ehk; mg;gbNa cgNahfpf;f KbahJ.
2. njhopw;rhiyfs; njhlq;fg;gLtij
Gtpapay; fhuzpfs;
fhuzpfs
kw;Wk; kf;fs; tho;tpay; fhuzpfs; eph;zapf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
3. fdkhd %yg;nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;Jk; njhopw;rhiyfs;
%yg;nghUl;
fpilf;Fk;
,lq;fSf;F
mUfpNyNa
ghUl;fs;
njhlq;fg;gfpd;wd.
4. njhopy;Jiw
cyfpd;
70%
vhpnghUs;
rf;jpia
70
,ae;jpuq;fs; ,af;fg; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;fpwJ.
5. vspjpy; cilaf;$ba> El;gkhd fz;zhbg; nghUs;fis
jahhpf;Fk;
njhopw;rhiyfs;
re;ijf;F
mUfpNyNa
epWtg;gl;Lfpd;wd.
rhpahd
; jL :
1. vspjpy; cilaf;$ba El;gkhd nghUl;fs;
m) fz;zhbg; nghUl;fs;
M) fha;fwpfs;
,) tz;bfs;
tpil: m
2. njhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Kjy;
Kjy; vhpnghUs; ........................
MFk;.
m) vz;nza;
M) ,Uk;G
,) epyf;fhp
tpil: ,
3. nghJthf ........................ epyf;fhp Ruq;fq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa
mikf;fg;gLk;.
m) mYkpdpak; njhopw;rhiyfs;
M) ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy
,) fg;gy; fl;Lk; njhopw;rhiy
tpil: M
4. ituk; mWf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyf;F .......................... gzpahsh;
Njitg;gLfpwJ.
m) Fwpg;gpl;l njhopw;El;gk; njhpe;j
M) njhopw;El;gk; njhpahj
,) XusT njhopw;El;gk; njhpe;j
tpil: m
1. mjpfsT nghUs; cw;gj;jp
- njhopw;Gul;rp
2. ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy
- %yg;nghUs;fs;
3. [hhpah
- epyf;fhp Ruq;fk;
rhpahd
; jL :
- gzpahsh;fis ikakhff;
1. ....................... tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; new;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; 4. nghUl;fis mLf;fpf;fl;Lk;
njhopw;rhiy
nfhz;L
gzpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;.
5.
cjphpg;
g
hfq;
f
is
,izf;
F
k;
re;
ijapid ikakhff;
m) 98%
M) 80%
,) 75% tpil: m
njhopw;rhiy
nfhz;L
2. ,e;jpahtpd; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;> gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh
Mfpa khepyq;fs. mjpf msT ...........................
........................... cw;gj;jp
njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs;
nra;Ak; khepyq;fshFk;.
rpjwp fhzg;gLk; njhopyfq;fs; (Foot
Loose)
m) ney;
M) fUk;G
,) NfhJik tpil: ,
,t;tif
njhopyfq;fs;
vt;tplj;jpYk;
epWtg;glyhk;>
3. Njapiy xU ........................... nrbahFk;.
Vnddpy; ,jd; %yg;nghUs;fs; ,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; mjd;
m) kpjntg;gkz;ly
M) mad kz;ly
ghfq;fs; MFk;. v.fh : fbfhuk; jahhpf;Fk; njhopyfq;fs;.
,) epyeLf;NfhL
tpil: M
4. gUj;jp ............................ kz;zpy; mjpfkhf tpisfpwJ.
1. Nyrhd my;yJ fdkw;w %yg; nghUs;fisf; nfhz;L
m) fhpry;
M) tz;ly;
,) rptg;G tpil: m
jahhpf;Fk; fdkw;w njhopw;rhiyfs; vq;F Ntz;LkhdhYk;
5. ,e;jpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; ....................... cw;gj;jpapy;
epWtg;glyhk;.
Kjyplk; tfpf;fpd;wd.
2.
thfdj;
njhopw;rhiy
xU
ghfq;fis
,izf;
,izf;Fk;
m) gUj;jp
M) rzy;
,) NfhJik tpil: m
njhopw;rhiyahFk;.
3. re;ij rhh;ej
;
njhopw;rhiyfs; re;ijfSf;F mUNf
1. tpij gphpf;Fk; nray;
- gUj;jp
epWtg;gLfpd;wd.
2. Cwitj;J kf;fr;nra;jy;
- rzy;
4. ifj;jwp
njhopy;fs;
ifj;
njhopyfq;fSf;F
3. fspkz; fye;j tz;ly; kz;
- NfhJik
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhFk;.
4. tz;ly;kz;
- ney;
5. caukhd madg;Gy; tif
- fUk;G
18
5.
gjgLj;Jk;
njhopy;fs;
%yg;nghUs;fis
gjg;gLj;jpa
nghUs;fshf khw;wpaikf;fpd;wd.
; jL :
1. jdpahh; epWtdj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;L
m) hpiyad;R
M) ngy; (BHEL)
,) ghuj; rQ;rhh; epfhk; ypkpnll; (BSNL) tpil: m
2.
nghpa mstpy; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; nfhz;l njhopyfq;fSf;F
........................... Kjypy; Njit
m) mjpf
M) kpjkhd
,) Fiwthd
tpil: m
3. miwfyd;fs;
nra;Ak;
njhopyfq;fs;
............................
njhopyfq;fSs; mlq;Fk;.
m) fhLfs; rhh;ej
;
M) Ntshd;nghUs;fs; rhh;ej
;
,) fdpkq;fs;rhh;ej
;
tpil: m
4. gUj;jp njhopw;rhiy xU .......................... njhopyhFk;.
m) ifj;njhopy; rhh;ej
;
M) cjphp ghfq;fis ,izf;Fk;
,) Ntshz; nghUs; rhh;ej
;
tpil: ,
5. rh;ff
; iuj;
njhopw;rhiy
.............................
rhh;ej
;
njhopyfkhFk;.
m) %yg;nghUs;
M) rpjhpf;fhzg;gLk;
,) re;ij
tpil: m
1. tpijg; gphpj;jy; Kiw
- gUj;jp njhopw;rhiy
2. gjg;gLj;Jjy;
- Njhy; njhopw;rhiy
3. cUf;Fjy;
- ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy
4. %yjdk;
- fduf njhopw;rhiy
5. nerT
- ifj;jwp njhopw;rhiy
tzpfk;
tzpfj;ij Nkd;NkYk; cah;jJ
; tjw;F mz;il ehLfSld;
xd;wpize;J
xU
FOthf
nray;gLtij
tzpff;
$l;likg;Gfs; (Trading blocks) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. v.fh:
njd;fpof;F Mrpa $l;likg;G ehLfs; (ASEAN) INuhg;gpa
$l;likg;G Nghd;wit MFk;.
Vw;Wkjp kjpg;gpw;Fk;> ,wf;Fkjp kjpg;gpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s
NtWghl tzpfr; rkepiy vdg;glfpwJ.
Vw;Wkjpapd; kjpg;G ,wf;Fkjpapd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf
,Ue;jhy; me;ehl;bd; rhjfkhf tzpf rkepiy epyTfpwJ
vdyhk;.
,wf;Fkjpapd; kjpg;G Vw;Wkjpapd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf
,Ue;jhy; ghjfkhf tzpf rkepiy epyTfpwJ vdyhk;.
1. ,yj;jpd;
mnkhpf;fh
czTg;nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk;
%yg;nghul;fisAk; Vw;Wkjp nra;fpwJ.
2. ,ug;gh; kw;Wk; jfuk; mjpfk; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; kNyrpah
MFk;.
3. njhopy;Jiwapy; tsh;rr
; paile;j ehLfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a
KbTg;
nghUs;fisj;
njhopy;Jiw
tsh;rr
; pailahj
ehLfSf;F Vw;Wkjp nra;fpd;wJ.
; jL :
1. xU ehl;bw;Fs;NsNa eilngWk; thzpgk; .......................
m) cs;ehl;L thzpgk;
M) gd;dhl;L thzpgk;
,) jpwe;j thzpgk;
tpil: m
2. njhopw;rhiyapd;
%yg;nghUs;fs;
...........................
nghUs;fshFk;.
m) Kjy;epiy
M) ,uz;lhk; epiy
,) %d;whk; epiy
tpil: m
3. Rtpl;rh;yhe;J ........................... cw;gj;jpf;Fg; Gfo;
Gfo;ngw;wJ
m) gl;L
M) iff;fbfhuk;
,) Njapiy
tpil: M
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
rPdh
vz;nza;
fhfpjk;
Mg;gphpf;fh
jfuk;
gl;L
kj;jpa fpof;F ehLfs;
fdlh
fdpk jhJf;fs;
kNyrpah
Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;

rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
rhiyfis
fz;lq;fSf;F
,ilNaahd
rhiyfs;
(Transcontinental roads) Njrpa rhuyfs; kw;Wk; cs;Sh;
rhiyfs; vd tifg;gLj;jyhk;. fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd
rhiyfs; Kf;fpakhdit. mit xU vy;iyapypUe;J
kw;nwhU vy;iyf;F ,izf;Fk; ePzl
; rhiyfs; MFk;.
gaz Neuj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk; tz;zk; ghtq;fs; kw;Wk;
FilTfs;
topahf
ehlfSf;fpilNa
mikf;fg;gl;L
,lq;fis ,izf;Fk;gbahf mike;Js;sJ. n[h;kdpapy;
cs;s Ml;Nlhghd;]; rhiyfs; Kjypy; mikf;fg;gl;l
,j;jifa rhiyfs; MFk;.
,e;jpahtpd; fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy
2500 fp.kP ePsKs;s fpuhz;l; buq;f;
rhiy ,e;jpahtpd;
ePskhd> Kjd;ikahd rhiyahFk;.
,e;neLQ;rhiy tq;fhs Njrj;jpYs;s Nrhdhh;fs; vd;w
,lj;jpypUe;J ghfp];jhdpYs;s ng\hth; vd;w ,lj;jpw;F
tl ,e;jpahtpd; topahf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
buhd;];
irgPhpad;
,uapy;
ghij
fz;lq;fSf;F
,ilNaahd xU ,Ug;Gg; ghijahFk; . ,J u\;ahtpd;
gFjpapy; mike;Js;s tpshbth];lhf; vd;w ,lj;Jld;
,izf;fpwJ.
buhd;]; Mrpa ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J rpq;fg;G+hpid 26
ehLfspd; topahf 18000 fp.kP njhitypy; cs;s JUf;fpapd;
,];jhd;Gy; gFjpAld; ,izf;fpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd;
,uapy;Nghf;Ftuj;J
mikg;ghdJ
Mrpah
fz;lj;jpNyNa kpfg;nghpaJ.
cyfpy; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.
vk;.Mh;.b.v]; (M.R.T.S) vd;gJ kjpo;ehl;by; nrd;idapy;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;d
cah;gFjpapy;
mike;Js;s
,uapy;
Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;.
jw;NghJ ,r;Nrit 17 ,uapy; epiyaq;fNshL nrd;id
flw;fiu ,uapy; epiyaj;jpypUe;J Ntsr;Nrhp ,uapy;
epiyak; tiuapyhd 25 fp.kP Jhuj;jpw;fF nray;gLfpwJ.
ePht
; opg;Nghf;Ftuj;J
ePht
; opg;Nghf;Ftuj;J kypthd Nghf;Ftuj;J topahFk;.
gf;fpq;fhk;
fhy;tha;
Nghf;Ftuj;J
ney;YhUf;Fk;
kuf;fhzj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa nghUs;fis nfhz;Lnry;y
gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
cyfpd; Kf;fpa fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J topfs;
tl ml;yhz;bf; top
,J
kf;fs;
epiwe;j
gFjpahfpa
Nkw;F
INuhg;gpa
ehLfisAk; tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; fpof;Fg; gFjpfisAk;
,izf;Fk; topahFk;.
ed;dk;gpf;if Kid top
,J Nkw;F kw;Wk; njw;F INuhg;gpa gFjpfis njd;Nkw;F
Mrpah kw;Wk; M];jpNuypa cld; ,izf;Fk; topahFk;.
gdhkh fhy;tha; top
,J tl kw;Wk; njd; mnkhpf;fhtpd; Nkw;F flw;fiug;
gFjpfis mf;fz;lk; fpof;F
flw;fiu
gFjpfNshL
,izf;Fk; topahFk;.
,e;jpah 6100 fp.kP ePsKs;s ePzl
; flw;fiuiaf; nfhz;lJ.
19
rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;

nghpa ,dr; iyd; (Big Inch Line) nlf;rh]; Kjy;
epA+n[h;rp tiu nry;Yk; Foha; top.
lhg;]; (TAPS) tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; buhd;]; myh];fh Foha;
Nghf;Ftuj;J.
lhg; iyd; (TAP) rTjp mNugpahtpd; ifRkh gFjpapypUe;J
nygdhdpy; cs;s irld; gFjptiu 1214 fp.kP Jhuj;jpw;F
mikf;Js;s Foha;g; Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;.
jfty; njhlh;gpd; Kjw;tsh;rr
; p 1844-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l
je;jpj;njhlh;G MFk.
1875-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l njhiyNgrp njhiyj; njhlh;gpy;
mLj;j Kf;fpa tsh;rr
; pahFk;.
1935-y;
je;jp
njhlh;gpy;
(TELEX)
Vw;gl;l
tsh;rr
; p
nra;jpfis
xU
,lj;jpy;
jl;nlOjp
njhiyTg;
gFjpfSf;F
mDg;Gk;NghJ
mit
njhiy
mr;rpy;
(Teleprinter) nra;jpfshfg; ngwg;gl;ld.
1. buhd;]; irgphpad; fz;lq;fSf;fpilNaahd ,Ug;Gg;ghij
nydpd;
jpuhl;
vd;w
,lj;jpid
tpshnth];lhf;Fld;
,izf;fpwJ.
2. ePht
; opg; Nghf;Ftuj;J vd;gJ kpfTk; kypthd Nghf;Ftuj;J
rhjdkhFk;.
3. gf;fpq;fhk;fhy;tha; topahf nghUs;fs; ney;YhhpypUe;J
kuf;fhzj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gl;ld.
; jL :
1. .......................... vd;gJ xU nghpa JiwKfkhFk;
m) GJr;Nrhp M) nrd;id
,) flYhh; tpil M
2. Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J vLj;Jr; nry;Yk; nghUs;
m) epyf;fhp M) vz;nza;
,) kuk;
tpil: M
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
je;jpj;njhlh;G fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l tUlk;

tUlk
m) 1844
M) 1855
,) 1866
tpil: m
gpuk;kGj;jpuh
- tlmnkhpf;fh
iud;
- fz;lq;fis ,izf;Fk;
neLQ;rhiyfs;
myh];fh neLQ;rhiy - nghpaJiwKfk;
tprhfg;gl;bdk;
- cs;ehl;L ePh; Nghf;Ftuj;J
lhg;];
- n[h;kdp
kf;fs; njhif tsh;rr

; p kw;Wk; guty;
kf;fs;njhif tsh;rr
; p
cyf kf;fs; njhif 1650Mk; Mz;L Rkhh; 500 kpy;ypad;
vl;baJ.
cyf kf;fs; njhif Kjd;Kjypy; 1804 mk; Mz;L xU
gpy;ypaid vl;baJ.
nkhdhNfh vdg;gLk; kpfr; rpwpa ehl;bd; kf;fs; mlh;jj
; p
xU rJu kPll
; Uf;F 16779 kf;fs; MFk;.
kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj
; p kpf mjpfk; cs;s ehL tq;fhs
NjrkhFk;. ,q;F 1 rJu fpNyh kPll
; uf;Fk; 1069 kf;fs;
tho;fpd;wd.
1. kf;fs;njhif tsh;rr
; p 1950 tUlk; Kjy; njhlh;eJ
;
mjpfhpj;Jf; nfhz;Nl tUfpwJ.
2.
xU Mz;by; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; 1000 kf;fSf;F
gpwf;Fk; kf;fspd; vz;zpf;if gpwg;G tpfpjk; MFk;.
3. cyf kf;fs;njhif 1999 Mk; Mz;by;
6 gpy;ypaid
vl;baJ.
4. kf;fs;njhif guty; kw;Wk; mlh;jj
; papid gy;NtW ,aw;if
kw;Wk; kdpj fhuzpfs; eph;zapf;fpd;wd.
5.
xU
ehl;bd;
kf;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifia
me;ehl;bd;
; p MFk;.
gug;gstpdhy;
stpdhy tFf;ff; fpilg;gJ kf;fs; mlh;jj
; jL :
1. ,wg;G tpfpjj;jpidtpl gpwg;G tpfpjk; mjpfkhf ,Ug;gpd;
kf;fs;njhif
m) mjpfhpf;Fk;
M) Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;
,) rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;
tpil: m
2. Gtpapy;
Rkhh;
90%
kf;fs;
.........................
rjtPjk;
epyg;gug;gpNyNa tho;eJ
; nfhz;bUf;fpwhh;fs;.
m) 10
M) 20 ,) 25
tpil: m
3. kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj
; p mjpfkhf fhzg;gLk; ehL
m) rPdh
M) nkf;]pNfh
,) tq;fhs Njrk;
tpil: ,
4. ........................
........................ fhyepiy fhzg;gLk; gFjpfspy; kf;fs;
njhif gutyhf fhzg;gLk;.
m) rhjfkhf
M) jPtuP
,) Fsph;ej
;
tpil: M
5. .......................
Nghd;w
epiyahd
muRs;s
ehLfspy;
kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj
; p mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
m) Mg;fhdp];jhd;
M) vfpg;J
,) rpq;fg;G+h;
tpil: ,
1. 1804
- mjpf ,wg;G tpfpjk; 1 gpy;ypad;
kf;fs; njhif
2. nkhdhNfh
- mjpf kf;fs; njhif mlh;jj
; p
3. Fiwe;j gpwg;G tpfpjk; - kf;fs;njhif FiwT
4. M];jpNuypah
- Fiwthd kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj
; p
5. n[h;kdp
- Fiwe;j kf;fs; mlh;jj
; p
kf;fs; njhifAk;
njhifAk; ts Mjhuq;fSk;
ed;dhP ;
cyfpy; 0.03% ed;dhP ; kl;LNk fpilf;fg; ngWfpwJ.
,e;jpah 17.5% kf;fs; njhifia nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. Mdhy;
4% ePNu ,e;jpahtpy; fpilf;fg;ngWfpwJ.
kjy; nraw;if Nfhs; ];Gl;dpf; - 1 vd;gJ Nrhtpaj;
A+dpadhy; 1957 k; Mz;L Kjypy; nrYj;jg;gl;l nraw;if
NfhshFk;.
mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehl;bd; yhz;l; rhl;> gpuhd;rpd; ];ghl;>
nfhhpahtpd; fpl;rhl; kw;Wk; rPdhtpd; ahq;fhd; Mfpa
nraw;iff; Nfhs;fspy; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.
,e;jpahtpy;
Kjy;
njhiy
Ez;Zzh;T
nraw;iff;
Nfhshfpa IRS-1A vdg;gLk; nraw;iff; Nfhs; 1988-k;
Mz;L tpz;zpy; nrYj;jg;gl;lJ.
1. ngUfptUk; kf;fs;njhif fpilf;fg;ngWk; tsq;fis epyk;
kw;Wk; ePh; tsj;jpy; mjpf mOj;jj;ij Vw;gLj;jp cs;sJ.
2. fp.gp. 2025k; Mz;L 5 gpy;ypad; kf;fs; jPtpu ePhg
; g
; w;whf;Fiw
Ml;gLth;.
3. ghiytdkhjy;> 110 ehLfspy; tho;fpd;w ngUk;ghd;ikahd
kf;fis ghjpf;fpd;wJ.
4. tsUk; ehLfspy; 95% fopT ePh; MWfspy; Nrh;ff
; g;gLfpwJ.
5. ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; nraw;iff;Nfhs; IRS-1A 1988 Mk;
Mz;L tpz;zpy; nrYj;jg;gl;lJ.
; jL :
1. cyfpd; ed;ehP pd; msT
m) 30%
M) 0.03%
,) 3%
tpil: M
2. twl;rp> mhpg;G kw;Wk; ntg;gkhjy; Vw;glf; fhuzk;
m) fhLfspd; mopT
M) fhL tsh;gG
;
,) Ntl;ilahLjy;
tpil: m
3. Nrhtpaj;
A+dpadhy;
Kjd;
Kjypy;
nrYj;jg;gl;l
nraw;iff;Nfhs;
20
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
m) ];Gl;dpf; 1
M) ];Gl;dpf; 11
,) fpl;rhl;
tpil: m
,e;jpah 20
20 kf;fs; njhifia nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. Mdhy;
fpilf;fg; ngWfpd;w ePhpd; msT
m) 5
M) 4
,) 2
tpil: M
ePh; kl;lk; .......................... nray; mjpfhpg;gjhy; FiwfpwJ.
m) Ruq;fj;njhopy;
M) Ntl;ilahLjy;
,) kPdg
; pbj;jy;
tpil: m
Ntshz;tsh;rr
; p
- kdpj tsh;rr
; p
ghiytdkhjy;
- twz;l gFjp
tzpf gad;ghl;L Mw;wy;
- epyf;fhp>vz;nza;
yhz;lr
; hl;
- mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehL
];ghl;
- gpuhd;];
jkpo;ehL

jkpo;ehL> GJr;Nrhp> Nfush> fh;ehlfk;> Me;jpug; gpuNjrk;

Mfpa khepy;fis vy;iyfshf nfhz;Ls;sJ.
jkpo; khepyj;jpd; Ml;rp nkhopahf 1958-k; Mz;L [dthp
Kjy; eilKiwf;F nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ.
,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; MwhtJ ,lj;ij
ngw;Ws;sJ jkpofk;.
jkpo;ehL tlf;Nf 8005' ml;rj;jpypUe;J 130 09' ml;rk;
tiuapYk;> fpof;Nf 76015' jPhf
; f
; j;jpypUe;J 80020' jPhf
; f
; k;
tiu gutpAs;sJ.
,e;jpa A+dpadpd; njd; vy;iyahf fUjg;gl;lJ ,e;jpuh
Kid.
jkpo;ehl;bd; nkhj;j epyg;gug;G 1>30>058 rJu fpNyh
kPll
; h;fshFk;.
,J ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j gug;gpy; ehd;F rjtPjkhFk;.
eph;thf Nkk;ghl;bw;fhf ,k;khepy 32 khtl;lq;fshfg;
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
khepyg; gwit
- kufjg; Gwh
khepyg;G+
- nrq;fhe;jy; kyh;
khepy tpyq;F
- tiuahL
khepy kuk;
- gidkuk;
jkpo;ehl;bd; cs;shl;rp mikg;G

kf;fsit njhFjpfs;
39
rl;lkd;w njhFjpfs;
234
khtl;lq;fs;
32
khefuhl;rpfs;
10
Cuhl;rp xd;wpaq;fs;
152
efu gQ;rhaj;Jf;fs;
611
fpuhkg; gQ;rhaj;Jf;fs;
12618
jkpo;ehl;bd; tuyhW
Rkhh; 1000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;dNu jpuhtpl ghuk;ghpaj;Jld;
Mhpa
ehfhpfk;
fye;jjd;
fhuzkhf
ehfhpfj;jpd;
njhl;byhfNt jkpofk; tpsq;FfpwJ.
kJiuapy; jpfo;ej
;
Kjw; jkpo;r; rq;fk; fl;Nfhshy;
mkpo;ej
; J. ,uz;lhk; jkpo;rr
; q;fk; fghlGuj;jpYk;> %d;whk;
jkpo;r; rq;fk; kJiuapy; mike;jJ.
jkpo; nkhopf;Nf chpj;jhd rpwe;j ,yf;fz fhgpgakhd
njhy;fhg;gpak; rq;f fhyj;jpy; cUthd ,yf;fpaq;fSs;
xd;whFk;.
rq;f
,yf;fpaq;fSs;
Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
xd;whd
vl;Lj;
njhifAk;>
gj;Jg;ghl;Lk;
rq;f
fhyj;jpd;
gilg;gpyf;fpaq;fspd; xd;whFk;.
nrk;nkhopahf cah;jj
; g;gl;Ls;s jkpo;nkhop> nrk;nkhop
juthpirapy; vl;lhtjhFk;.

; jL :
1. ,e;jpa khepyq;fspd; gug;gstpy; jkpo;ehL ..........................
,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.
m) 5tJ
M) 7MtJ
,) 9MtJ
<) 11MtJ
tpil : <
2. jkpo;ehL ........................... khtl;lq;fshfg;
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
m) 28
M) 30 ,) 32 <) 34
tpil : ,
3. jkpo;ehl;by;
.........................
khtl;lk;
fpof;F
flw;fiuNahuj;jpy; mike;Js;sd.
m) ePyfphp
M) Njdp
,) ehfg;gl;bdk;
<) Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; tpil : ,
4. ,e;jpahtpd;
...........................
Kidapy;
jkpo;ehL
mike;Js;sJ.
m) tlfpof;F
M) njd; Nkw;F
,) njd;fpof;F
<) tlNkw;F
tpil : ,
5. ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j gug;gstpy; jkpo;ehL ...........................
tpfpj mstpy; mike;Js;sJ.
m) 4%
M) 5% ,) 3% <) 2
% tpil : m
1. khepyg; gwit
- kufjg;Gwh
2. khepy kuk;
- gidkuk;
3. rl;lkd;w njhFjpfs;
- 234
4. Cuhl;rp xd;wpaq;fs;
- 152
5. fh;ehlfk;
- jkpo;ehl;bd; Nkw;gFjp
jkpo;ehl;bd; ,aw;if mikg;G
,aw;if mikg;G
jkpo;ehl;bd;
,aw;if
mikg;ig
ehd;F
gphpTfshfg;
gphpf;fyhk;.
1. kiyfs; (Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp
kiyfs; kw;Wk; fpof;F
njhlh;rr
; p kiyfs;)
2. gPlG+kp gFjp
3. rkntspg; gFjpfs;
4. flNyhug; gFjpfs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; kiyfs;
jkpo;ehl;by; kiyj; njhlhpy; mjpfgl;r caukhd rpfuq;fs;
njhl;lhngl;lh (2620 kPll
; h;fs;) kw;Wk; Kf;$h;jj
; p (2540
kPll
; h;fs;) MFk;.
njhl;lhngl;lh rpfuk; jkpo;ehl;bd; kpf cah;ej
; rpfukhFk;.
Nkw;F kiyj;njhlUk;> fpof;F kiyj;njhlUk; ePyfphp
kiyg;gFjpapy; xd;W Nrh;fpd;wd.
godpf; Fd;WfSf;F njw;Nf tUrehL> Mz;bg;gl;b vd;w
,U kiyj;njhlh;fs; fhzg;glfpd;wd.
Vykiyj; njhFjpapy; nropg;G kpf;f fk;gk; gs;sj;jhf;F
mike;Js;sJ.
tUr ehL kiyf;Fk; mfj;jpah; kiyf;Fk; ,ilNa
fhzg;gLk;
,ilntsp
nrq;Nfhl;il
fztha;
vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
njw;fpy; Mj;Jhh; fztha; vd;Wk;> tlf;fpy; nrq;fk;
fztha; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,f;fztha;fs; flYhh;
khtl;lj;ij rkntsp gFjpNahL ,izf;fpd;wJ.
Nkw;F njhlh;rr
; p kiyfspd; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f fztha;fs;
ghyf;fhLk; nrq;Nfhl;ilAk; MFk;.
fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyfs;
1. NtYhh; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s [t;thJ kw;Wk; Vyfphp kiy
2. Nryk; khyl;lj;jpy; cs;s Nrh;tuhad; kiy
3. tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpy; fy;tuhad; kiy
4. jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s gr;irkiy(nguk;gYhh;)
5. ehkf;fy; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s nfhy;ypkiy
6. jUkGhp kw;Wk; Nryk; khtl;lj;jpYs;s tputpAs;s rpj;Njhp
kiy
7. jpUtz;zhkiy khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s nrQ;rpkiy.
21
Xh; Mz;by; xU Fwpg;gpl;l gUtj;jpy; Neh; vjph; jpirfspy;

,Ue;J tPRk; fhw;Wfis gUt; fhw;Wfs; vd;gh;.
jopo;ehl;bd; gUtf; fhyq;fs;
jkpo; khjq;fs;
gUtq;fs;
jkpo; gUtq;fs;
Nfhil (Vg;uy; Kjy; ,sNtdpy;
rpj;jpiu> itfhrp>
Mf];l; tiu)
KJNtdpy; Mdp> Mb
kiof;fhyk;
fhh;fhyk; Fsph; Mtzp> Gul;lhrp>
(Mf];L Kjy;
Ig;grp> fhh;jj
; pif
brk;gh; tiu)
Fsph;fhyk; (brk;gh;
Kd;gdp gpd;gdp kh;fop> ij>
Kjy; Vg;uy;
khrp> gq;Fdp
tiu)
njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W kiog; nghopT
njd;Nkw;F gUtf; fhw;W fhyk; [Pd; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; khjk;
tiu epyTfpwJ.
70 rjtPjk; kio epyfphp khtl;lj;jpYk; mjidr; njhlh;eJ
;
Nryk; kw;Wk; <NuhL khtl;lq;fs; mjpf msT kioia
ngWfpwJ. kw;nwhU khtl;lk; fd;dpahFkhp.
jkpo;ehl;by; mf;Nlhgh; Kjy; brk;gh; tiu tlfpof;F gUt
kiog;nghopT fhzg;gLfpwJ.
R+whtsp kiog;nghopT
jkpo;ehl;bw;F
etk;gh;
khjk;
R+whtsp
kiog;nghopT
khjkhFk;. tq;ff; flypd; njd; gFjpapy; Vw;gLfpd;wd
tspkz;ly mOj;j NtWghl;bdhy; jho; moj;j gFjp
cz;lhfp> mjd; Nkd;NkYk; jPtpukile;J R+whtspahf
khWfpd;wJ.
,aw;ifj; jhtuq;fs;
Njrpaf; fhLfs; nfhs;ifg;gb xU gFjpapd; nkhj;jg;
gug;gpy; Fiwe;jgl;rk; 33 rjtPjk; msT fhLfs; ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
jkpo;ehl;bd; fhl;Lg; gFjpapd; tpfpjr;rhuk; 17 rjtPjk;.
ePyfphp khtl;lk;> khepyq;fspNyNa mjpf rjtPj epyg;gug;ig
fhl;Lg; gFjpahf nfhz;Ls;sJ.
fhLfspd; tiffs;
1. mad kz;ly gRik khwhf; fhLfs;
2. mad kz;ly mfd;w ,iyf;fhLfs;
3. Kl;Gjh;fhLfs;
4. rJg;Gepyf; fhLfs;
5. kiyaff; fhLfs;.
mad kz;ly gRik fhLfs;
gRik khwhjit kw;Wk; ,iyfis cjph;ff
; hjit MFk;.
vg;nghOJNk ,f;fhLfs; kuq;fspy; ,iyfs; ,Ug;gjhy;
gRik khwhf; fhLfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
Mz;bw;F kiog;nghopT 200 nr.kP Nky; ,Uf;fpd;wd.
vNghdp> Njf;F> nrk;kuk;> RUq;fhyp Nghd;w kuq;fs; ,q;Nf
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
mad kz;ly mfd;w ,iyf;fhLfs;
Mz;bw;F kiog;nghopT 100 nr.kP ,Ue;J 200 nr.kP.
,Uf;fpd;w gFjpfspy; ,f;fhLfs; fhzg;gLk;.
,it gUtf; fhLfs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
rhy;>
re;jdk;>
Njf;F>
%q;fpy;>
glhf;
Mfpait
Fwpg;gplj;jf;f mad kz;ly mfd;w ,iy tifia rhh;ej
;
jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy
kuq;fs; MFk;.
Xh; nghpa gug;gpwfhd ePzl
; fhy ruhrhp thdpiy. ,ay;ghd
rJg;G epyf; fhLfs;
thdpiyf;F fhyepiy vd;W ngah;.
Mw;W Kfj;Jthuk; kw;Wk; Xjg; ngUf;F mjpfk; cs;s
jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy nghJthf mad kz;ly fhyepiy
flNyhug; gFjpfspy; rJg;G kuq;fs; nrwpe;J tsh;fpd;wd.
tifia rhh;ej
; jhFk;.
rJg;G epyf;fhLfs; vdg;gLk;.
Mz;Lfs; ,UKiw R+hpadpd; nrq;Fj;jhd xspf;fjph;fs;
jkpofj;jpy; gpr;rhtuk;> Nfhbaf;fiu kw;Wk; Ntjhuz;ak;
jkpo;ehl;by; tpOk;.
Mfpa gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; Nk khjk; ntg;gkpF khjkhfTk;> [dthp khjk;
,it iuNrhNghuh jhtu FLk;gj;ij rhh;ej
; itfshFk;.
Fsph; kpFe;j khjkhfTk; cs;sJ.
fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyfspy; cah;ej
; kiy - Nrh;tuhad;
kiy (1500-1600 kPll
; h)
Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyfspy; cah;ej
; kiy - Midkiy
jkpo;ehl;bd; gPlg+kpfs;
Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyfSk;> fpof;Fj; njhlh;rp kiyfSk;
Nrh;tuhad; cah;epyq;fSf;F Nkw;fhf ghuhk`hy; gPlG+kp
vd;W miof;fg;gLk; jUkGhp gPlG+kp mikfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;bd; gPlG+kpfis Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; gPlG+kp kw;Wk; kJiu
gPlG+kp vd;W gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
<NuhL khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s nrd;dpkiy MFk;.
jkpo;ehl;bd; rkntspg; gFjpfs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; rkntspfis Mw;Wr; rkntsp kw;Wk; flNyhu
rkntsp vd ,UgphpTfshf gphpf;fyhk;.
flNyhur; rkntspfs; tlf;Nf goNtw;fhL Vhpapy; ,Ue;J
njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu.
nkhpdh flw;fiu
cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ mofpa nghpa flw;fiuahd nkhpdh
Rkhh; 13 fpNyhkPll
; h; ePsk; tiu gytpAs;sJ.
jkpo;ehl;bd; MWfs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpa Mwhd fhtphp> fh;ehlf khepyj;jpy;
FlF khtl;lj;jpy; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ.
fhtphpAk; mjd; Jiz MWfshd gthzp> neha;ay;>
Nkhahh; kw;Wk; mkuhtjp Mfpa MWfs; jpUr;rp> jQ;ir>
jpUth&h; kw;Wk; ehfg;gl;bdk; khtl;lq;fspd; ePh; Mjhukhf
tpsq;Ffpd;wJ.
fhtphp MWf;Fk; mjd; Kjd;ik fpisahW Mfpa
nfhs;splj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa =uq;fk; mikag; ngw;Ws;sJ.
; jL :
1. fpof;F njhlh;rr
; p kiyapy; mike;Js;s Fd;W .........................
MFk;.
m) ePyfphp
M) fy;tuhad; kiy
,) Vykiy
<) godpkiy
tpil : <
2. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpfg;
; ghpa rpfuk; ......................... MFk;.
kpfgn
m) MidKb
M) njhl;lhngl;lh
,) FlFkiy
<) gpuk;kfphp kiy tpil : M
3. rpw;whW ......................... Mw;wpd; Kf;fpa JizahW MFk;.
m) fhtphp
M) jhkpuguzp
,) itif
<) ghyhW
tpil : M
4. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpf ePskhd
khd MW .................... MFk;.
m) jhkpuguzp
M) itif
,) ghyhW
<) fhtphp
tpil : <
5. neha;aYk; mkuhtjpAk; ......................... Mw;wpd; JizahWfs;
MFk;.
m) itif
M) fhtphp
,) ghyhW
<) nghpahW
tpil : M
1. fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiy
- Nrh;tuhad;
2. Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiy
- ePyfphp
3. fhtphp MW
- fh;ehlfk;
4. nfhilf;fhdy;
- kiyfspd; murp
5. itif
- kJiu

22
rhpahd tpilisj; Njh;en

; jL :
1. jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy ....................... tifiar; rhh;ej
; J.
m) mad kz;lyk;
M) kpjntg;g kz;lyk;
,) JUtg; gFjp
<) Mh;bf; gFjp tpil : m
2. mad kz;ly R+whtsp cUthFk; khjk; ...........................
...........................
MFk;.
m) etk;gh;
M) [dthp
,) brk;gh;
<) Vg;uy;
tpil : m
3. Njf;F kuKk; re;jd kuKk; ...........................
........................... tif fhLfisr;
rhh;ej
; J.
J.
m) mad kz;ly gRik khwhf; fhLfs;
M) mad kz;ly mfd;w ,iyf; fhLfs;
,) rJg;G epyf;fhLfs;
<) kiyaff; fhLfs; tpil : M
4. njd;Nkw;F gUtf; fhw;W kiog;nghoptpd; NghJ jkpo;ehL
ngWk; kioapd; msT .............................
m) kpf mjpfk;
M) FiwT
,) ruhrhp
<) mjpfk;
tpil : <
5. ............................ Kjy; ....................... tiu tlfpof;F gUt
fhw;W kiog;nghopT ngWk; khjk; MFk;.
m) [Pd; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh;
M) mf;Nlhgh; Kjy; etk;gh;
,) brk;gh; Kjy; gpg;uthp
<) khh;r; Kjy; etk;gh;
tpil : M
6. rJg;G epyf; fhLfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd ,lk; .........................
m) Ntjhuz;ak;
M) Nfhak;Gj;Jhh;
,) GJf;Nfhl;il
<) ePyfphp tpil : m
7. twz;l fhyj;jpy; .................... tiff;fhLfspypUe;J ,iyfis
cjph;ff
; pd;wd.
m) Kl;Gjh; fhLfs;
M) gRik khwhf; fhLfs;
,) mfd;w ,iyf; fhLfs;
<) rJg;G epyf; fhLfs;;
tpil: ,
1. gRikkhwhf; fhLfs;
- nrk;kuk;
2. gUt kio fhLfs;
- %q;fpy;
3. Nfhilf;fhyk;
- khh;r; Kjy; [Pd; tiu
4. Fsph;fhyk;
- brk;gh; Kjy; gpg;uthp tiu
5. kug;gyit
- fhLfspd; nghUl;fs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; tsq;fs;
GJg;gpf;f ,aYk; tsq;fs;
1. R+hpadpypUe;J ngwg;gLk; ntg;gk;> vhprf;jp
2. fhw;wpd; rf;jp
3. ePh; Mjhuq;fshd Vhpfs;> MWfs; kw;Wk; fly;
4. GtpNahl;by; cz;lhf;Fk; kz;.
GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;
epyf;fhp> ngl;Nuhypa vz;nza; kw;Wk; gpw fdpkq;fs;.
xU
nr.kP.
kz;
cw;gj;jpahtjw;F
100
Mz;Lfs;
Njitg;gLfpwJ.
fhl;Ltsq;fs;
nfhilf;fhdy; gFjpapy; 12 tUlq;fsSf;F xUKiw
G+f;Fk; FwpQ;rpkyh; xU Fwpg;gplj;jf;f jhtu ,dkhFk;.
kNyhpah Nehia fl;Lg;glj;j rpd;Nfhdh kuj;jpypUe;J
Fapidd; (qunine) vd;w kUe;Jg; nghUs; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
tdtpyq;Ffspd;
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
czh;ej
;
xt;nthU
tUlKk; mf;Nlhgh; khjj;jpy; td kNfhj;rtk; vd;w tpoh
vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyf tdtpyq;F jpdk;
cyf fhLfs; jpdk;
cyf ePh; jpdk;
mf;Nlhgh; 4
khh;r; 21
khh;r; 22
fdpkq;fs;
ngl;Nuhypak;
ypf;idl;
khtl;lq;fs;
jpUth&h; (gdq;Fb)>ehpkzk;
(fhtphp nly;lh gFjp)
flYhh; (nea;Ntyp)
jkpo;ehl;by; ePhk
; pd; epiyaq;fs;
t.vz;
ePhk
; pd;
epiyaq;fs;
1
Fe;jh - I to
V
2
Nkl;^h;
3
Mopahh;
4
Nfhijahh; - I
kw;Wk; II
5
Nrhiyahh; - I
kw;Wk; II
6
fhlk;ghiw
7
fPo; Nkl;^h;
8
ghgehrk;
ePhk
; pd;rf;jp
9
igfuh
nkhj;jk;
MWfs;
gthdp
kpy;ypad;
thl;fs;
500
fhtphp
Mopahh;
Nfhijahh;
840
60
100
Nrhiyahh;
95
fhlk;ghiw
fhtphp
400
120
32
igfuh
150
2297
mZkpd; rf;jp tsq;fs;

mZf;fis gpsf;Fk; NghJ ntspg;gLk; kpFe;jj ntg;gNk
mZrf;jpahFk;.
GSlhdpad; kpd mjpNtf CJ ciyfis nfhz;lNjhh;
Xh; xUq;fpizg;G mikg;ghFk;.
fy;ghf;fk;
,e;jpahtpd; KOikahf cs;ehl;bNyNa tbtikf;fg;gl;l
Kjy; mXkpd; epiyakhf ,J tpsq;FfpwJ.
500 kpy;ypad; thl; kpd; cw;gj;jpj; jpwd; nfhz;l ,uz;Lg;
gphpTfs; ,q;F cs;sd.
$lq;Fsk;
jpUney;Ntyp khtl;lj;jpy; $lq;Fsk; vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy;
kw;nwhU mZkpd; epiyak; fl;b Kbf;Fk; epiyapy;
cs;sJ.
1000 kpy;ypad; thl; cw;gj;jp jpwd; nfhz;l ehd;F CJ
ciyfs; ,e;epiyaj;jpy; mikf;fg;gl cs;sd.
kuGr; rhuh rf;jp tsq;fs;
s
R+hpar; rf;jpNa kuG rhuh vhprf;jp tsq;fspy; kpfg;nghpar;
rf;jp tskhFk;. Nghl;lhd;fs; (Photons) %yk; rf;jp
ngwg;gLfpwJ.
R+hpa Mw;wiy kpd; ntg;g Mw;wyhf khw;w Nghl;Nlhthy;bf;
nry;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
R+hpa rf;jp
R+hpa
xspapypUe;J
R+hpa
rf;jp
Nghl;Nlh
Nthy;l;
nry;fspypUe;J Neubahf my;yJ Nrkpg;Gf; fyd;fspypUe;J
(Concentrating Solar Power) kiwkfkhf ngwg;gLfpwJ.
fhw;W tpir Rw;Wf; fyd;fspypUe;J (Wind tubines)
ngwg;gLk; ,ae;jpu Mw;wy; kpd; Mw;wyhf khw;wg;gLk;.
; jL :
1. gpd;tUtdtw;Ws; vJ kz; cUthf;Ftjw;F fhuzpahf
miktjpy;iy
m) fhyk;
M) kz;epiy
,) caphpdg; nghUl;fspd; Nrh;ff
; if
<) caphpy;yhg; nghUl;fspd; Nrh;fi
; f
tpil : <
2. caphpd tsq;fs; vdg;gLtJ ........................
........................
23
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
m) Neuk;
M) caph;fN
; fhsk;
,) ePh;
<) fhw;W
tpil : M
......................... kz; mLf;fpd; fdj;ij jPhk
; hdpf;fpwJ.
m) fhyepiy
M) Neuk;
,) epyj;Njhw;wk;
<) fhw;W
tpil : m
.......................... kiyfspy; kUj;Jt %ypiffs; kpFe;
;
kpFeJ
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
m) godpkiy
M) mfj;jpah; kiy
,) MidKb
<) nrd;dp kiy
tpil : m
ypf;idl; cw;gj;jpapy; Kjd;ikahd ,lj;jpy; ,Ug;gJ
........................ MFk;
MFk.
m) tpOg;Guk;
M) nea;Ntyp
,) nrd;id
<) <NuhL
tpil ; M
gpd;tUtdtw;Ws; ve;j khtl;lj;jpy;
py; ,Uk;Gj;jhJ cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLtjpy;iy
m) Nryk;
M) jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp
,) Nfhak;Gj;Jhh;
<) nrd;id
tpil : M
Nkl;^h; mdy;kpd; epiyak;
- 600 nkfhthl;
fhw;whb kpd; rf;jp
- 5208 nkfhthl;
cth;kz;
- Ntjhuz;ak;
rpd;Nfhdh
- kUe;J
R+hpa Mw;wy;
- jUkGhp
jkpo;ehL Ntshz;ik
jkpo;ehl;bd; nkhj;j kf;fs;njhifapy; 56 rjtPj kf;fs;
tptrhaj;ij njhopyhff; nfhz;Ls;sdh;.
tptrhaj;jpd; tiffs;
1. jPtpu jd;dpiwT tptrhak;
2. Njhl;lg;gaph; tptrhak;
3. fyg;G tptrhak;
nrhpf;fy;rh; (Sericulture)> mg;gpfy;rh; (Apiculture), ghy;tsk;>
Njhl;ltptrhak;
(Orchard),tpl;b
fy;rh;
(Viticulture),
Ng/Nshhpfyrh; (Floriculture)> gz;iz tsh;gG
; (Poultry).
jkpo;ehl;by; ngUk;ghyhd tptrhapfs; jtpu jd;dpiwT
tptrha KiwNa gpd;gw;Wfpd;wdh;.
Njhl;lg; gaph; tptrhak; (Plantation farming)
Njapiy> fhgp> ,ug;gh; kw;Wk; kpsF Nghd;w gaph;fs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; kiyr;rhpTfspy; Njhl;l gapuhf rhFgb
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
fyg;G tptrhak; (Mixed farming)
tpis epyq;fspd; gy gaph;fis tsh;gg
; Jld; fhy;eil>
kPd>; NjdP kw;Wk; gwitfisAk; tsh;fF
; k; KiwahFk;.
re;ij Njhl;lg; gaph;
gaph; tptrhak; (Market gardening)
fha;> fdp kw;Wk; G+f;fis efur; re;ijapy; tpw;gjw;fhf
nghpa Njhl;lq;fspy; tsh;ff
; g;gLfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;bd; rhFgb gUtq;fs;
1) nrhh;zthhp
- rpj;jpiug;gl;lk;
2) rk;gh gUtk;
- Mbg; gl;lk;
3) etiu gUtk;
- fhh;jj
; pifg; gl;lk;
etiug;
; pifg; gl;lk;
etiug;gUtk; - fhh;jj
,g;gUtj;jpw;F ugp (Rabi fhyk;) vd;W kw;nwhU ngaUk;
cz;L. etk;gh; khjj;jpy; tpijj;J khh;rR
;
khjj;jpy;
mWtil nra;Ak; gUtNk etiu gUtkhFk;.
jkpo;ehl;by; 27 rjtPj gpuk;khz;l gaph;rhFgb fhy;tha;
ghrd Kiw %yk; eilngWfpwJ.
jpUr;rpapd; mUfpy; kpfg; gpuz;lkhf fy;yiz fhtphp
Mw;Wg; gLifapd; nly;lh gFj[ KOikf;Fk; Ie;J
fhy;tha;fspd; %yk; ePh; ghrd trjpf;F tif nra;fpwJ.
Fsq;fs;
nkhj;j ePh; ghrd gug;gpy; 19 rjtPj epyq;fSf;F ePh;
mjhuj;ij mspf;fpd;wd.
,uhkehjGuj;jpy;kpf mjpfkhd Fsq;fs; cs;sd.

fpzWfs;
52 tpOf;fhL tptrha epyk; fpzw;W ePh; ghrdj;ij
rhh;ej
; pUf;fpwJ.
ePh; ghrdf; fpzWfis 1) jiuf;fpzW>
2) Mo;Foha; fpzW vd;W tifg;glj;jyhk;.
czTg;gaph;
new;gaph; jkpo;ehl;by; Kjd;ikahd czTg; gapuhFk;.
n[ah> I.Mh;. 50 Nghd;w Gjpa mjp tPhpa tpisr;ry; jUk;
,uq;fSk; jkpo;ehl;by; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
fhtphp nly;lh gFjp njd; ,e;jpahtpd; new;fsQ;rpak; vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;by;
ney;
Muha;r;rp
epWtdk;
MLJiwapy;
mike;Js;sJ.
jkpo;ehL tptrha gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; jpUth&h; fpis
TNRH 174 vd;w Gjpa ney; ,ufj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sJ.
rpWfliy Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; khtl;lj;jpy; mjpf mstpy;
gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
rzy; kw;Wk; gUj;jpia ,iogaph; vd;fpNwhk;.
gUj;jpf;F cfe;j kz; fhpry; kz;zhFk;.
vk;.rp.A+. 4> vk;.rp.A+ 5> Mh;.v. 5166 Nghd;w gUj;jp ,ufq;fs;
jkpo;ehl;by; gaphplg;gLk;.
gzg;gaph;
Ra Njitf;F my;yhJ re;ij Nehf;Fld; tsh;ff
; g;gLk;
gaph;fis gzg;gaph;fs; vd;fpd;wdh;.
jkpo;ehl;bd; Kjd;ik gzg;gapuhd fUk;G kpfg;nghpa
gug;gstpy; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
xd;gJ khj gapuhd fUk;G rhFgbf;F mjpf tsKs;s
kz;> mjpf ntg;gk;> G+f;Fk; fhyk; tiu mjpf ePh; ghrdk;
Mfpait Njitg;gLfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;bd; ,uz;lhtJ Kf;fpa gzg;gaph; GifapiyahFk;.
Njhl;lg;gaph;
Njapiy> fhgp> ,ug;gh;> kpsF kw;Wk; Ke;jphp Mfpait
jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpa Njhl;lg; gapuhFk;.
Njrpa mstpy; m];]hk; khepyj;ij njhlh;eJ
;
Njapiy
gaphpLk; gug;gpYk; cw;gj;jpapYk; jkpo;ehL ,uz;lhk;epiy
tfpf;fpwJ.
fhgp rhFgbapYk; fh;ehlfj;jpid mLj;J jkpo;ehL Njrpa
mstpy; ,uz;lhk; epiyapy; cs;sJ.
kPdt
; sh;gG
;
Njrpa mstpy; jkpo;ehL kPd; tsh;gg
; py; ehd;fhtJ
khepykhfj; jpfo;fpwJ.
13 khtl;lq;fspy; gue;J fplf;fpd;wd.
Jhj;Jf;Fb
khtl;lk;
jkpo;ehl;bd;
Kjd;ik
kPdg
; pb
JiwKfkhFk;.
Nfhak;Gj;Jhhpy; Muha;rr
; p ikakk; Ntshz; Jiwapy;
khw;wq;fis nfhz;LtUfpd;wd.
; jL :
1. Njapiy> fhg;gp> ,ug;gh;> kpwF kw;Wk; Ke;jphp Nghd;wit
jkpo;ehl;by; tsUk; ......................... gapuhFk;.
m) czT M) ,io
,) Njhl;lg;
<) kw;wa gaph;
tpil : ,
2. jkpo;ehl;bd; ......................... kpfg; goikahdJk; njhopy;
Ntshz;ik njhopyhFk;.
m) Kjd;ikahdJ
M) ,uz;lhk; epiy
,) filepiy
<) Nrit
tpil : m
3. .............................. I khzhthhp gaph; vd;W jkpo;ehl;by;
$Wth;.
m) ed;nra; M) Gd;nra;
,) fhy;tha; tptrhak;

24
<) Jy;ypa tptrhak;

tpil : M
.............. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpfg; gpujhd ghrd Kiw.
m) fpzW
M) Fsk;
,) fhytha;
<) Foha; fpzW
tpil: m
jkpo;ehl;bd; ney; Muha;rr
; p ikak; .........................
.........................
cs;sJ.
m) MLJiw
M) flYhh;
,) nea;Ntyp
<) nrd;id
tpil : m
gwit tsh;jj
; y;
- gz;iz tsh;gG
;
gl;Lg;GO tsh;jj
; y;
- nrhpfy;rh;
NjdP tsh;jj
; y;
- mg;gpfy;rh;
goq;fs; tsh;jj
; y;
- Njhl;l tptrhak;
jhj;Jf;Fb
- Vw;Wkjp nra;Ak; JiwKfk;
rpq;fg;G+iu jiyaplkhff; nfhz;l m]d;lh]; epWtdKk;

jkpo;ehK njhopy; tsh;rr
; p fofKk; ,ize;J ,e;jpahatpd;
kpfg;nghpa jfty; njhopy; El;g tshfj;ij nrd;id
jukhzpapy; mike;Js;sd.
5.
y; jkpo;ehl;bd; Fwpg;gplj;
jf;f gpw njhopw;rhiyfs;
plj;jf;
nguk;g+h;.,izg;G ngl;b njhopw;rhiy (ICF) Mrpahtpd;
kpfg;nghpa njhopw;rhiyfSs; Xd;whFk;.
Armoured Vehicles and Ammunition Depot, AVADI.
1.
rptfhrp efuj;ij Fl;b [g;ghd; (Little Japan) vd
2.
miof;fpd;wdh;.
3.

khepy
njhopy; Nkk;ghl;Lf; fofk; (SIPCOT) 1972y;
4.
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
5.
SIPCOT - State Industries Promaotion Corporation of Tamil
Nadu
jkpo;ehL - cw;gj;jpj; njhopw;rhiyfs;
k`huh\;uh>
F[uhj;ijj
mLj;J
jkpofk;
njhopy;
; jL :
tsh;rr
; papy; %d;whk; ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.
jkpo;ehL nra;jpj; jhs; epWtdk; (TNPL)) ............
............ Jiwahf
khepyj;jpy;
nkhj;j
tUkhdj;jpy;
24
tpOf;fhl 1. jkpo;
,aq;fp tUfpwH.
njhopy;Jiwapd; %yk; fpilf;fpwJ.
m) jdpahh; M) nghJ
,) ,iz
nerTj; njhope;rhiy
<) $l;LwT
tpil : M
Nfhak;Gj;Jhh;
kz;lyk;
kpfg;nghpa
mstpy;
nerTj;
njhopypy;
<Lgl;Ls;sjhy;
,jid
njd;
,e;jpahtpd; 2. fUk;Gr; rf;if .......... njhopw;rhiyf;F %yg;nghUshf
gad;gLfpwJ.
khd;nr];lh;.
m. rh;ff
; iu
M. fhfpj
,. ,uhraz
jpUg;G+h;> <NuhL> Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; Mfpa %d;W khtl;lq;fs;
<. thfd
tpil : M
nerTj; njhopypd; %yk; khepyj;jpd; nghUshjhuj;jpy;
ngUk; gq;F tfpg;gjhy; ,g;gFjp jkpo;ehl;bd; nerT 3. ,e;jpahtpd; mjpf .............. cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; epWtdk; ];gpf;
(SPIC))
gs;sj;jhf;F vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
m. ,uhrazk;
M. cuk;
,. ngl;Nuhy;
<NuhL khtl;lk; Kd;dpiy tfpf;fpwJ. jkpo;ehl;bd; nerTj;
<. kPd;
tpil : M
jiyefuk; vd;w rpwg;G ngaiu f&h; efuk; ngw;Ws;sJ.
4. ..........njhopy; kpff; Fiwe;j KjyPL nfhz;lJ.
gl;L nerTj; njhopy;
m) ngUepiy
M) rpWepiy
,) Fbik
gl;L
<) kj;jpa epiy
tpil : ,
cw;gj;jpapy; jkpo;ehL ehd;fhk; ,lj;ij ngw;Ws;sJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; fhQ;rpGuk; ghuk;ghpakpf;f jdpj;j nerTj; 5. jkpo; ehl;by; ................... ghuk;ghpakpf;f jdpj;j nerT
juj;jpw;fhhf cyfnkq;
cyfnkq;fpYk; Gfo;ngw;wJ.
juj;jpw;fhf cyfnkq;fpYk; Gfo; ngw;Ws;sJ.
m) fhQ;rpg;Guk;
M) Muzp
,) Nryk;
rh;ff
; iu Miyfs;
<) jpUGtzk;
tpil : M
jkpo;ehl;by; nkhj;jk; 42 rh;ff
; iu Miyfs; cs;sd.
1. nrd;id
- njw;fhrpahtpd; nll;uha;l;
mtw;wpy; 16 $l;LwT rq;fkk;> 3 murhYk;> 23 jdpahuhYk;
2. rptfhrp
- Fl;b [g;ghd;
eph;tfpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
3. nguk;G+h;
- ,izg;Gg; ngl;b njhopw;rhiy
rhW gpope;jTd; fpilf;Fk; fUk;G rf;if (Bagess) fhfpj 4. f&h;
- nerTj; jiyefuk;
njhopw;rhiyf;F %yg;nghUshf gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
5. NfhaKj;Jhh;
- njd;dpe;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh;
fhfpj
fhfpj njhopw;rhiy
,e;jpahtpd; fhfpj cw;gj;jpapy; Me;jpuhtpw;F mLj;jgbahf
Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
jkpofk; ,uz;lhk; epiyapy; cs;sJ.
rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
jkpo;ehL nra;jpj; jhs; kw;Wk; fhfpj epWtdk; (TNPL) jkpo;ehl;bd;
24
Njrpa
neLQrhiyfs;
4500fp.kP
cyftq;fpapd;
cjtpAld;
1979
Mk;
Mz;L
f&h;
njhiyj;Jhuj;ij ,izf;fpd;wd.
khtl;lj;jpy; GfSUf;F mUfhikapy; epWtg;gl;lJ.
VO Kf;fpa Nghf;Ftuj;Jf; fofq;fs; nray;gLfpd;wd.
cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa Miyahf ,t;thiy jpfo;fpwJ.
Njrpa neLQrhiyapd jq;f ehwfu
rhiyj;jpl;lk;
Njhy; gjdpLk; njhopy;
jkpo;ehl;by; 1232 fp.kP njhiytpw;F mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,e;jpahtpd;
70
rjtPjk;
Njhy;
gjdplk;
Miyfs; nrd;id Nfhak;Ngl;by; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;s Gwefh; NgUe;J
jkpo;ehl;by; cs;sd.
epiyak; MraphtpNyNa kpfg;nghpa NgUe;J epiyakhFk;.
tpyq;Ffspd; Njhiy lhdpd; vd;w mkpyg; nghUs; nfhz;L ,uapy; ghijfs;
gjg;gLj;jiy lhdpq; vd;W Fwpg;gpLth;.
jkpo;ehl;by; nkhj;j ,uapy;NT fhijapd; ePsk; Vwj;jho
rpnkz;l; njhopw;rhiy
5952 fpNyh kPll
; uhfTk; nkhj;j ,uapy; epiyaq;fspd;
Njrpa mstpy; rpnkz;l; cw;gj;jpapy; ehd;fhk;
,lj;ij
vz;zpf;if532 MfTk; cs;sJ.
ngw;Ws;sJ jkpo;ehL.
nrd;id
flw;fiu
Ntsr;Nrhp
mjpNtf
,uapy;
Nkhl;lhh; thfd njhopw;rhiyfs;
Nghf;Ftuj;J jpl;lk; (MARTS)
nrd;id
ePht
; opg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
,e;jpahtpd;
,uz;lhtJ
nkd;nghUs;
Vw;Wkjpahsuhf
jkpo;ehL Vwf;Fiwa 1000 fp.kP ePsKs;s flw;fiuiaf;
jkpo;ehL mike;Js;sJ.
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
4.
25
jkpo;ehl;by;
%d;W
nghpa
JiwKfq;fs;
nrd;id>
Jhj;Jf;Fb kw;Wk; vz;Zhh; MFk;.
ePht
; opg;
rKj;jpuf;
opg; Nghf;Ftujpw;fhd jpl;lq;fs; NrJ
fhy;tha; jpl;lk;
,jd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fkhdJ ,e;jpag; ngUq;flypUe;J
kd;dhh; tisFlh> Mjk;]; ghyk;> ghf; tisFlh> ghf;
[yre;jp topahf tq;fhs tphpFlhit mila Xh; fg;gy;
Nghf;Ftuj;J fhy;thia cUthf;FtNjahFk;.
tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s kuf;fhzj;ijAk;> Me;jpuhtpy;
cs;s tp[athlhitAk; ,izf;fpwJ gf;fpq;fhk; fhy;tha;.
Ntjhuz;aijAk;>
ehfg;gl;bdj;ijAk;
,izf;fpwJ
Ntjhuz;ak; fhy;tha;.
Mfha top Nghf;Ftuj;J
,e;jpahtpy; Kk;ig> nly;ypf;F gpwF %d;whtJ nghpa
tpkhd
epiyak;
nrd;idapy;
mike;Js;s
tpkhd
epiyakhFk;.
gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyaq;fs;
1. nrd;id (mz;zh)
2. Nfhak;Gj;Jhh;
3. jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp
cs;ehl;L tpkhd epiyaq;fs;
1. nrd;id (fhkuhrh;)
2. kJiu
3. Nryk;
4. Jhj;Jf;Fb
mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp epiyak;
epiyak
,e;jpa
thndhyp
xypgug;G
1927
Mk;
Mz;L
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp vd;w ngaiu 1936 Mk; Mz;L
ngw;wJ.
1957-y; Mfhrthzp vd ngah; khw;wg;gl;lJ.
njhiyf;fhl;rp
(EDUSAT)
gs;spf;$lq;fSf;Fk;>
gy;fiyf;
fofq;fSf;Fkhd fy;tp epfo;rr
; pfs; xspgug;gg;gLfpwJ.
; jL :
1. mQ;ry; JiwAk;> je;jp NritAk; ............................ jfty;
ghpkhw;wkhFk;.
m) jdpegh; jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
M) nghJ jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
,) kpd; mQ;ry;
<) Ntiytha;gG
; rk;ke;jg;gl;l ghpkhw;wk;
tpil : m
2. ............................. vd;gJ Njrpa tsh;rr
capNuhl;
pNuhl;lkhFk;.
; papd; ca
m) jfty; ghpkhw;wk;
M) Nghf;Ftuj;J jpl;lk;
,) vOj;J gbtk;
<) njhiyJhu mwpjy;
tpil : M
3. fpof;F
flw;fiur;rhiy
..............................
flw;fiug;
gFjpNahuhkhf mikf;fg;gLfpwJ.
m) mugpf;fly;
M) ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;
,) tq;fhs tphpFlh <) nrq;fly;
tpil : ,
4. cyfj;jpy; kpfg;nghpa jiutopr;Nrit vd;gJ
m) mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp
M) njhiyf;fhl;rp
,) njhiyJhu mwpjy;
<) ,izjsk;
tpil : ,
5. rpwpa JiwKfk; vd;gJ ........................... MFk;.
m) nghUs; Nrkpj;J mDg;Gk; JiwKfk;
M) thpr;rYif ngw;w JiwKfk;
,) eq;$uk; gha;rR
; k; trjp ngw;w JiwKfk;
<) cah; miy JiwKfk;
tpil : ,
1. jq;f ehw;fur; rhiy
- NjrpaneLQ;rhiy muR
2. flYhh;
- rpwpa JiwKfk;
3. [p.gp.v];
- ,lk; Rl;Lk; fUtp
4. gj;jphpf;iffs;
- vOj;J gbtk;
5. A+dpdhh;
- jdpahh; njhiy njhlh;G epWtdk;
jkpo;ehL thzpgk;
1999k; Mz;L Kjd; Kjypy; kJiuapy; coth; re;ij

jpl;lk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
; jL :
1. gz;ilfhy th;jj
; fk; vd;gJ
m) kpd; th;jj
; fk;
M) gz;lkhw;W Kiw
,) kuGtop Kiw
<) gzGof;f Kiw tpil : M
2. ...........................
; pia eph;zapf;fpwJ.
........................... nghUshjhu tsh;rr
m) Vw;Wkjp
M) ,ef;Fkjp
,) thzpgk;
<) Nghf;Ftuj;J tpil : ,
3. jkpo;ehl;by;
rpwg;ghd
cs;ehl;L
thzpgg;
ghpkhw;wk;
.......................... ,ilNa Vw;gLfpwJ.
m) khepyk; M) khtl;lk;
,) ehLfs;
<) efuq;fs;
tpil : M
4.
..................... khtl;lk; ntb nghUs;fis Vw;Wkjp nra;fpwJ.
m) NtYhh; M) tpOg;Guk;
,) tpUJefh;
<) rptfhrp
tpil : <
1. Vw;Wkjp
- nkd;nghUs;
2. ,wf;Fkjp
- tpahghu rq;fk;
3. illy; ghh;f;
- nrd;id
4. lhd;rpy;f;
- fhQ;rpGuk;
5. Kjy; coth; re;ij
- kJiu
jkpo;ehL kf;fs;njhif
kf;fs; Fwpj;j ghlq;fis gbg;gijNa kf;fl; Gtpapay;
vd;fpNwhk;. ,jid Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkNkhfpuhgp (Demography)
vd;fpd;wdh;.
jkpo;ehl;by; kf;fs;njhif
2011
Mk;
Mz;L
kf;fs;njhif
fzf;nfLg;gpd;gb
jkpo;ehl;by; nkhj;j kf;fspd; vz;zpf;if 7>21>38>958 MFk;.
,jpy;
3>61>58>871
Mz;fSk;>
3>59>80>087
ngz;fSk;
cs;sdh;.
Njrpa mstpy; ehl;bd; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; ,J 5.96
tpOf;fhL MFk;.
muR epWtdkhd kf;fs;njhif fzf;nfLg;G epWtdk; gj;J
Mz;LfSf;F
xUKiw
kf;fs;njhifg;
gw;wpa
KO
tptuq;fisAk; Nrfhpj;J gl;baypLfpwJ.
gj;J Mz;LfSf;F tsh;rr; p tpfpjk; 15.60%
kf;fs;njhifg; guty;
kf;fs; njhifapy; mjpf msT nrd;id khtl;lk;
ngw;Ws;sJ.
kpff; Fiwe;j kf;fs; njhif cila khtl;lk; nguk;gYhh;.
jkpo;ehl;bd; kf;fs; njhif fl;likg;G
jkpo;ehl;by; ghypd tpfpjk; Mapuk; Mz;fSf;F 995
ngz;fshf cs;sJ.
ePyfphp khtl;lk; mjpf ghypd tpfpjj;ijAk; 1041> jh;kGhp
khtl;lk;
946
kpff;
Fiwe;j
ghypd
tpfpjj;ijAk;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; 80.33 tpOf;fhL kf;fs; fy;tpawpT ngw;wtuhfj;
jpfo;fpd;wdh;.
jh;kGhp khtl;lj;jpy; kpff; Fiwe;j msT fw;Nwhh; cs;sdh;.
fd;dpahFkhp
khtl;lj;jpy;jhd;
mjpfgl;rkhd
fw;Nwhh;
cs;sdh;.
kfsph; Ra cjtpf;FOj; jpl;lk; tWik xopg;gjw;fhf
jkpo;ehl;by; mwpKfg;gLjjg;gl;lJ.
1989 Mk; Mz;L jh;kGhp khtl;lj;jpy;jhd; Kjy; Kjypy;
,f;FO nray;glj; njhlq;fpaJ.
26

; jL :
1. jkpo;ehl;by; ....................... khtl;lk; fy;tpawptpy;Kjd;ik
tfpf;fpwJ.
m) f&h;
M) fd;dpahFkhp
,) nrd;id
<) nguk;gYhh;
tpil : M
2. khtl;lq;fSf;Fs; kpff; Fiwe;j kf;fs; mlh;jj
; p cilaJ
......................... MFk;.
m) rptfq;if
M) ePyfphp
,) fd;dpahFkhp
<) jpUts;Sh;
tpil : m
3. jkpo;ehl;bd; kf;fs;njhif
jhif 1951 Kjy;
Kjy; 2001 Kba 50
Mz;Lfspy; ........................... epiyia mile;Js;sJ.
m) cah;ej
;
M) Fiwe;j
,) ,ul;bg;G
<) khw;wkpy;yhj
tpil : ,
4. nrq;Fj;jhd
rhpTk;
mlh;jj
; p
fhLfSk;
nfhz;l
fhLfSk;
kiyg;gpuNjrk;
puNjrk;
kpf
.........................
kf;fs;
njhifia
Mjhpf;fpd;wJ.
m) eLj;juk; M) mjpfk;
,) Fiwe;j
<) kpff; Fiwe;j
tpil : <
1. Mz;L tsh;rr
; p tpfpjk;
- 1.1%
2. Cuf kf;fl; njhif
- 56%
3. jkpo;ehl;bd; fy;tpawpT tpOf;fhL
- 80.33%
4. ,e;Jf;fs;
- 88%
5. efu kf;fl;njhif
- 44%
Rw;Wr;#oYk; mjd; njhlh;Gila epfo;TfSk;
caphpdq;fs; xd;Nwhnlhd;W cld;gl;L thOk; R+oiyj;jhd;

Rw;Wg;Gwr;R+oy; vd;W $WfpNwhk;.
,e;jpahtpy; jkpo;ehL efukakhjypd; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;jpy;

,Uf;fpd;wJ.
cjf kz;lyk;> nfhilf;fhdy;> Vw;fhL gFjpfspy; cs;s

Vhpfis fz;fhzpf;f jdp fz;fhzpg;G gphpit jkpo;ehL
khRf;fl;Lg;ghl;L
thhpak;
n[k;];
(GEMS - Global
Environment Monitoring System) vd;w kj;jpa murpd; epjp
cjtp ngw;w epWtdj;jpd; %yk; fz;fhzpf;fpwJ.
Rw;Wr;R+oy; tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;gl Gtpehs; (Vg;uy; 22k; ehs;)
Mfpait nfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ.
; jL :
1. caphpdq;fs; xd;iw xd;W rhh;eJ
;
thOk;
caphpdr;
R+oiy .................... vd;W $WfpNwhk;.
m) caphpdr;R+oy;
M) Rw;Wr;R+oy;
,) epyg;gFjp
<) caphpdg;gFjp tpil : M
2. kdpjdhy; fhLfs; mopf;fg;gLtij
Ltij ....................... vd;W
$WfpNwhk;.
m) fhLfs; tsh;jj
; y; M) fhLfs; mopj;jy;
,) gaphpLjy;
<) rpjWjy;
tpil : M
3. Rw;Wr;R+oy; caphpdq;fs; moptij .......................... vd;W
$WfpNwhk;.
m) caphpdq;fs; mopj;jy;
M) fhLfs; mopj;jy;
,) mkpy kio
<) caphpd Ntw;Wik tpil : m
4. mjpfsT nraw;if ,urhaz cuq;fs; cgNahfpg;gjhy;
........................... juk; FiwfpwJ.
m) fhw;W
M) kz;
,) MWfs;
<) fly;
tpil : M
1. Gtp ntg;gkiljy; - flNyhu nts;sk;
2. fhLfis mopj;jy; - fhpky thA
3. thfdq;fs;
- fhw;W khriljy;
4. ePh; khriljy;
- G+r;rp nfhy;ypfs;
5. efu kakhjy;
- nehpry;
tsq;fisg; ghJfhj;jYk; epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;rr

; pAk;
jkpofjj;jpy; fhL kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffspd; ghJfhg;G
jkpofj;jpy; 17% epyg;gFjpfs; fhLfs; gutpapUf;fpd;wd.
jkpo;ehl;by; 13 gwitfs; ruzhyaq;fs;> 5 Njrpa
G+q;fhf;fs; kw;Wk; 7 td tpyq;F ruzhyaq;fs; cs;sd.
jkpofj;jpy;
cs;s
gwitfs;
kw;Wk;
tpyq;Ffspd;
ruzhyaq;fs;
ngah;
khtl;lk;
rpj;jpuf;Fb gwitfs; ruzhyak;
,uhkehjGuk;
fQ;rpuhq;Fsk;
,uhkehjGuk;
Nkynry;tDhh; fPo nry;tDhh;
,uhkehjGuk;
gwitfs; ruzhyak;
kd;dhh; tisFlh fly;rhh; Njrpa
,uhkehjGuk;
G+q;fhf;fs;
fiuntl;b gwitfs; ruzhyak;
mhpaY}h;
$e;jd;Fsk; gwitfs; ruzhyak;
jpUney;Ntyp
(kpfg;nghpa ,Ug;G)
fsf;fhL tdtpyq;F ruzhyak;
jpUney;Ntyp
Kz;le;Jiw ruzhyak;
jpUney;Ntyp
Nfhbaf;fiu gwitfs; ruzhyak;
ehfg;gl;bdk;
(Point Calimere)
goNtw;fhL gwitfs; ruzhyak;
jpUts;Sh;
(Pulicut)
cjakhh;jj
; hz;lGuk; gwitfs;
jpUth&h;
ruzhyak;
tLT+h; gwitfs; ruzhyak;
kd;dhh;Fb>
ehfg;gl;bdk;
Ntle;jhq;fs; gwitfs; ruzhyak;
fhQ;rpGuk;
nts;NshL gwitfs; ruzhyak;;
<NuhL
rj;jpakq;fyk; gwitfs; ruzhyak;
<NuhL
Ntl;lq;Fb gwitfs; ruzhyak;
rptfq;if
KJkiy Njrpa G+q;fh
ePyfphp
Kf;FWj;jp Njrpa G+q;fh
ePyfphp
KJkiy ruzhyak;
ePyfphp
fpz;b Njrpa G+q;fh
nrd;id
godpkiy Njrpa G+q;fh
jpz;Lf;fy;
rhk;gy;epw mzpy;fs; ruzhyak;
=tpy;ypGj;Jhh;>
tpUJefh;
,e;jpuhfhe;jp tdtpyq;F ruzhyak;
Nfhak;Gj;Jhh;
fd;dpahFkhp tdtpyq;F ruzhyak;
fd;dpahFkhp
fhpf;fpsp tdtpyq;F ruzhyak;
fhQ;rpGuk;
gwitfs; ruzhyak; (2011)
,uhkehjGuk;
Mh;bf;
gFjpapypUe;J
Fsph;fhyq;fspy;
gwitfs;
jkpo;ehl;bw;F ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhf te;J jq;fpnry;fpd;wd.
Gypfis ghJfhf;f g;uhm[f;l; ilfh; Vw;gLj;jpaJ Nghy
ahidfis
moptpypUe;J
fhg;ghw;w
g;uhn[f;l;
vd;w
ghJfhg;G jpl;lk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
rpg;Nfh ,af;fk; Nghd;W mgpf;Nfh vd;w ,af;fk; fh;ehlf
khepyj;jpy;
njhlq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,t;tpaf;fk;
Nkw;F
njhlh;rr
; p kiyapypUe;J> fpof;F njhlh;rr
; p kiy tiu
tdg;ghJfhg;G ,af;fkhf nray;gLfpwJ.
,t;tpaf;fj;jpd; kpf gpugykhd Kof;f thrfk; ghJfhf;f>
tsh;ff
; > tpNtfkhf cgNahfpf;f.
caph;Nfhs Nrkpg;G ngl;lfq;fs; (Biosphere - Reserve)
caph;fN; fhs Nrkpg;G ngl;lfk; vd;gJ xU ghJfhf;fg;gl;l
gpuj;jpNahf Gtpg;gFjpfspd; cyfyhtpa tiy mikg;ghFk;.
27
jkpo;ehl;by; %d;W caph;fN; fhs Nrkpg;G ngl;lfg;gFjpfs; xU
fz;lj;jpw;Fhpa gz;Gfs; midj;Jk; ,e;jpahtpy;

fhzg;gLtjhy; ,e;jpahit xU Jizf;fz;lk; vd;W
miof;fpNwhk;.
miktplKk; gug;gsTk;
,e;jpah 80 4' tlml;rk; Kjy; 370 6' tl ml;rk; tiuapYk;
680 7' fpof;F jPhf
; f
; k; Kjy; 970 25' fpof;F jph;ff
; k;
tiuapYk; gutpAs;sJ.
230 30' tlf;F ml;rkhd flfNuif ,e;jpahtpd; FWf;fhf
nrd;W ehl;il ,U gFjpfshf gphpf;fpd;wJ.
,e;jpah 32>87>263 r.fp.kP gug;gsit nfhz;Ls;sJ.
,e;jpah tlf;Nf fh\;khP ; Kjy; njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu
3214 fp.kP. ePsj;ijAk;> Nkw;nf F[uhj; Kjy; fpof;Nf
mUzhr;rygpunjrk;
tiu
2933
fp.kP.
mfyj;ijAk;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j flw;fiu ePsk; - 7516 fp.kP. ,e;jpa
epyg;gFjp flw;fiuapd; ePsk; 6100 fp.kP.
INuhg;gpa ehLfSld; R+a]; ehy;tha; topahfTk;
rPdh> [g;ghd; kw;Wk; M];jpNutpa ehLfSld; kyhf;fh
ePhr
; r
; e;jp topahfTk;>tzpfk; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu nray;fspy;
<Lgl ,e;jpahtpd; miktplk; VJthf cs;sJ.
,e;jpa jpl;l Neuk;
jPhf
; f
;
NfhLfs;
Xh;
,lj;jpd;
Neuj;ij
fzf;fplg;
gzd;glfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd; eLNt myfhghj; topahf nry;Yk; 820 30'
fpof;Fj; jPhf
; f
; k; ,e;jpaj; jpl;l Neuj;ij fzf;fpl cjTk;.
,e;jpaj; jpl;l Neuk; fphpd;tpr; 00 jPhf
; f
; Neuj;ij tpl 5
kzp 30 epkplk; Kd;djhf cs;sJ.
,e;jpahTk; mjd; mz;il ehLfSk;
ehLfSk
,e;jpahtpy; fpof;Nf cs;s kiyj;njhlh;fs; ,e;jpahit
kpahd;khhpypUe;J gphpf;fpd;wJ.
Nkw;fpYs;s ghfp];jhd;> Mg;fhdp];jhd; tlf;fpy; Neghsk;>
G+lhd; kw;Wk; rPdh cs;sd.
fpof;fpy; tq;fhsNjrk; kw;Wk; kpahd;kh; vy;iyfshf
,Uf;fpd;wJ.
,e;jpahtpypUe;J njw;fpy; cs;s ,yq;ifia ghf; ePhr; r; e;jp
gphpf;fpd;wJ.
,e;JF\;
kw;Wk;
fhuNfhuk;
kiyfisf;
nfhz;l
,kakiyj;
njhlh;fs;
,e;jpahtpd;
tlf;F
,aw;if
vy;iyahf mike;j cs;sd.
tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; cs;s me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; jPTfSk;>
mugpf;flypy; cs;s ,yl;rj; jPTfSk; ,e;jpa A+dpad;
tpuNjrq;fshf mike;Js;sd.
Ntw;Wikapy; xw;Wik
,e;jpahtpd; kpf cah;ej
;
kiyr;rpfukhf tpsq;Fk; K2
,e;jpah miktplKk; ,aw;if mikg;Gk;
vdg;gLk; fhl;tpd; M];bd; ,e;jpahtpy; cs;sJ. ,J POIL
miktplk;
y; cs;sJ.
,e;jpah Mrpaf; fz;lj;jpd; njd;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.
Neghyj;jpYs;s vtnu];l; rpfuk; ,kakiyapd; kpf
tuyhw;Wf; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpah ghujk; vd;Wk; ,e;J];jhd;
cah;ej
; rpfukhFk;. cauk; 8848 kPll
; h;.
vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpa epyg;gFjpapd; kpf cah;ej
; rpfuk; - fQ;rd; [q;fh
Kw;fhyj;jpy; typik tha;e;j murdhf ,Ue;j gujd; kpf mjpf kio ngWk; gFjp NkfhyahtpYs;s rpuGQ;rp.
vd;gtiug; gpd;gw;wp ,e;jpahit ghujk; vd;Wk;
kpff;Fiwe;j
kiongWk;
gFjpahd
jhh;ghiytdKk;
rpe;J Mw;wpd; ngauhy; ,e;J];jhd; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.
,q;Fjhd; mike;Js;sJ.
,jd;gpd; te;j INuhg;gpah;fs; rpe;J vd;w nrhy;ypd; Nkw;F
tq;fj;jpy;
khq;FNuht;
kuq;fs;
nfhz;l
mbg;gilapNyNa ,e;jpah vd;W ngahpl;ldh;.
Re;jutdq;fSk;
,e;jpah xU Jizf;fz;lk;
jhh;
ghiytdj;jpd;
Gjh;fSk;
Mq;fhq;Nf
gutpf;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
cs;sd. 1) ePyfphp 2) kd;dhh; tisFlh> 3) mf];jpa

kiy MFk;.
(Ethopnal)
fyg;G
thfd
vhpnghUis
2003
Mk;
Mz;bypUe;J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
jkpof tdj;Jiw fuQ;rhtpd; (Gq;fk;) ,Ue;J jahhpf;Fk;
caph;
vhpnghUs;
v];hpgphpNf\d;
epiyaq;fs;
%d;W
XR+hpYk;> Jhj;Jf;FbapYk; mike;Js;sJ.
v];lhpgpNf\d; (Esterification) vd;w gjk; ,U vjph;khw;w
nray;fSf;F ,ilNa cz;lhd ,urhaz tpistpd; %yk;
cUthFk; xU nghUis (ester) Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
fhl;lhkzf;F toijfisf; nfhz;L caph; vhprf;jp
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Ntk;G>
fuQ;rh(Gq;fk;)
tpijfspy;
,Ue;Jk;
caph;
vhpnghUs;jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
jw;Nghija Njitfisg; G+h;jj
; p nra;tij kl;Lk;Nehf;fkhf
nfhs;shky;> vjph;fhy jiyKiwapdhpd; ts chpik
ghJfhg;igAk;
kdjpy;
nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;.
,j;jifa
tsh;rr
; pj;
jpl;lq;fNs
epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;l
tsh;rr
; pf;F
(Sustainable Development) toptFf;Fk;.
1. jkpo;ehl;bd; fk;gk; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; ........................... tif kz;
mhpg;G Vw;gLfpwJ.
m) fhw;W
M) MW ,) gdpahW <) miy tpil ; m
2.
fhl;Lg;
nghUl;fs;
rPuhff;
fpilf;f
xU
gFjpapy;
.......................... gq;F fhLfshf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
m) ehd;fpy; %d;W
M) %d;wpy; ,uz;L
,) %d;wpy; xd;W
<) Ie;jpy; xd;W
tpil : ,
3. tpyq;F
; fis tsh;jJ
;
tUlj;jpd; xU gUtj;jpy; kl;LNk
mjd; Nuhkq;fis vlj;
vlj;J cgNahfpj;jy; ............................
MFk;.
m) ghJfhj;jy;
M) guhkhpj;jy;
,) fhg;ghw;Wjy;
<) mopj;jy;
tpil : <
4. tpyq;Ffis mjd; thOk; ,lj;jpNyNa ghJfhj;jy;
........................ MFk;
MFk.;
m) guhkhpj;jy;
M) ruzhyak;
,) G+q;fh
<) kpUff;fhl;rp rhiy
tpil : M
5. gdq;nfhl;il nrwtp> fpYtha; thj;J kw;Wk; kl;b %f;F
nrwtp Mfpait .......................... gwitfs;.
m) ,lk;tpl;L ,lk; ngaUk;
M) RNjrp
,) tl;lhuk;
<) cs;ehl;L
tpil : m
1. kd;dhh; tisFlh
- fly; G+q;fh
2. nfhbaf;fiu
- gwitfs; ruzhyak;
3. mfj;jpa kiy
- caph;fN
; fhsr; Nrkpg;G ngl;lfk;
4. KJkiy
- ahidg;ghJfhg;gfk;
5. Kz;le;Jiu
- Gtpg; ghJfhg;gfk;
28
,e;jpah vf;flTisAk; topgl KOr; Rje;jpuk; mspf;Fk; Xh; ,khr;ry;

tlf;Nf ,khj;hp kiyf;Fk;< njw;Nf rpthypf; kiyf;Fk;
kjr; rhh;gw;w ehL.
,e;jpahtpd; ,aw;if mikg;G gphpTfs;
epyj;Njhw;wq;fspd;
mbg;gilapy;
,e;jpahtpd;
,aw;ifaikg;ig Ie;J ngUk; gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
1) tlf;F kiyfs;
2) tl,e;jpa ngUk; rkntspfs;
3) jPgfw;g gPlG+kp
4) flw;fiur; rkntspfs;
5) jPTfs;
,e;jpahtpd;
epyg;gug;gpy;
29.3%
kiyfshfTk;>
Fd;WfshfTk;>
27.7%
gPlG+kpfshfTk;
43%
rkntspfshfTk; cs;sJ.
,kakiyfs;
tlf;F kiyfs; vd;gJ ,kakiyfis Fwpg;gjhFk;.
,kakiyfs; gdp ciwtplk; vd;W miog;ghh;fs;.
Nkw;Nf [k;K fh\;kphpy; cs;s rpe;J gs;sj;jhf;fpypUe;J
fpof;Nf
mUzhr;ryg;
gpuNjrj;jpYs;s
gpuk;kGj;jpuh
gs;sj;jhf;F tiu ePzL
; nry;fpd;wd.
,kakiy cUthd tpjk;
gy kpy;ypad; tUlq;fSf;F Kd;G xNu xU wpyg;gFjpjhd;
,Ue;jJ. ,ijr;Rw;wp ngUq;fly;fs; R+o;ej
; pUe;jd. ,t;thW
,Ue;j epyg;gFjpf;F ghQ;rpah vd;Wk; mijr; Rw;wpAs;s
ePhg
; ; gFjpf;F ghe;jyhrh vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.
,t;thW gue;j epyg;gFjp ,U gFjpfshfg; gphpe;jj.
tlgFjp mq;fhuh vd;Wk; njd;gFjp Nfhz;Lthdh vd;Wk;
ngahplg;gl;ld.
,e;j ,uz;L epyg;gFjpia gphpf;Fk; ePhg; g; Fjpf;F nlj;j]
P ;
fly; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.
Gtpapd; cs; ,af;f tpirfshy; Gtp nlj;j]
P ; gFjpapd;
epyg;gug;G cah;eJ
;
,kakiyfs; vd;wiof;fg;gLk;. kbg;G
kiyfis cUthf;fpd.
,e;jpahtpYs;s Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh; cyfpd; goikahd
kiyj; njhlh;fSs; xd;whFk;.
Nkw;F ,kakiyfs;
tlNkw;F ,e;jpahtpYs;s ghkPh; Kbr;rpypUe;J fpof;fhf
fhuNfhuk; kiyfs; ,k;kiyj;njhlhpy; mike;Js;sJ.
gy;Nlhuh kw;Wk; rpahr;rpd; vDk; ,UngUk; gdpahWfSk;
fhuNfhuk; kiyfspd; njw;Nf mike;Js;sd.ylhf; gPlG+kp
,e;jpahtpYs;s kpf cah;ej
; gPlG+kpahfTk; mikfpwJ. ,J
tlNkw;F fh\;khP py; mike;Js;sJ.
kj;jpa ,kakiyj; njhlh;fs;
`pkhj;hp
,kakiyapd; tlf;F kiyj;njhliu `pkhj;hp vd;fpNwhk;.
,jd; ruhrhp cauk; 6000 kP MFk;.
cyfpYs;s kpf cah;ej
;
rpfuq;fspy; gy ,k;kiyj;
njhlhpy; mike;Js;sd.
cyfpNtNa
kpf
cauKs;s
8848
kP
cauk;
nfhz;lvtnu];l;
kiyr;rpfuk;
,q;F
mike;Js;sJ.
fQ;rd;[q;fh (8598 kP)> eq;fgh;tj; (8126 kP)> jtsfphp (8167
kP) kw;Wk; ee;jNjtp (7817 kP) Mfpa rpeuq;fSk; ,q;F
mike;Js;sd.
fq;ifapd; gpwg;gplkhd fq;Nfhj;hp gdpahWk;> aKidapd;
gpwg;gplkhd aKNdhj;jphp gdpahWk; ,q;Nf mike;Js;sd.
kiyfspd; FWf;Nf fhzg;gLk; ,aw;ifg; ghijfis
fztha;fs;vd;fpNwhk;.
fh\;khP pYs;s nrh[pyh fztha;> ,khr;ry gpuNjrj;jpYs;s
\pg;fpyh fztha;> rpf;fpkpy; cs;s ehJyh kw;Wk; [yg;Gyh
Nghd;wit `pkhj;jphpapYs;s Kf;fpa fztha;fshFk;.
,ilNa ,khr;ry; kiyj;njhlh; mike;Js;sJ.
,g;gFjpapy; cs;s ePzl

; kiyj;njhluhf fh\;khP py; ,Ue;J
tUk; jt;yjhh; kiyj;njhlh; ePzL
; nry;fpwJ.
,k;kiyj; njhlh;fSf;F ,ilNa fh\;khP >; fhq;fpuh> FY

gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; mike;Js;sJ.
Gfo;ngw;w kiy thoplq;fshd =Pefh; ghfy;fk;> Fy;khh;f>;

%Nrhhp
kw;Wk;
nedplhy;
Nghd;witfSk;
,q;F
mikelJs;sd.
Gdpj ,lq;fshd mkh;ehj;> Nfjhh;ehj;> gj;hpehj; kw;Wk;
it\;ztpNjtp
Nfhapy;fSk;
rpwg;Gkpf;f
,lq;fshf
,khr;ry; kiyj;njhlhpy; mike;Js;sd.
,J mlh;ej
;
fhLfs; tsh;tjw;Fk; rJg;G epyq;fs;
cUthtjw;Fk; JizGhpfpd;wd.
rpthypf;
rpthypf; ,kakiyapd; njd;gFjpapy; rpthypf; kiyfs;
cs;sd.
FWfyhd ePzl
;
^d; vdg;gLk; gs;sj;jhf;fs; rpthypf;
kiyj;njhlhpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. rpwe;j vlj;Jf;fhl;lhf
Nluhîdf; $wyhk;.
rpthypf;fpd; njd;gFjpapy; nkd;Jfs;fshd gbTfs; juha;
rkntspia cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
,J
mlh;ej
;
fhLfs;tsh;tjw;Fk;
rJg;G
epyq;fs;
cUthtjw;Fk; jizGhpfpd;wd.
fpof;F ,kakiyfs;
,e;jpahtpd; fpof;F vy;iyfSld; cs;s ,k;kiyfis
G+h;thr;ry; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;.
tlf;fpy; gl;fha; kw;Wk; ehfh Fd;WfSk;> njw;fpy; kPNrh
Fd;WfSk;> fpof;F ,kakiyapy; mlq;fpAs;sd.
,q;F n[ae;jpah> fhNuh kw;Wk; fhrp Fd;Wfs; fpof;F
Nkw;fhf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
tlngUk; rkntspfs;
,r;rkntsp 2400 r.fp.kP. ePsk; nfhz;lJ. Vwj;jho 7
,yl;rk; fp.kP. mstpw;F gutpAs;sJ.
,g;gbTfs; ghgh; vdg;glk; fulkulhd gbTfisAk;> juha;
vdg;gLk; rJg;Gg; gbTfisAk; gq;fhh; vdg;gLk; gioa
tz;ly;
gbTfisAk;
fhlh;vdg;gLk;
Gjpa
tz;ly;
gbTfisAk; nfhz;lJ.
juha;
juha;vd;gJ NrWk;. rfjpAk; nfhz;l xU epyg;gFjp MFk;.
tl,e;jpar; rkntspia ehd;F gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.
1. uh[];jhd; rkntsp
uh[];jhd; rkntsp Muty;yp kiyj;njhlUf;F Nkw;fpy;
mike;Js;sJ.
,g;gFjpapd; Kf;fpa Mwhfj; jpfo;tJ Yhdp MW ,J fl;r;
tisFlhtpy; fyf;fpwJ.
jw;NghJ cs;s fhf;uh MW kiwe;JNghd ru];tjp Mw;wpd;
njhlh;rr
; p vd;W ek;gg;gLfpwJ.
gy cg;G VhpfSk; uh[];jhd; rkntspapy; mike;Js;sd.
rhk;ghh; Vhp kpfg;nghpa vg;GePh; VhpahFk;.
2. gQ;rhg; - `hpahdh rkntspfs;
nly;yp kfl (ridge) gQ;rhg; `hpahdh rkntspfis
fq;ifr; rkntspapypUe;J gphpf;fpwJ.
gQ;rhg;. `hpahdh rkntsp> rl;ny[;. gpah];> uhtpMWfshy;
Vw;glk; gbTfshy; MdJ.
29
`hpahdhtpYs;s
fhf;uh
ejpf;Fk;>
aKdh
ejpf;Fk;
,ilgl;l epyg;gug;Ng `hpahdh rkntspahf mikfpwJ.
3. fq;ifr; rkntsp
,J Nkw;fpYs;s akid Mw;wpypUe;J fpof;fpYs;s
tq;fhsNjrk; tiu Rkhh; 1500 fp.kP. ePsj;JlDk;> ruhrhp 300
fp.kP. ,fyj;JlDk; gutpAs;sJ.
uhk;fq;fh> Nfhkjp> fhf;uh. fhz;lf;> Nfhrp. aKdh ejpfs;
tlf;fpypUe;Jk;> Nrhd;> rk;gy;> gPlt
; h Nghd;w ejpfs;
njw;fpypUe;J cUthfp fq;if Mw;wpd; JizahWfshf
fq;ifAld; NrUfpd;wd.
,r;rkntspapd;
fpof;fpy;
Nuh`py;fz;l;
jho;epyk;
mike;Js;sJ.
gPfhhpd; Jauk; vd;wiof;fg;gLtJ Nfhrp MW.
fq;fh - gpuk;kGj;jpuh MWfs; gy;NtW ,izahWfshfg;
gphpe;J cyfpNyNa kpfg;gue;j rkntspia cUthf;fp
cs;sd.
,r;rkntspapd;
jho;gFjp
Re;jutdk;
vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,g;gFjp Xjj;jhy; Vw;gLk; mlh;ej
; rJg;G epyf; fhLfisf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
4. gpuk;kGj;jpuh rkntsp
gpuk;kGj;jpuh MW
rhq;Ngh vd;w ngaUld; jpngj;jpy;
cUthfpwJ.
,J
,e;jpahtpw;Fs;
EioAk;
Kd;
jpfhq;
mog;
gs;sj;jhf;if cUthf;FfpwJ.
tz;ly; tprpwpfshy; juha; vdg;gLk; rJg;G epyf;fhLfis
cUthf;fpAs;sd.
5. jPgfw;g gPlG+kp
,J Kf;Nfhz tbtk; nfhz;lJ.
,J Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;FNehf;fp rhpe;J cs;sJ.
Mdhy; eh;kij - jgjp gFjpfspy; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhf
rhpe;Js;sJ.
eh;kij MW jPgfw;g gPlG+kpia ,U rkkw;w gFjpfshfg;
gphpf;fpd;wJ. ,jd; tlgFjpia kj;jpa cahepyq;fs;
vd;Wk;> njd; gFjpia jf;fhz gPlG+kp vd;Wk; miog;gh;.
kj;jpa cah;epyq;fs;
1. khs;th gPlG+kp
Muty;yp kiy> tpe;jpa kiy kw;Wk; gz;ly;fhz;l;
Mfpatw;why; R+og;gl;Ls;sJ.
,J yhth vdg;gLk; vhpkiyf; Fok;ghy; cUthfp fUg;G
kz;zhy; Md gFjpahFk;.
rk;gy; ejpAk; mjd; JizahWfSk; Nrh;eJ
; gPlG+kpapd; tl
gFjpapy; gy gpsTfis (ravines) cz;lhf;fpAs;sJ.
2. gz;ly;fhz;l; cah;epyk;
,J aKidahw;wpd; njd;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.
gPlt
; h
kw;Wk;
nfd;
Nghd;w
mWfs;
Mokhd
gs;sj;jhf;Ffis cUthf;fpAs;sd.
3. gfy;fz;l;
gfy;fz;l;
ikf;fhyh
kiyj;njhlhpd;
fpof;Nf
mike;Js;sJ.
gPlG+kpapd; kj;jpag;gFjp Nrhd; Mw;Wf;Fk;> ,ilNa
ePhg
; g
; phpNklhf mike;Js;sJ.
4. Nrhl;lhehfGhp gPlG+kp
jhNkhjh;> Rgh;zNufh. Nfhay; kw;Wk; guhf;fh; MWfs; ,jd;
topahfg; gha;fpd;wd.
,g;gFjpapd;
kj;jpapy;
jhNkhjh;
MW
Nkw;fpypUe;J
fpof;fhfg; gha;fpwJ.
jf;fhz gPlG+kp
tlNkw;Fj; jpirapy; tpe;jpa rhj;G+uh kiyj; njhlh;fisAk;

tlf;fpy; kfhNjt; kw;Wk; ikf;fhyh kiyj;njhlh;fisAk;
Nkw;fpy; Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr; p kiyfisAk; vy;iyfshf
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
jf;fhz tPlG+kp Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhfr; rhpe;Js;sJ.

mjd; fhuzkhf kfhejp. Nfhjhthp. fpU\;zh kw;Wk; fhtphp
MWfs; fpof;F Nehf;fpg; gha;ej
; tq;fhstphpFlh flYld;
fyf;fpwJ.
jPgfw;g ,e;jpahtpYs;s kiyj;njhlh;fs;
1. Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh; cyfpNyNa kpfg;goikahd kbg;G
kiyj; njhluhFk;
Muty;yp kiyj; njhlhpd; kpf cah;ej
; FUrpfhh; (1722 kP)
rpfuk; mG kiyapy; mike;Js;sJ.
jpy;thuh rkzf;Nfhtpy; ,q;Fs;sJ.
2. tpe;jpa kiyj;njhlh;
tpe;jpa kiyj;njhlh; eh;kij kw;Wk; jgjp MWfSf;F
eLtpy; mike;Js;sJ.
,J VOkiyfisf; nfhz;l kiyj; njhlh;rr; pahFk;.
Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyj; njhlh;fs;
,itfs; tlf;Nf jgjp ejpapypUe;J njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp
tiu Rkhh; 1600 fp.kP. tiu gutpAs;sd.
Nkw;Fj;
njhlh;rr
; p
kiyahdJ
Nkw;F
flw;fiur;
rkntspapy; nrq;Fj;jhf cah;eJ
; fhzg;glfpd;wJ.
rhuhtjp Mw;wpy; N[hf; ePht
; o
P r
; r
; p (270 kPll
; h;) Nghd;w gy
ePht
; o
P r
; r
; pfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
jhh; fztha;> Nghh; fztha; kw;Wk; ghyf;fhl;L fztha;
Mfpait Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyapy; fhzg;glk; Kf;fpa
fztha;fs; MFk;.
fpof;Fj;
njhlh;rr
; p
kiyfSk;.
Nkw;Fj;
njhlh;rr
; p
kiyfSk;. ePyfphp kiyapy; xd;wpizf;fpd;wd. ,q;F kpf
caukhd
njhl;lh
ngl;lh
(2637
kP)
kiyr;rpfuk;
mike;Js;sJ.
ghyf;fhl;L fztha; Nfus flw;fiuia jkpo;ehl;Lld;
rhiyfs; kw;Wk; ,uapy; fhijfs; %yk; ,izf;fpwJ.
njd;dpe;jpahtpd; kpf caukhf rpfuk; MizKbahFk; 2695
kPll
; h;.
kiy
thoplkhd
nfhilf;fhdy;
godpkiyapd;njd;
Kidapy; mike;Js;sJ,
fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr
; p kiyj;njhlh;
,it xhprhtpYs;s kfhejpf;Fk;> jkpo;rhl;bYs;s itif
Mw;wpw;Fk; ,ilapy; gpsTgl;l Fd;Wfshf fhzg;glfpd;wd.
Nfhjhthp kw;Wk; fpU\;zh MWfSf;F ,ilgl;l gFjpapy;
,k;kiyfs; fhzg;gltpy;iy.
,jd; tlf;Fg; gFjpapy; kpf cah;ej
; kNfe;jpufphp (1501 kP)
vd;w rpfuk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
njd; gFjpapy; ey;ykiy vd;w gpurpj;jp ngw;w njhlh;
cs;sJ.
4. flw;fiu rkntspfs;
rkntspfs
,J Nkw;fpy; uhd; Mg; fl;rpapypUe;J fpof;Nf fq;if gpuk;kGj;jpuh rkntsp tiu 6100 fp.kP Jhuk; gutpf;
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
Nkw;Ff; flw;fiur; rkntsp
tlf;fpy; fl;r; gFjpapy; cs;s uhd; Kjy; njw;Nf
fd;dpahFkhp tiu ePzL
; s;sJ.
F[uhj;jpd; njd;gFjp kw;Wk; fhk;gl;bd; flw;iug; gFjpAk;
Nrh;eJ
; F[uhj; rkntsp vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
30
nfhq;fz rkntsp F[uhj;jpw;F njw;fpypUe;J Nfhth tiu me;jkhd; 25 jPTfspy; kl;LNk kf;fs; trpf;fpd;wdh;.
Rkhh; 500 fp.kP. tiu gutpAs;sJ.
epf;Nfhghh; jPTf;$l;lq;fspYk; 13 jPTfspy; kl;LNk kf;fs;
fh;ehlfh rkntsp NfhthtpypUe;J kq;fSh; tiu ruhrhp
trpf;fpd;wdh;.
yl;rj;jT
P
mfyk; 30ypUe;J 50 fp.kP tiu ePzL
; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
rkntsp kq;fSUf;Fk; fd;dpahFkhpf;Fk; eLNt mugpf;flypy; mike;Js;s ,yl;rj;jT
P f; $l;lq;fspYs;s 27
mike;Js;sJ.
jPTfspy; 11 jPTfspy; kl;LNk kdpjh;fs; trpf;fpd;wdh;.
,q;F rpwg;G mk;rq;fshf Vhpfs;> fopfs; kw;Wk; fhay;fs; Nyf;fbt;]>; kpdpf;fha; kw;Wk; mkpdpjptp jPTf; $l;lq;fis
1973Mk;
Mz;L
,yl;rj;
jPTfs;
vd
kWngahpl;L
(backwater) fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
mioj;
j
dh;
.
Ntk;gehL Vhp Nfushtpd; kpfg;nghpa VhpahFk;.
,itaidj;Jk; KUifg;ghiwfshy; cUthdit.
fpof;F flw;fiur; rkntsp
rkntsp
Nkw;F tq;f Mw;Wr; rkntspapypUe;J fd;dpahFkhp tiu cs;ehl;L tbfhy;
Muty;yp kiyj;njhlUf;F Nkw;Nf cs;ehl;L tbfhy;
gutpAs;sJ.
fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,g;gFjpapy; Yhdp MW XLfpwJ.
nrd;idapy;
nkhpdh
flw;fiu
Nghd;w
flw;fiur;

,e;j MW M[;kU
P f;F njd;Nkw;F Muty;yp kiyj; njhlhpy;
rkntspiaAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.
cUthfpwJ.
kfhejp kw;Wk; fpU\;zh MWfSf;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk;
,t;thW Nfhtpe;fhh;f; vd;Dkplj;ij fle;J ruRtjp
flw;fiuia tlrh;ff
; hh; flw;fiu vdTk;
Mw;Wld; fyf;fpwj.
fpU\;zh kw;Wk; fhtphp MWfSf;F ,ilNa cs;s
flw;fiuia
Nrho
kz;ly
flw;fiu
vdTk; ,e;j ruRtjp MW G];fh; Vhpapy; cUthfpwJ.
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,it Rf;hp ejp kw;Wk; [t;tha; ejp MFk;.
cj;fy; rkntsp xhprh flw;fiuapypUe;J 400 fp.kP. Jhuk; Yhdp MW F[uhj;jpd; fl;r; gFjpapy; cs;s
uhdpd;
ePzL
;
kfhejp Mw;W rkntspiaAk; cs;slf;fpajhf
jiyg;gFjpapy; cs;s rJg;G epyg;gFjpapy; kiwfpwJ.
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
Yhdp Mw;wpd; ePh; ghNyhl;buh tiu Ritahf ,Ue;j
rpypfh Vhp kfhejp Mw;wpd; njw;Nf mike;Js;s ,e;jpahtpd;
NghjpYk;
uhd;Mg;fl;r;
gFjpapy;
cg;Gj;jd;ikAld;
kpfg;nghpa VhpahFk;.
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
; jL :
Me;jpur; rkntsp ngh;fk;G+h; kw;Wk; Gypfhl; Vhpf;F ,ilapy; rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;en
1.
,e;jpahtpw;F
........................
apy;
tq;fhs
tphpFlh
mike;Js;sJ.
mike;Js;sJ.
Me;jpu flw;fir; rkntspapy; nfhy;NyU Vhp mike;Js;sJ.
m) Nkw;Fjpir
M) njw;F jpir
jkpo;ehl;Lr;
rkntsp Gypfhl; VhpapypUe;J fd;dpahFkhp
,) njd;fpof;F jpir <) njd;Nkw;F jpir
tpil : ,
tiu 1076 fp.kP. ePzL
; gutpAs;sJ.
2. ghf; ePhr
; r
; e;jp ........................ it ,e;jpahtpypUe;J gphpf;fpwJ
5. ,e;jpaj; jPTfs;
m) =yq;fh M) kpahd;kh;
,) khyj;jT
P fs;
me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh;
<) ,yl;rj;jT
P fs;
tpil : m
me;jkhd; kw;Wk; epf;Nfhghh; jPTfs; tq;fhs tphpFlhtpYk; 3. ,e;jpahtpd; eLNt nry;Yk; kpf Kf;fpa jPhf
; f
; f;NfhL
,yl;rj;jT
P fs; mugpf; flypYk; cs;sd.
..........................
.......................... eLNt nry;fpwJ.
me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; jPTfs; 60 t Kjy; 140 t mr;;rk;
m) mfkjhghj;
M) myfhghj;
,) i`juhghj;
tiuapYk;> 900 fp. Kjy; 940 fp jPhf
; f
; k; tiuapYk;
<) xsuq;fhghj;
tpil : M
mike;Js;sd.
4. ,e;jpahtpd; kpf caukhd rpfuk;
m) vtnu];l; rpfuk; M) fhl;tpd; M];bd;
,it 572 rpwpaJk; nghpaJkhd jPTfisf; nfhz;lit.
,) fQ;rd;[q;fh
<) jtsfphp
tpil : M
,tw;wpy; 38 jPTfs; kl;LNk thoplq;fshf cs;sd.
5. fq;if Mw;wpd; gpwg;gplk;
,jd; nkhj;jg; gug;G 8249 r.fp.kP.
m) aKNdhj;hp
M) rpahr;rpd;
,) fq;Nfhj;hp
me;jkhd; jPTf;$l;lq;fis epNfhghh; jpTf; $l;lq;fspypUe;J
<) fhuf;Nfhuk;
tpil : ,
100 fhy;tha; gphpf;fpwJ.
njw;F me;jkhidAk; ypl;by; me;jkhidAk; gphpg;gJ
lq;fd;ghij.
me;jkhd; epNfhghhpd; njd;Nfhb Kidia ,e;jpuh kid
vd;wiof;fpd;wdh;.
ngah;
Mw;wpd; gpwg;gplk;
fyf;Fkplk;
gadilAk; gFjp
kyghh;
rpe;J
ifyh\; kiyj;njhlh;
mugpf;fly;
,e;jpah> ghfp];jhd;
fq;if
myf;ee;jh
tq;fhs tphpFlh
cj;jpug; gpuNjrk;> gPfhh;> Nkw;Ftq;fk;
aKid
aKNdhj;hp
tq;fhs tphpFlh
nly;yp> `hpahdh> cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
gpuk;kGj;jpuh
rkhAq; gdpahW
tq;fhs tphpFlh
tlfpof;F khepyq;fs;
fhtphp
FlFkiy
tq;fhs tphpFlh
fh;ehlfk;> jkpo;ehL
Nfhjhthp
ehrpf;Fd;Wfs;
tq;fhs tphpFlh
Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpd; njd;fpof;Fg;gFjp
fpU\;zh
kfhgNy];tuh;
tq;fhs tphpFlh
kfhuh];buh> Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
31
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1.

2.
eh;kij
mkh;fz;lf; kiy
mugpf;fly;
kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> kfhuh\;buk;
jgjp
gr;khhp kiy
mugpf;fly;
kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> kfhuh\;buk;
Nfhkjp
,kakiy
tq;fhs tphpFlh
cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
fhf;uh
rpthypf; kiyj; njhlh;
jhh;ghiytdg; gFjpapy; kiwfpwJ
`hpahdh>gQ;rhg;>
cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
kfhejp
rhj;G+uh kiyj; njhlh;
tq;fhs tphpFlh
rl;B];fh;> [hh;fz;l;
itif
Vyfphp kiy
tq;fhs tphpFlh
jkpo;ehL
nghpahW
Vyfphp kiy
tq;fhs tphpFlh
jkpo;ehL
nghpahW
Vyfphp kiy
tq;fhs tphpFlh
jkpo;ehL> Nfush
jhkpuguzp
mfj;jpah; kiy
tq;fhs tphpFlh
jkpo;ehL
,kakiyfs; ............................ vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.

m) gdp ciwtplk;
M) ,khr;ry;
,) rpthypf;
<) ,khj;hp
tpil : m
Gdpj jyk;
- Nfjh;ehj;
juha;
- rJg;G epyk;
fh;ehlfhtpYs;s Nkw;Fnjhlh;rr
; p kiyfs; - raj;hp
yhth gPlG+kp
- jf;fhzk;
NfushtpYs;s nghpa Vhp
- Ntk;gehL
,e;jpah - fhyepiy
thdpiy vd;gJ Xhplj;jpd; tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s ntg;gk;>
mOj;jk;> fhw;W> <ug;gjk; kw;Wk; kiog;nghopT Mfpatw;wpd;
md;whl epiyia Fwpg;gJ MFk;.
ml;rq;fs;
,e;jpah 80 4' tl ml;rj;jpw;Fk; 370 6' tl ml;rj;jpw;Fk;
,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ.
230 30' tl ml;rkhd flfNuif ehl;bd; FWf;Nf nry;fpwJ.
flf Nuiff;F njw;Nf mike;Js;s gFjpfs; G+kj;jpa
Nuiff;Fk; kpf mUNf cs;sjhy; Mz;L KOtJk;
mjpfkhd ntg;gj;ij ngWfpwJ.
etk;gh; khjj;jpy; 380 tl ml;rj;jpy; mike;Js;s GJnly;yp
230 nr ntg;gepiyiaAk; 80 tl ml;rj;jpy; mike;Js;s
fd;dpahFkhp 320 nr ntg;gepiyiaAk; ngw;Ws;sJ.
cauk;
Gtpg;gug;gpypUe;J caNu nry;yr; nry;y 165 kPll
; h;
cauj;jpw;F 10 nr tPjk; ntg;gk; Fiwe;J nfhz;Nl
nry;fpwJ.
cjhuzkhf rkntspapy; fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 239 kPll
; h;
cauk; nfhz;l GJby;ypapd; ruhrhp ntg;gk; [Pd; khjj;jpy;
; h;
40.20 nr Mf cs;sJ. mNj Neuj;jpy; 2205 kPll
cauj;jpy; mike;Js;s rpy;yhtpd; ntg;gk; 23.70 nr vdf;
fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ.
3. flypypUe;J Jhuk;
Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; mjpf ntg;gkhfTk; Fsph;fhyj;jpy; mjpf
FspuhfTk; cs;s fhyepiy fz;l fhyepiy vd;fpNwhk;.
4. fhw;W
Nkw;Ff;
fhw;Wfs;
kj;jpaj;
jiuflypy;
cUthfp
,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;F gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ,f;fhw;W
gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh khepyq;fSf;F kioiaj; jUfpwJ.
ntg;gkz;ly Gay;fhw;W tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; cUthfp
,e;jpahtpd; fpof;F flw;fiuia Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ.
ntg;gf;fhw;W
tspkz;lyj;jpd;
cah;
mLf;Ffspy;
fhzg;gLk;
fhw;Nwhl;lj;jpid n[l; fhw;Nwhl;lk; vd;fpNwhk;.
,f;fhw;Nwhl;lk;,e;jpahtpy;
gUtf;
fhw;wpd;
njhlf;ff;
fhyj;ijAk; mJ KbtilAk; fhyj;ijAk; eph;zapf;fpwJ.
vy;epNdh
vd;gJ
Ie;J
Kjy;
gj;J
tUlq;fSf;F
xUKiwf; fhzg;gLk; Xh; thdpiy epfo;T.
,e;jpahtpd; njd; Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W tPr Muk;gpg;gjpy;
,J fhyjhkjj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd; fhyepiy
khd;R+d;
vd;w
nrhy;
mNugpa
nrhy;yhd
nksprpk;
vd;gjpypUe;J te;jj.
,f;fhw;W MWkhjq;fs; njd; Nkw;F jpirapypUe;J tPRfpwJ.
Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy;> Fsph;fhyj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa jq;fsJ
jpiria KOtJk; khw;wpf; nfhz;L tPRk; fhw;WfSf;F
gUtf;fhw;W vd;W ngah;. ,g;gUtf;fhw;wpdhy; ,e;jpahtpy;
ntg;gkz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhyepiy epyTfpwJ.
1. Fsph;fhyk; (brk;
(brk;gh; Kjy; gpg;uthp tiu)
Fsph;fhyj;jpy; R+hpadpd; nrq;Fj;J fjph;fs; kfu Nuifapd;
kPJ tpOfpwJ.
njd; ,e;jpahtpy; mugpf;fly; kw;Wk; tq;fhs tphpFlh
Mfpa gFjpfspy; jho;T mOj;jk; cuthfpwJ. ,jd;
tpisthf fhw;whdJ cah; mOj;jg; gFjpapypUe;J njd;
,e;jpahit Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ,e;jf; fhw;Wf;F gpd;dilAk;
gUtf;fhw;W (Retiring Monsoon) vd;W ngah;.
,f;fhw;W tq;fhs tphpFlhit flf;Fk;nghOJ rpwpjsT
<ug;gjj;ij
ngWtjhy;
jkpo;ehL
kw;Wk;
njw;F
Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpw;F Fsph;fhy kioiaj; jUfpwJ.
kj;jpaj;jiuf;fly; xUjho; mOj;jk; cUthfp fpof;F
Nehf;fp efh;eJ
;
<uhd; kw;Wk; Mg;fhdp];jhidf; fle;J
,e;jpahit te;jilfpwJ. ,j;jho;T mOj;jk; Nkw;fpe;jpa
,ilA+Wfhw;W vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,j;jho; mOj;jj;ij ,e;jpahtpw;F nfhz;L tUtjpy; n[l;
fhw;Nwhl;lk; Kf;fpag; gq;F tfpf;fpwJ.
,jd; fhuzkhf gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh> ,khr;ryg;
gpuNjrj;jpw;F kiog;nghopT Vw;gLfpwJ. ,k;kio NfhJik
tpisr;rYf;F kpfTk; gadspf;fpwJ.
2. Nfhilf;fhyk; (khh;r; Kjy; Nk tiu)
,g;gUtj;jpy; mOj;j epiyapd; fhuzkhf fhw;whdJ
njd;Nkw;fpypUe;J tlfpof;fhf mugpf;fly; kw;Wk; tq;fhs
tphpFlhtpy; tPRfpwJ.
,J Nk khjj;jpy; Nkw;Ff; flw;fiug; gFjpfSf;F Kd;
gUt kioiaj; jUfpwJ.
khQ;rhuy; (Mango showers) vd;wiof;fg;gLk; ,bAld; $ba
kioahdJ tpiutpy; Kjph;tjw;F cjTfpwJ.
32
tlfpof;F
,e;jpag;
gFjpfspy;
tPRk;
jiyf;fhw;W
ehh;nt];lh;
(Norwesters)
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
,j;jyf;fhw;W gQ;rhg;gpy; fhy;igrhfp (igrhfp khj rPuopT)
(Kalbaisagl) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
3. njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W ([Pd; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu)
,f;fhw;W G+kj;jpaNuifia flf;Fk;NghJ mjd; jpir
khw;wg;gl;L njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;whf tPRfpwJ.
Nfushtpd; njd; gFjpia milAk;NghJ gyj;j ,b
kpd;dYld; $ba kioia mspg;gjd; %yk; njd;Nkw;F
gUtfhyk; Muk;gpg;gij fhl;LfpwJ. ,jid gUtkio
ntbg;G (Monsoon Burst) vd;gh;.
nghJthf
njd;Nkw;F
gUtf;fhw;W
,e;jpa
jPgfw;g
mikg;ghy; ,Ufpisfshf gphpfpwJ.
mugpf;fly;fpis
gUt fhw;wpd; mugpf;fly;fpis Xh; typikkpf;f fhw;W. ,J
mjpf kiog;nghopit jUfpwJ.
kiokiwTg; gFjp
tpe;jp rhj;G+uh kiyfspd; topNa nrd;W uh[;kfhy;
Fd;Wfspd; kPJ khjp Nrhlh ehfGhp gPlG+kpf;F mjpf
kiog;nghopitj; jUfpwJ.
Muty;yp kioj; njhlh; fhw;W tPRk; jpirf;F ,izahf
cs;sJ. mjdhy; ,f;fhw;W kiykPJ Nkhj ,ayhjjhy;
uh[];jhDf;F kiog;nghopit jUtjpy;iy.
tq;fhstphpFlh fpis
,J fhrp> fhNuh> n[ae;jpah Fd;Wfspd; kPJ NkhJfpwJ.
<ug;gjk; jhq;fptUk; ,f;fhw;whdJ Gdy;tbt Fd;Wfspd;
kPJ Nkhjp jpBnud Nky; vOk;Gtjhy; ,e;jpahtpNyNa mjpf
kiog;ngWk; ,lkhd rpuGQ;rpf;F fdkioiaj; jUfpwJ.
tq;fhs tphpFlh fpis fhw;W mugpf;fly; fpisAld;
Nrh;eJ
;
,kakiyapd;
mbthukhd
rpthypf;
Fd;W
gFjpfSf;F mjpf kiogl nghopitj; jUfpd;wd.
,e;j
gUtj;jpy;
jkpo;ehl;by;
twz;l
epitNa
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
,J mugpf;fly; fpis fhw;Wf;F kio kiwTg; gFjpapYk;>
tq;fhs
tphpFlh
fpis
fhw;Wf;F
,izahfTk;
mike;Js;sJ.
4. tlfpof;F gUtf;fhw;W (mf;Nlhgh; - etk;gh;)
R+hpad; kfuNuifia Nehf;fp efu Muk;gpg;gjhy; njd;Nkw;F
gUtfhw;W tl ,e;jpahtpy; ,Ue;J nrg;lk;gh; khjk;
,uz;lhtJ thuj;jpy; gpd;Ndhf;fp tu Muk;gpf;fpwJ.
,J
tq;fhs
tphpFlhit
flf;Fk;nghOJ
cwpQ;rp
Nrhokz;lyf;
flw;fiuf;F fdj;j kioiaj; jUfpwJ.
mjdhy; Me;jpug;gpuNjrKk;> jkpo;ehL Fsph;fhyj;jpy; ey;y
kioiag; ngUfpd;wd.
gUtf;fhw;wpd; ,ay;Gfs;
1. Mz;LKOtJk; rPuw;w kiog;guty;
ek; ehl;bd; 80% kiog;nghoptpw;F fhuzkhf miktJ [Pd;
Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu tPRk; njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;Nw MFk;.
cyfpNyNa mjpf kiog;ngWk; nksrpd;uhk; vd;w ,lk;
rpuGQ;rpf;F Nkw;fpy; 16 fpNyhkPll
; h; Jhuj;jp;y; cs;sJ.
kiog;guty;
1. kpf mjpf kio ngWk; gFjpfs;
gFjpfs
200 nr.kP.f;Fk; mjpfkhd kiongWk;.
2. mjpfkio ngWk; gFjpfs;
100 nr.kP. Kjy; 200 nr.kP.
3. kpjkhd kiongWk; gFjpfs;
gFjpfs
50 nr;.kP. Kjy; 100 nr.kP tiu
4. Fiwthd kiongWk; gFjpfs;
50 nr.kP. f;Fk; Fiwthf kiongWk; gFjpfs;
1. ,e;jpahtpy; epyTtJ ..................

m) kpjntg;g kz;lyf; fhyepiy
M) ntg;g kz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhyepiy
,) ntg;g kz;ly fhyepiy
<) Fsph; fhyepiy
tpil : M
2. flw;fiu gFjpfspy; epyTtJ ........................ fhyepiy
m) fz;l fhyepiy M) rkkhd fhyepiy
,) <ug;gj fhyepiy <) ntg;g fhyepiy tpil : M
3. Nkw;fpe;jpa ,ilA+Wfshy; kiongWk; ,lq;fs;
m) gQ;rhg; M) kk;ig
,) myfhghj;
<) nrd;id
tpil : m
4. njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W jpirf;F ,izahf mike;Js;s
kiyfs;.........................
m) Muty;yp
M) rhj;G+uh
,) tpe;jpah
<) ikf;fhyh
tpil : m
5. Nfhil gUtj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpd; tlfpof;F gFjpapy;
m) ehh;nt];lh;];
M) Yh
,) khe;Jhuy;
<) gUtf;fhw;W
tpil : m
1. gUtkio ntbg;G
- [Pd; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu
2. ehh;nt];lh;];
- tlfpof;F ,e;jpahtpd; jyf;fhw;W
3. ePhN
; rkpg;G eltbf;iffs; - kf;fspd; eltbf;iffs;
4. tlfpof;F gUtf;fhw;W - mf;Nlhgh; Kjy; etk;gh; tiu
fhyk;
5. mjpf kio ngWk; gFjp - nksrpd;uhk;
,e;jpah ,aw;if tsq;fs;
GJg;gpf;fj;jf;f tsq;fs;
kPzL
; k; kPzL
; k; vspjhf cw;gj;jp nra;af;$ba tsq;fis
GJg;gpf;fj;jf;f tsq;fs; vd;fpNwhk;.
vLj;jf;fhl;lhf R+hpa xsp. fhw;W> jz;zhP ; Nghd;wit
njhlh;eJ
; fpilf;ff;$ba tsq;fs;.
GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;
gad;ghl;bw;F gpwF kPzL
; k; fpilf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;
GJg;gpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;
epyf;fhp kw;Wk; fr;rh vz;nza; ,jw;F cjhuzkhFk;.
kz;tsk;
Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; mike;Js;s cWjpahd Jfs;fs; kz;
vdg;gLfpwJ.
kz; tsik
kpf Ez;zpa rj;Jf;fshd fe;jfk;> FNshhpd;> nrk;G>
khq;fdp];>
khypg;jd
P k;>
Nghuhd;>
,Uk;G>
Nfhghy;L>
Jj;jehfk; Nghd;witAk;> nghpa rj;Jg; nghUl;fshd
iel;u[d;>
nghl;lhrpak;
kw;Wk;
gh];Ngl;Lfs;
Nghd;wtw;iwAk
kz;zpy;
,Uf;f
Ntz;ba
rj;Jg;
nghUl;fshFk;.
Kf;fpa kz;
1. tz;ly; kz;
nly;lh>
kw;Wk;
flw;fiurkntsp
Nghd;wtw;iw
MWfshy;gbaitf;fpd;w gbTfshFk;.
tz;ly; kz; ,uz;L tifahfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mit
fhjh; kw;Wk; ghq;fh; MFk;.
fhjh; kz; Gjpjhf gbaitf;fg;gl;l ntsph;epwj;Jld; $ba
tz;ly; kzyhFk;.
ghq;fh; kz; fspkz; $ba gioa tz;ly; kz;zhFk;
fq;if-gpuk;kGj;jpuh jho;ej
; Mw;Wr; rkntsp rzy; gaphpl
gad;gLfpwJ.
2. fhpry; kz;
fhpry; kz; jPgg
; hiwfs; rpijTWjhy; cUthfpwJ
33
,k;kz;
Nfhjthp>
eh;kjh
kw;Wk;
jgjp
Mw;Wg;
gs;sj;jhf;Ffspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
nghJthf Rz;zhk;G> ,Uk;G> nghl;lhrpak;> mYkdpak;>
fhy;rpak; kw;Wk; nkf;dr
P pak; fhh;gNdl;Lfis mjpfk;
nfhz;ljhf cs;sJ.
,k;kz; <ug;gijj;ij jd;Ds; Njf;fpitf;Fk; rpwg;Gj;
jd;ik ngw;Ws;sJ.
fhpry;
kz;
ngUkstpy;
kfhuh\;buk;>
F[uhj;>
kj;jpagpuNjrj;jpy; fhzg;gLgpwJ.
3. nrk;kz;
gbfg; ghiwfs; kw;Wk; cUkhwpa ghiwfs; rpijAWtjhy;
cUthdit nrk;kz;zhFk;
,Uk;Gr;rj;J mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLtjhy; nrk;kz; rptg;G
epwkhf cs;sJ.
4. ruis kz;
ruis kz; ntg;g kz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhyepiyapy;
cUthfpd;wd.
,J
jPgfw;g
gPlGkpapy;
ngUksT
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
,jpy; ,Uk;G Mf;i]L ,Ug;gjhy; rptg;G epwk; nfhz;ljhf
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
5. twz;l ghiytdkz;
twz;l ghiytd kz; tlNkw;F ,e;jpa gFjpfshd
,uhI];jhd;> F[uhj; (fl;rp)> kw;Wk; njd; gQrhg; Mfpa
gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
epiyepWj;jf;$ba tsh;rr
; p (Sustaniable developement)
jw;fhy Njitapid g+h;jj
; p nra;tjd; nghUl;L vjph;fhy
re;jjpapdhpd; Njitfis ghjpf;fhky; ,Ug;gjhFk;
,e;jpahtpd; tdtsq;fs;
,e;jpahtpy;
fhLfspd;
nkhj;jg;gug;gsT
Rkhh;
63.72
kpy;ypad; rJu fpNyhkPll
; h;.
,e;jpa gug;gstpy; Rkhh; 19.39%
,aw;ifj; jhtu tiffs;
1. ntg;gkz;ly gRik khwhf; fhLfs;
Mz;L kiog; nghopT 200 nrdlbkPll
; Uf;Fk; mjpfkhd
,lq;fspy; gRik khwhf; fhLfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd
kuq;fspd; mlh;ej
; tsh;rr
; papdhy; R+hpa Xsp jiug;gFjpia
te;J mila Kbtjpy;iy.
Nuh]; kuk;> vghzp> kNfhfdp> ug;gh;> rpd;dNfhdh> %q;fpy;
kw;Wk; yadh];
2. ntg;g kz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhLfs;
70 nr.kP Kjy; 200 nr.kP tiu MZL ruhrhp kio ngWk;
gFjpfspy;
ntg;gkzly
gUtf;fhw;W
fhLfs;
vd;W
miog;gh;.
twl;rpapd; fhuzkhf ,iyfis cjph;jJ
;
tpLfpd;wd.
vdNT ,f;fhLfis ,iyAjph;f; fhLfs; vd;W miog;gh;.
Njf;F> rhy;> rprk;> re;jd kuk;> Ntl;by; kw;Wk; Ntg;gkuk;
3. FWq;fhL kw;Wk; Kl;Gjh;fhLfs;
,t;tif jhtuq;fs; 75 nr.kPfF
;
Fiwthd
ruhrhp
kioasTld; ePzl
; twl;rpahd gUtk; nfhz;l gFjpfspy;
tsh;fpd;wd
Kf;fpakhd kuq;fs; mf;Nfrpah> gid kw;Wk; fs;sp
4. ghiytdj; jhtuk;
kio msT 25 nr.kP Fiwthf cs;s gFjpfspy;
ghiytdj; jhtuq;fs; mike;Js;sd.
,t;tif jhtuq;fs; ngUk;ghYk; Kl;Gjh;fs; mf;Nfrpah>
<r;rkuk; kw;Wk; ghGy; Nghd;w kuq;fis mlq;fpAs;sd.
ghGy; kuq;f
; s; Nfhe;J nghUl;fisAk; mjd; kug;gl;ilfs;
Njhy; gjdpLtjw;Fk; gad;gLfpd;wd.
5. khq;FNuht; fhLfs;
khq;FNuht; fhLfs; fly; fly; Vjq;fs; %yk; ePiug; ngWk;

flNyhug; gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Nkw;F tq;fhsj;jpy; ,f;fhLfis Re;jutdk; vd miog;gh;
,tw;iw glFfs; fl;Ltjw;F gad;gLj;Jth;. ,f;fhLfs;
tpiy kjpg;G kpf;f vhpg;nghUshTk; mikfpd;wd.
6. kiyf;fhLfs;
,kakiyf; fhLfs;
,kakiyj; njhlhpy; 1000kP cauj;jpypUe;J 2000 kP cauk;
tiu fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
,q;F Xf;> nr];nel; Nghd;w gRik khwhj mfd;w ,iy;f
fhLfs; Kf;fpakhf fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
1500 kPll
; hpypUe;J 3000 kP cauk; tiu igd;> bNahlh;>
rpy;th; gPh>; ];g+U]; kw;Wk; nrlh; Nghd;w Crpapiy kuq;fs;
cs;sd.
3600 kP cauj;jpw;F Nky; Crpapiyf; fhLfSk; Gy;
ntspfisAk; jhz;b My;igd; jhtuq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
kpf cauk; nfhz;l gFjpfspy; Nkhr]; kw;Wk; ypr;rd;];
Nghd;witNa jhtuq;fspd; gFjpahf mikfpd;wd.
jPgfw;g
kiyf;fhLfs;
ePyfPhpapYs;s
ntg;gkz;lyf;
fhlfis Nrhyh[; cd;W cs;Sh; ngahpy; miof;fpwhh;fs;.
,t;tif
fhLfs;
rhj;g+uh
kw;Wk;
ikf;fyh
kiyj;njhlh;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
,q;F tsUk; Kf;fpakhd kuq;fs; Nkf;Nfhypah> yhuy;>
rpd;Nfhdh kw;Wk; Ntl;by; Nghd;wit MFk;.
jho;epiy Gy;ntsp
,it 30 nr.kP Kjy; 200 nr.kP tiu Mz;L ruhrhp
kiyasTk; mjpfkhd Nfhil fhy ntg;gKk; nfhz;l
gFjpfspyp tsUfpd;wd.
Nkl;
NklL
; epyg; Gy;ntspfs;
,g;Gy;ntspfs;
100kP
cauj;j
; pw;F
Nky;
cs;s
,kakiyg;gFjpfspYk;> njd;dpe;jpahtpy; Nrhyh fhLfspd;
rpWgFjpfspYk; ,g;Gy;ntspfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
XJf;fg;gl;l fhLfs; (Reserve Forests)
fhLfspd;
nkhj;jgug;gpy;
ghjpf;F
NkYs;s
fhLfNs
XJf;fg;gl;l fhLfs; vd;W murhy; mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
,f;fhLfs; epue;ju fhLfs; vd;Wk; miof;fpd;wdh;.
ghJfhf;fg;gl;l fhLfs;
tdj;Jiwahy; mwptpf;fg;gl;lgb fhLfspd; nkhj;j gug;gpy;
ngUk;ghYk; 3y; 1gFjp ghJfhf;fg;gl;l fhLfshFk;. ,q;F
kuk; ntl;Ltjw;F mDkjp mspf;fg;gLtjpy;iy.
fhLfis mopj;J fhl;L epyg;gug;Gfs;
fhLfs; rhuhj
gzpfSf;F gad;gLj;Jtij epwj;Jtjw;F 1980k; Mz;L
td ghJfhg;Gr;rl;lk; Cw;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Njrpa tdf; nfhs;if
,e;jpah 1984-k; MZ;by; Njrpa tdf; nfhs;if Xd;iw
Vw;gLj;jpaJ.
33 rjtPjk; epyg;gug;gpid fhLfshf khw;WtJ.
fdpk tsq;
;fs;
tsqfs;
1. cNyhff; fdpkq;fs;
,Uk;G jhJ
ehl;bd; tsh;rr
; pf;F Mjuhkhd tskhf ,Ug;gJ ,Uk;FjhJ.
,Uk;G ehfhPfj;jpd; KJnYk;G vd th;zpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyfpd; bkhj;j ,Uk;G jhJ ,Ug;gpy; 20 rjtPjk;
,Uk;GjhJ ,e;jpahtpy; mike;Js;sJ
,Uk;GjhJ
,Ug;gpy;
u\.ahtpw;Fk;
mLj;J
,e;jpah
,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ij tfpf;fpwJ
khq;fdPR
khq;fdpR
cw;gj;jpapy;
,e;jpah
Ie;jhtJ
,ljij
ngw;ws;sJ
34
fbdkhd Jug;gpbj;j ,Uk;G v/fpid jhahhpf;f khqfdpR

Njitahd ,Ug;gjhy; ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiyfspy;
khq;fdpR Kf;fpa gq;fhw;WfpwJ
cyh;
kpd;fyd;fs;
jahhpf;f
khq;fdpR
Kf;fpa
gq;fhw;WfpwJ
cyh; kpd;fyd;fs; jahhpf;f khq;fdpR- il Mf;i]L
gad;gLfpwJ
ghf;irl;
ghf;irl; mYkdpaj;jpd; jhJ MFk;.
mYkdpak; rpypNfl; epiwe;j ghiwfs; rpijTWtjhy;
cUthFk; Nyrhd cNyhfNk mYkdpak; MFk;.
jhkpuk;
kpd;
fUtpfs;
jahhpg;G
njhopwrhhiyfspy;
jhkpuk;
ngUk;gq;fhw;WfpwJ.
ikf;fh
ikf;fh kpd;rhuj;ij flf;fhj nghUshf ,Uf;fjhy; kpd;
nghUlfs; cw;gj;jpf;F gad;gLfpwJ.
cyfpy; ikf;fh cw;fj;jpapy; ,e;jpah 60 rjtPjk;
gq;fspf;fpwJ.
vhprf;jp tsq;fs;
GJgpf;f ,ayhj vhprf;jp tsq;fs;
epyf;fhp

67
rjtpjk;
ehl;bd;
vhprf;jp
Njit
Kyk;
G+h;jj
; pnra;ag;gLfdpwJ
epyf;fhp fUg;Gj; jq;fk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ

epyf;fhpapd; juk; kw;Wk;; fhh;gd; mstpd; mbg;gilapy;
gy tiffshf gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mitahtd> Me;juirl;>
gpl;Lkpdy; ypf;idl; kw;Wk; kuf;fhp.
2.. ngl;Nuhypak;
fdpk vz;iza; vd;wiof;fg;gLk; ngl;Nuhypak; gbTg;
ghiwfspypUe;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ
63 rjtPjk; Kk;ig-iàpypUe;J> 18 rjtPjk; F[uhj;jpYk;>
16 rjtPjk; m];]hkpypUe;J ngwf;fLfpwJ.
3. ,aw;if vhpthA
me;jkhd; jPTfspy; kl;LNk 47.6 kpy;ypad; f.kP. ,Uk;G
cs;sJ.
rkPgj;jpy; fpU\;zh> Nfhjthp> tb epyq;fspy; mjpf msT
,awif vhpahT ,Ug;G cs;sjhf fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
1. mdy; kpd;rf;jp
,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j kpd; cw;gj;jpapy; 70 rjtpjKk; mdy;
kpd; epiyaq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLfpwJ.
2. ePhk
; pd;rf;jp
ANudpak; kw;Wk; Njhhpak; fdpkj;jpypUE;J mDkpd;rf;jp
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
,f;fdpkq;fs; [hh;fz;l; kw;wk; Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh;fspy;
uh[];jhdpypUe;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Nfus flw;fiuapd; kz;zpy; cs;s Nkhdirl;bypUe;J
Njhhpak; ngwg;gLfpwJ.
cyfpd; Njhhpag; gbTfspy; ,e;jpahtpy; 50 rjtpjk;
cs;sJ.
,e;jpahtpy; jhuhg+h; (kfhuh\;buk;)> fy;ghf;fk; (jkpo;ehL)>
uhtj;gl;lh (Nfhl;lh - ,uh[];jhd;) eNuhuh (cj;jpugpuNjrk;)
fhf;guh (F[uhj;) iff;fh (fh;ehlfh) Mfpa ,lq;fspy;
mDrf;jp epiyaq;fs; cs;sd.
GJgpf;fj;jf;f tsq;fs;
R+hparf;jp
R+hpa Xspia Neubahf kpd;rf;jpahf Nghl;NlhNthy; lhapf;
njhopy;El;gk; %yk; khw;w KbAk;.
,k;Kiwap;d %yk; 2 nkfhthl; R+hpa rf;jpia 1r.fp.kP

gug;gstpw;Fs; cw;gj;jp nra;a KbAk;.;
R+hpa rf;jpapy; kpd; rf;jpahf khw;Wk; ikak; F[uhj;jpYs;s
G+[; mUNf mike;Js;s khjhGhpahFk;.
Xjrf;jp
fhk;Ng tisFlh 7000nkfhthl; rf;jp jpwidg; ngw Vw;w
,lkhFk;. NkYk; fl;r; tisFlh (1000 nkfhthl;) kw;Wk;
Re;jutdg; gFjpfspy; (100 nkfhthl;) ,r;rf;jpia cw;gj;jp
nra;ayhk;.
miyrf;jp
jpUtde;jGuj;jpw;F mUfpy; c;ss
; tpfpd;[k; vd;w ,lj;jpy;
150
nkfhthl;
miy
rf;jp
cw;gj;jp
epiyak;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
NkYk; XU nkfhthl; miy rf;jp cw;gj;jp epiyak;
me;jkhd;-epNfhghh; jPTfspYk; epWtg;gl cs;sJ.
1. twz;l epyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLk; kz; ....................... MFk;
m) ghiykz;
M) R+iskz;
,) fUg;Gkz;
<) tz;ly;kz;
tpil : m
2. gUtf; fhw;Wf; fhLfs;.....................
.................... vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
m) madkz;ly gRik khwhf; fhLfs;
M) ,iyAjph; fhLfs;
,) khq;FNuht; fhLfs;
<) kiyf; fhLfs;
tpil : M
3. NkhNdhirl; kzypy; fhzg;gLk; jhJ.....................
m) vz;nza; M) ANudpak;
,) Njhhpak;
<) epyf;fhp
tpil : M
1. fhpry; kz;
- gUj;jp gaph;
2. gOg;G epyf;fhp
- XUtif epyf;fhp
3. khq;FNuht; fhLfs;
- Re;jutdk;
4. GJgpf;f$
; ba tsq;fs;
- R+hpad;
5. GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;
- vz;iza;
,e;jpah Ntshz;ik
NfhJik gapUf;F kpjntg;gk; Njit. Mdhy; new;gapUf;F
mjpf ntg;gk; Njit. Mifahy; gQrhg; khepyj;jpy;
NfhJikAk;> jkpo;ehl;by; ney;Yk; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
tskpf;f tz;ly; kz;> ney; kw;Wk; fUk;G tpisr;rYf;Fk;>
fhpry; kz; gUj;jp tpistpf;fTk; Vw;wjhf cs;sd.
1. goikahd Ntshz;ik
goikahd
Ntshz;Kiw
gy;NtW
ngah;fspy;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m];]hkpy; [Pk; vdTk;> Xhprh kw;Wk;
Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpy; nghL vdTk;> kj;jpag; gpuNjrj;jpy;
khrhd;
vdTk;
Nfushtpy;
nghd;dk;
vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. jd;dpiwT Ntshz;ik
,e;jpa Ntshz;ikapy; mjpf ,lk; ngw;ws;s Ntshz;ik
tif jd;dpiwT Ntshz;ik MFk;.
Fiwe;j
;
msT epyj;jpy; urhad cuq;fs;> vU> fyg;gpd
tpij tiffs;> etPd ,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; ePhg
; g
; hrd
trjpfisg;
gad;gLj;jp
mjpf
tpisr;riyg;
ngw
Kaw;rpf;fpd;wdh;.
jPgfw;g ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa czthd mhprp 44 kpy;ypad;
n`f;Nlh; epyj;jpy; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J cyfpd; mhprp
tpistpf;fg;gLk; kpfg; nghpaehlhFk;. 1977 Mk; Mz;Nl
mhprp cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah jd;dpiwT mile;Jtpl;lJ.
cah;ju ghRkjp mhprp Fiwe;j mstpy; Vw;WkjpAk;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
,k;Kiw
Ntshz;ik
jPtpu
Ntshz;ik
(Intersive
agriculture) vd;fpNwhk;.
3. tzpf Ntshz;ik
,j;jifa
Ntshz;ikapy
gue;j
Ntshz;ik
vd;Wk;
Fwpg;gpLth;.
35
4. Njhl;l Ntshz;ik
,k;Kiw Ntshz;ik kpfg; gue;j epyj;jpy; XNu XU gaph; kl;Lk;
tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Njapiy> fhg;gp> ,ug;gh; Nghd;wit Njhl;l gaph;fshFk;.
,e;jpa Ntshz;ikapd; gUtfhyq;fs;
ngah;
tpijf;Fk;
mWtil
Kf;fpa gaph;fs;
gUtk;
fhyk;
fhhP/g;
[Pd;
(gUt etk;gh;
ney;>Nrhsk;>
(Nfhil)
kio
khj
gUj;jp>rzy;>
njlq;Fk;
Jtf;fk;
fUk;G>fliy
fhyk;)
uhgp gaph;fs; etk;gh;
khh;r;
NfhJik>
(Fsph;fhyg;
(Fsph;fhyg;
(Nfhil
Gifapiy>
gaph;fs;)
gaph;fs;)
Muk;gk;)
fLF>
gUg;G>
tif
jhdpaq;fs;
iraj;
khh;r;
[_d;
goq;fs;>
gaph;fs;
(Nfhil
(gUt
fha;fwpfs;>
Jtf;fk;)
kio
jz;zph;gok;>
Muk;gk;)
nts;shpf;fha;
ney;
,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpakhd czTg; gaph; ney; MFk;.
cyfpd; ney; cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ij
tfpf;fpwJ. ,e;jpahTk;> rPdhTK;k cyf ney; cw;gj;jpapy;
90 rjtPjj;ioj cw;gj;jp nra;fpd;wd.
Rfe;j-; 5> Rf;ujhuh-1 Nghd;wit tPhpa fyg;gpd tpij
tiffs;
,e;jpa tptrha Muha;rr
; pf;fofk; (ICAR)1929 Mk; Mz;L
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; ney; cw;gj;jp
jkpo;ehl;bYs;s ney; fsQ;rpak; vdg;gLtJ jQ;rhT+h;
khtl;lk;.
rk;gh vd;fJ ePzl
;
fhyg; gaph; ,J Ie;J Kjy; MW
khjq;fs; tiu tsh;fpwJ.
FWit %d;W Kjy; ehd;F khjq;fSf;Fs; tsh;fpwJ.
Kd;dh; mWtil nra;ag;gl;l epyj;jpy; cs;s ney;
jhs;fSld; cOJ gaph; nra;Ak; Kiwia jhsb vd;W
cs;Sh; tof;Fr; nrhy;ypy; $wg;gLfpwJ.
jiyg;G
gRikg;Gul;rp
ntz;ikg;Gul;rp
rhk;gy; Gul;rp
nghd; Gul;rp
kQ;rs; Gul;rp
ePyg; Gul;rp
thdtpy; Gul;rpfs;
cw;gj;jp Gul;rpfs;
pfs;
Ntshz; cw;gj;jp
ghy; nghUl;fs;
Kl;il kw;Wk; Nfhopg; gz;iz
goq;fs; cw;gj;jp
vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs;
fly; nghUl;fs;
NfhJikg; gaph;
NfhJik gaph; Fsph;fhyk; kw;Wk; tre;j fhyg; gapuhfTk;
gaphplg;gLfpwJ.
jpid tiffs;
,it twl;rpiaj; jhq;Fk; gaph;fs;
,jpy;
Nrhsk;>
fk;G>
Nfo;tuF
Nghd;wit
jpid
tiffshFk;.
gUg;G tiffs;
Gujr;rj;Jkpf;f mtiuapdj;ijr; rhh;ej
;
gaph;tiffNs gUg;G
tiffs; MFk;.
gzg;gaph;fs;
fUk;G> gUj;jp> rzy;> Njapiy. fhg;gp> vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs;.
Gifapiy kw;Wk; ug;gh; Nghd;wit Fwpg;gplj; jf;f tzpfg;
gaph;fshFk;.
fUk;G
fUk;G xU ntg;g kz;lyg; gapuhFk;.
,e;jpah fUk;G cw;gj;jpapd; gpwg;gplkhfk;.
fUk;G cw;gj;jpapy; gpNurpYf;F mlj;j ,lj;jpy; ,e;jpah
cs;sJ.
gUj;jp
gUj;jp ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpahd ,iog;gaph; mFk;.
fhpry;kz;> gUj;jp gaphpLtjw;F Vw;w kz; MFk;.
gUj;jp cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah ehd;fhk; ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.
rzy; gaph;
rzy; gUj;jpf;F mLj;jgbahf cs;s kpf kf;fpakhd
,iog;gaph;.
rzy; gaph; tsu xt;nthU Mz;Lk; GJg;gpf;fg;glk; tz;ly;
kz;izf; nfhz;Ls;s nts;sr; rkntspfspy; cs;s kz;>
eph; tbAk; nropg;ghd kz;zhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Gifapiy
Gifapiy 1508 mk; Mz;LNghh;rR
; f;fr
P pauhy; Kjd; Kjyhf
,e;jpahtpw;F nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ.
Gifapiy cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah %d;whtJ ,lj;ijg;
ngWfpwJ.
kw;w ,U Kd;ddp trpf;Fk; ehlfs; rPdh kw;Wk; mnkhpf;fh
If;fpa ehLfs; MFk;.
Njapiy
Njapiy Kf;fpa gzg;gapuhFk;.
fhg;gp
fhg;gp kpf Kf;fpakhd gzg;gaph;> ,e;jpahtpy; gaphplg;gLk;
fhg;gp juj;jpw;Fg; Gfo; ngw;wJ.
,e;jpahtpd;
60%
fhg;gp
fh;ehlfj;jpy;
cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;glfpwJ.
fhg;gp gapuhFk; kw;w khepyq;fs; jkpo;ehl kw;wk; Nfush.
,ug;gh;
,ug;gh;
gaphplg;glk;
gug;gstpy;
,e;jpah
MwhtJ
,lj;ijAk;> ,ug;gh; cw;gj;jpapy; Ie;jhtJ ,lj;ijAk;
ngw;Ws;sJ.
jhtu caph;El;gtpay; tsh;rr
; p
jhtu caph; El;gtpaypy; Ma;Tfis Nkw;nfhs;sTk; %yf
caphpay; (Molecular Biology) kw;Wk; caph; El;gtpay;
(Bio-technology) Mfpatw;wpy; fw;gpj;jy; kw;Wk; gapw;rpia
mspf;fTk; 1985 Mk; Mz;L Njrpa Muha;rr
; p ikak;
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
1. ney; mjpfkhf tpisAk; kz;
m) fhpry; kz;
M) nrk;kz;
,) tz;ly; kz;
<) ruiskz;
tpil : ,
2. Njapiy kw;Wk; fhg;
fhg;gp gaph; mjpfkhf tpisAk; ,lk;
m) kiyr; rhpTfs;
M) rkntspfs;
,) flw;fiur; rkntspfs;
<) Mw;Wg;gs;sj;jhf;Ffs;
tpil : m
3. twl;rpapYk; tsUk; gaph;
m) ney;
M) NfhJik
,) rzy;
<) jpiztif
tpil : m
4. gUj;jp xU ....................
m) czTg; gaph;
M) gzg;gaph;
,) njhl;lg;gaph;
<) jpidgaph;
tpil : m
5. epiyahd czTg; gaph;fs; .........................
m) mhprp kw;Wk; NfhJik
M) fhg;gp kw;Wk; Njapiy
36
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
,) gUj;jp kw;Wk; rzy;

<) goq;fs; kw;Wk; fha;fwpfs;
NfhJik
- gQ;rhg;
fUk;G
- cj;jpug; gpuNjrk;
Mg;gps;
- `pkhr;ryg;gpuNjrk;
ug;gh;
- Nfush
rzy;
- Nkw;F tq;fk;
tpil : m
,e;jpah - njhopyfq;fs;
njhopyf miktplf; fhuzpfs;
fhuzpfs
njhopyf
miktplj;ij
eph;zapf;Fk;
fhuzpfs;
%yg;nghUl;fs;. vhprf;jp> Nghf;Ftuj;J. kdpjrf;jp> ePht
; sk;.
re;ij kw;Wk; murhq;f nfhs;iffs;.
Ntshz; rhh;ej
; njhopyfq;fs;
s
gUj;jpahiyfs;>
rzy;
Miyfs;
kw;Wk;
rh;ff
; iu
Miyfisf; $wyhk;.
gUj;jp Miyfs;
kfhuh\;buj;jpYs;s Kk;ig gUj;jp Miyfs; Kd;dpiy
tfpf;fpd;wJ. NkYk; ,J ,e;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyfpy; gUj;jpahil cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ehLfspy; ,e;jpah
%d;whk; ,lj;ijAk;> gUj;jpahil tzpfj;jpy; ,uz;lhk;
,lj;ijAk; ,e;jpa njhopw;rhiyfs; Kjy; ,lj;jpYk;
cs;sJ.
rzy; Miyfs;
Miyfs
rzy;
cw;gj;jpapy;
,e;jpah
Kjyplk;
tfpf;fpwJ.
Vw;Wkjpapy; tq;fhsNjrj;jpw;F mLj;J cs;sJ.
rh;ff
; iu Miyfs;
rh;ff
; iu Miyfs; ,e;jpahtpd; ,uz;lhtJ kpfg;nghpa
njhopyhFk;.
,e;jpahtpd; rh;ff
; iu cw;gj;jpapy; 70% rh;ff
; iuapid
cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; gPfhh; khepyq;fs; kl;LNk cw;gj;jp
nra;fpd;wd. Mifapdhy; ,e;j gFjp rh;ff
; iu kz;lyk; vd
miof;fg;glfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; ney;ypf;Fg;gk;> GfSh;> Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; kw;Wk;
ghz;bauh[Guk;
rh;ff
; iu
cw;gj;jpf;F
Gfo;ngw;w
,lq;fshFk;.
rh;ff
; iu cw;gj;jpapy; cyfp;y; ,e;jpah ehd;fhtJ ,lj;jpy;
cs;sJ. kw;w %d;W ehLfs; fpA+gh> gpNurpy; kw;Wk; u\;ah.
fhfpj Miy
,J
kuf;$o;>
%q;fpy;
kw;Wk;
rhgha;
Gw;fs;>
cgNahfpf;fg;gl;l fhfpjq;fs;> fUk;Gr;rf;if Nghd;wtw;iw
%yg;nghUshfg; gad;glj;JfpwJ.
fhfpj cw;gj;jpapy; Kd;dzpapy; cs;s khepyq;fs; Nkw;F
tq;fhsk;> kfhuh\;buk;> kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> fh;ehlfh kw;Wk;
Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; MFk;.
,Uk;G v/F njhopyfq;fs; miktplq;fs;
ngUk;ghyhd ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfq;fs; NrhlhehfGhp
gPlG+kp gFjpapy; mike;Js;sd.
1. lhlh ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfk; (TISCO)
1907
Mk;
Mz;by;
lhlh
,Uk;G
v/F
fk;ngdp
[hk;n\l;G+hpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpahtpd; goikahd nghpa xUq;fpize;j ,Uk;G v/F
MiyahFk;.
2. ,e;jpa ,Uk;G v/F FOkk; (IISCO)
Fy;b>
ghd;G+h;
kw;Wk;
`puhG+h;
v/F
Miyfs;
xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;L ,e;jpa ,Uk;G v/F epWtdk; 1919 Mk;
Mz;L ghd;G+hpy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
1972 y; Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;L ,e;jpa v/F Mizaj;jpd; fPo;

nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ. (SAIL - STEELAUTHORITY OF INDIA
LTD) ,J v/F kw;Wk; ,Uk;gpid jahhpf;fpwJ.
3. tp];Nt];tiuah ,Uk;G v/F epWtdk; (VISL)
1923 Mk; Mz;L (ikR+h; v/F epWtdk;) tp];Nt];tiuah
,Uk;G v/f epWtdk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
gj;uhtjp vd;w ,lj;jpyl mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
4. m) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; gpyha; (HSL)
rl;B];fh; khepyj;jpy; Jh;f; khtl;lj;jpy; gpyha; vd;w
,lj;jpy;
1959
Mk;
mz;L
gpyha;
epWtdk;
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
fg;gy; fl;Ltjw;F Njitahd v/Fj; jfLfs; ,q;F
jahhpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
4. M) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; &h;Nfyh (HSL)
,e;j epWtdk; 1959 Mk; Mz;L xhprhtpy; cs;s Re;jh;fhh;f;
khtl;lj;jpy; &h;Nfyh vd;Dkplj;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
kpd;Kyhk; G+rg;gl;l jfLfs; kw;Wk; kpd; v/F jfLfs;
,q;F mjpfkhf jahh; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
4. ,) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; Jh;ff
; hG+h; (HSL)
Jh;ff
; hG+h;
v/F
epWtdk;
Nkw;F
tq;fk;
th;jkhd;
khtl;lj;jpy;
1959-y;
mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
1962-y;
,J
cw;gj;jpia Muk;gpj;jJ.
uapypy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rf;fuk; RoYk; ,URk; uapy;
jz;lthsq;fisj; jhq;fp epw;Fk; ,Uk;Gr; rl;lq;fs; Mfpa
jahhpg;gpy; jdpr;rpwg;G tha;ej
; jhFk;.
4. <) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; nghfhNuh (JHSL)
,e;j
epWtdk;
[hh;fz;l;
khepyj;jpy;
`rhhpghf;
khtl;lj;jpYs;s nghfhNuhtpy; 1972 mk; Mz;L kjy;
,aq;fp tUfpwJ.
v/F jahhpg;gpy; cUthFk; fopT (WASTE) nghUl;fs;
rpe;jphp
cuj;
njhopyfj;jpy;
cu
cw;gj;jpf;F
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
5. Nryk; v/F Miy
jkpo;ehl;by; Nryj;jpy; v/F epWtdk; mikf;fg;gl;L 1977
kjy; v/F cw;gj;jp nra;J tUfpd;wJ.
6. tp[aefh; v/F Miy
fh;ehlfhtpYs;s N`h];gl; khtl;lj;jpy; Nlhh;efy; vd;w
,lj;jpy; v/F epWtdk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
7. tprhfg;gl;bdk; v/F Miy
tprhfg;gl;bdj;jpy; ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; 1992 Kjy;
,aq;fp tUfpwJ.
thfdj; njhopyfk;
njhopyfk;
Kjy; thfdj; njhopyfk; 1947 Mk; Mz;L fh;yhtpy;
(Kk;ig)
gphpkpah;
Ml;Nlhnkhigy;
vd;w
ngahpy;
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
1948
mk;
Mz;L
,e;J];jhd;
nkhl;lhh;
epWtdk;
cj;juhghuh (nfhy;fj;jh) tpy; epWtg;gl;lJ.
kpd;dpay; njhopyfk;
kpd;dpay; njhopyfk; Kjd; Kjyhf 1850 Mk; Mz;by;
thndhyp jahhpg;ig Muk;gpj;jJ.
1950 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpa njhiyNgrp epWtdk; ngq;fShpy;
Muk;gpj;j gpd; ,j;njhopyfk; Gj;jzh;T ngw;wJ.
kpd;dpay;
nghUl;fs;
jahhpg;gpy;
ngq;fSh;
Kjyplk;
tfpf;fpwJ. Mifahy; ngq;fSh; kpd;dpay; jiyefuk;
vd;wiof;fgLfpwJ.
1. gUj;jpahiy xU
m) Ntshz; rhh;ej
; njhopyfk;
M) fdpkk; rhh;ej
; njhopyfk;
37
,) tdg;nghUs; rhh;ej
; njhopyfk;
<) nkd;nghUs; njhopyfk;
tpil : m
2. ,e;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; vd;wiof;fg;gLtJ
m) nly;yp M) nrd;id
,) Kk;ig
<) nfhy;fj;jh
tpil : ,
3. lhlh v/F epWtdk; mike;Js;s ,lk;
m) Jh;fhG+h; M) gh;dG
; +h;
,) [hk;n\l;G+h;
<) gpyha;
tpil : ,
4. NrhlhehfGhp gPlG+kp ................... tsj;jpw;F Gfo;ngw;wJ.
m) ,aw;ifj;jhtuk; M) fdpktsk;
,) tz;ly kz;
<) gUj;jp
tpil : M
5. kpd;dpay; jiyefuk; vd miof;fg;gLtJ
m) fhd;G+h; M) Nfhak;Gj;Jhh;
,) ngq;fSh;
<) kJiu
tpil : ,
1. rzy; njhopyfk;
- Nkw;F tq;fk;
2. thfd njhopyfk;
- jkpo;ehL
3. nkd;nghUs;njhopyfk; - cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
4. ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfk; - Nrhl;lhehfGhp kz;lyk;
5. rh;ff
; iu njhopyfk;
- cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
Rw;Wr; #oy; gpur;ridfs;
fhw;W khriljy;
xt;nthUehSk; kdpjd; ruhrhpahf 20>000 ypl;lh; fhw;iw
Rthrpf;fpd;whd;.
fhw;W khriljYf;F 70 rjtPjk; thfdq;fs; ntspNaw;Wk;
GifNa fhuzk;.
thfdq;fs; Rw;Wr;RoYf;F jpq;F tpistpf;fh tz;zk;
mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;F ghuj; II kw;Wk; III jur;rhd;W
mspf;fg;gLfpwJ.
epyf;fhpia gad;glj;Jk; kpd; epiyaq;fspypUe;J fe;jfil-mf;i]L ntspNaWfpwJ. Nkhl;lhh; thfdq;fspypUe;J
fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;i]L ntspahfpwJ.
fhh;gd; Gif mjpf mstpy; ntspNaw;Wk; ehLfspy; ,e;jpah
5-tJ ,lj;jpy;cs;sJ.
1984 Mk; Mz;L brk;gh; 2k; ehs; Nghghy; thAf; frpT kpf
Nkhrkhd tUe;jj;jf;f epfo;thFk;. ,jpy; 8000 kf;fs;
caphpoe;jdh;.
khRf;fhw;wpdhy; Vw;gLk; jPikfs; XNrhd; mLf;FrPuopT
XNrhd; tspkz;lyj;jpd; Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 24-40 fp.kP.
cauj;jpw;F nky;ypa glykhf fhzg;gLk;.
XNrhd; glyk; jPik tpistpf;Fk; R+hpadpd; Gw Cjhf;
fjph;fisf; fpuf;fpwJ.
XNrhd; glyj;ij Fsph;rhjdg; nghUl;fspy; gad;gLj;Jk;
FNshNuh GSNuh fhh;gd; Nrjg;gLj;jp tUfpwJ.
,jd; fhuzkhf Neha; vjph;gG
;
rf;jp FiwT. fz;Neha;
kw;Wk; Njhy; Gw;WNeha; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
cyfntg;gkakhjy;
gRik tPL thAf;fs; vd miof;fg;glk; fhh;gd;il
Mf;i]L. kPjN
; jd;> ePuhtp> FNshNuh GSNuh fhh;gd;
Nghd;wtw;why; tspkz;lyj;jpy; ntg;gNjf;fk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
mkpy kio
mkpy
kio
1852
y;
Kjd;
Kjypy;
mkpykio
fz;l
; wpag;gl;lJ.
mkpykiof;F fhuzkhd thAf;fs; fe;jf-il-mf;i]L
kw;Wk; iel;u]; Mf;i]L MFk;.
,it ePuhtpNahL Nrh;eJ
;
Mf;]p[d; kw;Wk; R+hpa xspahy;
ePhj
; j
; fe;jf kw;Wk; iel;hpf; mkpykhf khWfpwJ. ,e;jf;
fyit kioahFk;nghJ mkpy kio vdg;gLfpwJ.
mkpy kioapdhy; flypYs;s kpf Ez;zpa caphpfshd
gpshq;ld; caph;tho ,ayhJ.

1.
2.
3.
fly; ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;jhy; gtsg; ghiwfspd; tsh;rr

; p
ghjpf;fg;gLk;.
100
nry;rpa];
ntg;gj;jpw;F
nkyjhd;
KUq;iffs;
tsh;fpd;wd.
khz;lh; pay; (1987) kw;Wk; tpad;dhtpy; 30 ehLfs; gq;Nfw;w
$l;lj;jpy; FNshNuh /GSNuh fhh;gd; gad;ghl;bidf;
Fiwj;J XNrhd; glyj;ij ghJfhg;gJ vd;w KBT
vLf;fg;gl;lJ.
er;Rg;Gif (SmogO)
GifAk;> %LgdpAk; fye;j fyitNa er;Rg;Gif vdg;gLk;.
er;Rg;Gifapy; cs;s khRf;fs; fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;i]L> JhR>
mOf;Fj;
jfs;>
XNrhd;
Nghd;wit
R+hpa
xspapy;
i`bNuhfhh;gd; kw;Wk; iel;u]; Mf;i]l Nrh;tjhy; ,J
cUthfpwJ.
er;Rg;
Gifapdhy;
(Smog)
EiuaPuy;Neha;
kw;Wk;
epNkhdpah Vw;gLfpwJ.
XilfspYk;
VhpfspYk;
,aw;if
rj;J
mjpfhpg;gJ
XilfspYk;>
.......................
m) ePh; khriljy;
M) kpifA+l;l tsKWjy;
,) fhw;W khriljy; <) xyp khriljy; tpil : M
,aw;if fhw;W khriltjw;F Kf;fpaf; fhuzk;
m) thfd Gif
M) vhpkiy ntbg;G
,) mdy;kpd; rf;jp epiyak;
<) ePh; kpd;rf;jp epiyak;
tpil : m
ePh; khriltij ......................... vd;wiof;fpNwhk;.
m) xyp khriljy;
M) fhw;W khriljy;
,) epykhriljy;
<) ePh; khriljy; tpil : M
tzpfk;> Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;G

nghJthf tzpfk; ,Utifg;gLk;. mit cs;ehl;L tzpfk;
my;yJ gd;dhl;L tzpfk; MFk;.
xU
ehl;bd;
vy;iyf;Fs;
eilngWfpd;w
tzpfj;ij
cs;ehl;L tzpfk; my;yJ cs;Sh; tzpfk; vdgh;.
cs;ehl;L
tzpfj;jpy;
epytop
Nghf;Ftuj;J
Kf;fpa
gq;fhw;WfpwJ.
gd;dhl;L tzpfk;
tzpfk
,uz;L my;yj mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ehLfSf;F ,ilNa
eilngWk; tzpfk; gd;dhl;L tzpfk; my;yJ ntspehl;L
tzpfk; MFk;.
gd;dhl;L tzpfj;jpy; fly;top Nghf;Ftuj;J Kf;fpa gq;F
tfpf;fpwJ.
Neub tzpfk;
,U ehLfSf;fpilNa eilngWk; tzpfk; gy;fpis tzpfk;
vdg;gLk;.
gy;fpis tzpfk;
tzpfk
gy ehLfSf;fpilNa cld;ghl;bd; gb eilngWk; tzpfk;
Neub tzpfk; vd;wiof;fg;gLk;.
rhiyg;
rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
ehl;bd;
gy;NtW
gFjpfis
mjpf
rhiyfshy;
xd;wpizf;Fk; vspa topahFk;.
,e;jpa rhiy topg;Nghf;Ftuj;J 3.314 kpy;ypad; fp.kP. ePsk;
nfhz;L cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ nghpa rhiy Nghf;Ftuj;jhf
mike;Js;sJ.
fpuhk rhiyfs;
rhiyfs
,e;jpahtpy;
26>50>000
fp.kP.
ePsKs;s
fpuhkrhiyfs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
khtl;l rhiyfs;
rhiyfs
,e;jpahtpy; khtl;l rhiyfs; 4>67>763 fp.kP. ePsj;jpw;F
mike;Js;sd.
38
khepy neLQ;rhiyfs;
khepy neLQ;rhiyfs; 1>31>899 fp.kP. ePsj;jpw;F ,e;jpahtpy;
mike;Js;sd.
Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs;
,e;jpahtpy; 707548 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs;
mike;Js;sd.
cjhuzkhf Njrpa neLQ;rhiy 47 vd;gJ jkpo;ehl;ilAk;>
NfushitAk; ,izf;Fk; Njrpa neLQ;rhiyahFk;.
,jd; nkhj;j ePskhf 650 fp.kP. 224 fp.kP. ePsKs;s
rhiyfs; jkpo;ehl;L khepyj;jpw;Fs; nry;fpd;wd.
Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs; Fiwthd ePsKila NH47A. ,J
5.9 fp.kP. ePsKilajhFk; - vh;z
; hFsk; - nfhr;rp
JiwKfj;ij ,izg;gjhf cs;sJ.
mjpf
ePsKila
Njrpa
neLQ;rhiy
NH7.
,J
cj;jpug;gpunjrj;jpYs;s
thuzhrpapypUe;J
fd;dpahFkhp
tiu nry;fpwJ. ,jd; ePsk; 2369 fp.kP. ,e;neLQ;rhiyfs;
[gy;G+h;> ehf;G+h;> i`juhghj; kw;Wk; ngq;fSU Mfpa
khefuq;fis ,izf;fpwJ.
jq;f ehw;fu rpwg;G neLQ;rhiyfs;
hiyfs
14.846
fp.kP. ePsj;jpw;F ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa efuq;fis
,izf;Fk; rhiyfshf mike;Js;sJ.
MWtop rpwg;G rhiyfs;
Rkhh; 5846 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nrd;id>
Kk;ig>
nly;yp>
nfhy;fj;jh
Mfpa
khefuq;fis
,izf;fpwJ.
tlf;F
njw;fhf
=efiuAk;
fd;dpahFkhpiaAk;
,izf;fpwJ.
fpof;F
Nkw;F
gFjpfis
,izf;Fk;
rhiyfs; rpy;rhh;-Nghh;ge;jiu ,izf;fpwJ. ,tw;wpd; nkhj;j
ePsk; 7300 fp.kP.
jq;f ehw;fu rpwg;G Njrpa ,izg;G neLQ;rhiyfspd;
Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; Ntfk;> ghJfhg;G kw;Wk; Neur;Nrkpg;G.
muR
jdpahh;
epWtdq;fsplk;
kjyPL
nra;aTk;>
neLQ;rhiyia
Nkk;glj;jp
guhkhpf;Fk;
nghWg;igAk;
nfhLj;Js;sJ. fl;L> nray;gLj;J khw;W (Build, Operate and
Transfer-BOT) vd;w fUj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;ge;jk;
nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
tpiuTtopr; rhiyfs;
,it 200 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F mjpfkhd ePskhd MW topr;
rhiyfshFk;. vlj;Jf;fhl;L Kk;ikapypUe;J GNd nry;Yk;
tpiuT topr;rhiy.
vy;iyNahur; rhiyfs; (Border roads)
,e;jpa muR 1960 Mk; Mz;by; mikf;fg;gl;l vy;iyNahu
mikg;G (Border roads Organisation) ,r;rhiyfisg;
guhkhpf;fpwJ.
,t;tikg;G 46>780 fp.kP. ePsk;nfhz;l rhiyfs; fbdkhd
epy mikg;Gfspy; cs;sJ.
vy;iyNahu
rhiy mikg;ghy; BRO
cyfj;jpNyNa
caukhd
,lj;jpy;
(4270
kP>
cauj;jpy;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.) kdhypiaAk; (,khr;ryg; gpuNjrk;)
fh\;khP pYs;s Ny vd;w ,lj;ijAk; ,izj;Js;sJ.
,uapy; Nghf;
Nghf;Ftuj;J
,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J Kjd;Kjypy; 1853 mk; Mz;L
njhlq;fpaJ.
1947 Mk; Mz;L tiu 42 ,uapy; nghf;Ftuj;J njhFjpfs;
37 jdpahh; epWtdq;fs; eph;tfpf;fg;gl;ld.
1951 Mk; Mz;L midj;Jk; Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;L ,e;epa
,uapy;Nt vd xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;lJ.
Kjy; ePuhtp ,uapy; Kk;igf;F jhNdf;Fk; ,ilNa 1853Mk; Mz;L 34 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F mikf;fg;gl;lJ.

Nghghy;-rjhg;jp ,uapy; ,e;jpahtpNyNa mjptpiuT ,uapy;

MFk;. ,J kzpf;F 150 fp.kP. Ntfj;jpy; Nghghy; re;jpg;GGJby;yp ,ilNa nry;fpwJ.
,e;jpa uapy;Nghf;Ftuj;J tiy Mrpahtpy; kpfg;nghpaJ.
cyfpy;
,uz;lhtJ
nghpajhFk;.
,J
FWf;fpYk;
neLf;fpYkhf 63.273 fp.kP. 7025 ,uapy; epiyaq;fs;
,izf;fpwJ.
nly;ypia jiyikaplkhff; nfhz;l ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J.
,e;jpa
,uapy;
Nghf;Ftuj;J
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ
kz;lyq;fs;
1. kj;jpa uapy;Nt
2. fpof;F uapy;Nt
3. fpof;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt
4. fpof;F flw;fiu uapy;Nt
5. nfhy;fj;jh nkl;Nuh
6. tlf;F uapy;Nt
7. tlNkw;F uapy;Nt
8. tlf;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt
9. tlfpof;F
10. tlfpof;F vy;iyNahu
uapy;Nt
11. njw;F uapy;Nt
12. njw;F kj;jpa uap;Nt
13. njd;fpof;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt
14. njd;fpof;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt
15. njd;Nkw;F uapy;Nt
16. Nkw;F uapy;Nt
17. Nkw;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt
17
kz;lyq;fshfg;
jiyikaplq;fs;
Kk;ig
nfhy;fj;jh
`[pG+h;
GtNd];th;
nfhy;fj;jh
nly;yp
n[a;gG
; +h;
myfhghj;
Nfhuf;G+h;
khypfhd;
nrd;id
nrfe;uhghj;
nfhy;fj;jh
gpsh];G+h;
`Pgs
; p
Kk;ig (Church Gate)
[gy;G+h;
,kakiy gFjpfspy; %d;W ,uapy; ghijfs; kl;LNk

fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
tl,e;jpa rkntsp mlh;ej
;
,uapy;ghij tiyaikg;ig
nfhz;l gFjpahf mike;Js;sJ.
jPgfw;g
,e;jpah
kpjkhd
,uapy;
tiyaikg;Ng
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
Gwefh; ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J
Kk;ig> nrd;id> nfhy;fj;jh kw;Wk; nly;yp Mfpa
ngUefuq;fspy; Gwefh; ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;nfd jdpahf
,uapy; ghijfs;.
nkl;Nuh ,uapy;fs; (Mass Rapid Transit System - MRTS)
nrd;id
nkl;Nuh ,uapy;fs; vdgJ cauj;jpy; mikf;fg;gl;l ,uapy;
ghijapy; nry;git.

nkl;Nuh ,uapy;fs; ika murhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLk;. ,it
njw;F ,uapy; kz;lyj;jhy; ,af;fg;gLfpwJ.
jw;rkak; nrd;id flw;fiuapypUe;J Ntsr;Nrhp tiu 25
fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F (17-,uapy; epiyaq;fs;) nry;fpwJ.
ek; ehl;by; %d;W Kf;fpakhd Foha;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
tiy fhzg;gLfpwJ.
1. Nky; m];]hk; vz;nza; fpzWfspypUe;J nfs`hj;jp>
g&dp> myfhghj; topahf cj;jpug;gpNjrj;jpYs;s fhd;G+h;
tiu
nry;Yk;
Foha;
Nghf;Ftuj;J.
2. F[uhj;jpYs;s ryhahtpypUe;J tpuhk;fk;> kJuh> nly;yp.
Nrhdpghj; topahf gQ;rhg;gpYs;s [ye;jh; tiu nry;Yk;
Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J.
39
3. F[uhj;jpYs;s `[puhtpypUe;J kj;jpa gpuNjrj;jpd; tp[a;gG

; +h;
topahf cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpUs;s n[fjP\G
; +h; tiu nry;Yk;
Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J.
,tw;iwj; jtpu Kk;ig flypYs;s Kk;ig i` vz;nza;
fpzWfspypUe;J Kk;igf;Fk;> Kk;igapypUe;J GNdf;Fk;
,ilapy; mike;Js;s Foha; topfSk; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;.
ePht
; opg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
,e;jpahtpd; cs;ehl;L ePht
; opg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
ePht
; opg;
Nghf;Ftuj;J
nkhj;jk;
14>500
fp.kP.
Jhuk;
eilngWfpwJ.
mjpy; 5685 fp.kP. Jhuk; MWfspYk; 400 fp.kP. Jhuk;
fhy;tha;fspYk; ve;jpug;glFfs; %yk; eilngWfpwJ.
,e;jpa
ePht
; op
Mizak;
5
Njrpa
ePht
; opfis
fz;lwpe;Js;sJ.
Njrpa ePht
; op vz; 1: fq;ifapy; cs;s myfhghj; `hy;bah ghij
Njrpa ePht
; op vz; 2;: gpuk;kGj;jpuhtpy; cs;s irajpah Jghp ghij.
Njrpa ePht
; op vz; 3: Nkw;F flw;fiuapy; rk;gf;fhu
fhy;tha; kw;Wk; cj;jpNahf kz;ly;fhy;tha; - nfhy;yk; Nfhl;lhGuk; ghij.
Njrpa ePht
; op vz; 4: fpU\;zh> Nfhjhthp MWfspy; cs;s
rPuhghj;> tp[athlh ghij> fhf;fp ehlh - GJr;Nrhp ghij.
gj;uhr;ryk; uh[Ke;jphpg; ghij.
Njrpa ePht
; op vz; 5: kfhejp> gpuhkzp MWfspd; jyr;rhh; jk;khuh ghij. fpof;Ff; flw;fiu fhy;tha; kq;fy;fhb ghujPg; tiu ePbj;jpUf;fpwJ.
fly; topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
,e;jpahtpd; flw;fiuapd; nkhj;j ePsk; 7516 fp.kp. MFk;.
,jpy;
13
nghpa
JiwKfq;fSk; 187 eLj;ju kw;Wk; rpwpa JiwKfq;fSk;
nfhz;L mike;Js;sJ.
nkw;F flw;fiuapy; mike;Js;s nghpa JiwKfq;fs;
fz;ly
; h> Kk;ig> [t`h;yhy; NeU> kh;kNfhth> GJ
kq;fSh; kw;Wk; nfhr;rp MfpadthFk;.
fpof;F flw;fiuapy; mike;Js;s nghpa jiwKfq;fs;
jhj;Jf;Fb. nrd;id> vz;Zhh;. tprhfg;gl;bdk;. gpujPg>;
`hy;jpah kw;Wk; nfhy;fj;jh Mfpait.
,e;jpah fg;gy; fl;Lk; njhopypy; Mrpahtpy; ,uz;lhtJ
,lj;jpYk;.
cyfpy; 16tJ ,lj;ijAk; ngWfpwJ ,e;jpahtpy; ehd;F
Kf;fpa fg;gy; jsq;fs; cs;sd.
1. ,e;J];jhd; fg;gy; fl;Lk; jsk; - tprhfg;gl;bdk;
2. fhh;ld; hPr; njhopw;rhiy nfhy;fj;jh
3. Nkrfhd;lhf; - Kk;ig
4. nfhr;rp fg;gy; fl;Lk; jsk; - nfhr;rp
,e;jpa JiwKfr; rl;lk; 1908 kw;Wk; JiwKfr; rl;lk; 1963
,it ,uz;Lk; jdpahh; KjyPL nra;tjw;F topNfhypd.
thd;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J
,e;jpahtpy; 1911 Mk; Mz;L njhlq;fpaJ.
Mdhy; cz;ikahd njhlf;fk; 1932 y; N[.Mh;.b.lh;lh
mth;fshy; lhlh Vh;iyd;]; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,J 1946 Mk;
Mz;L Vh; ,e;jpah vd;W ngah; khw;wg;gl;L gpd;dh; 1953 y;
thd;top Nghf;Ftuj;J Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpad; Vh;iyd;]; cs;ehl;L Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;Fk;
Vh; ,e;jpah ntspehl;L Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;Fk; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
,t;tpuz;Lk; thd;top epWtdq;fs; kl;LNk ,e;jpa thd;topr;
Nritia 1986 Mk; Mz;L tiu Nkw;nfhz;L te;jd.
2007 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpa muR Vh; ,e;jpa kw;Wk; ,e;jpad;

Vh;iyd;]; epWtdq;fis xd;wpizj;J Ne\dy; VtpNa\d;
fhh;gg
; Nu\d;
Mg;
,e;jpah
ypkpnll;
vd;w
ngahpy;
cUthdJ.
NACIL (National Aviation Company of India Limited)
gd;dhl;L tpkhd NritfisAk; NACIL cs;ehl;L kw;Wk;
Mrpah
ehL
njd;fpof;F
kw;Wk;
kj;jpa
fpof;F
ehLfSf;Fk;nry;Yk; tpkhdq;fis ,af;fp tUfpwJ.
NACIL Ij; jtpu jdpahh; epWtdq;fshd fpq;gp\h> ];ig];
n[l;> ,z;lh;FNshg; VtpNa\d; Nghd;wit cs;ehl;L
thd;top Nritfisr; nra;J tUfpd;wd.
,e;jpa tpkhd epiya nghWg;G Mizak; (Airport Authority
of India) 1995 y; epWtg;gl;lJ.
jw;rkak; 129 tpkhd epiyaq;fs; ,aq;fptUfpwJ. ,jpy; 17
gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyaq;fs; MFk;.
gthd; `hd;]n
; `ypfhg;lh; ypkpnll; vd;w nghjj;jiw
epWtdk; vz;nza; kw;Wk; vhpthA fofj;jpd; fly;rhh;ej
;
gzpfSf;F n`ypfhg;lh; Nritia mspf;fpwJ.
jfty; njhlh;G
1. mQ;ry; Nrit
,e;jpa mQ;ry; Nrit 1854 Mk; Mz;L njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
mQ;rypy; Kjy; tFg;G kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; tFg;G mQ;ry; vd
,Utiffs; cs;sd.
Kjy; tFg;G mQ;rypy; Gj;jff;fl;Lfs;> gjpT nra;ag;gl;l
nra;jpj;jhs; kw;Wk;gUt ,jo;fs; (periodicals) mlq;Fk;.
1>55>618 mQ;ry; mYtyfq;fSld; ,e;jpah kpfg;nghpa
mQ;ry; tiyaikg;gpid ngw;Ws;sJ.
Pin Code
8
kz;ly
gphpTfshf
1972-k;
Mz;L
mwpKfg;glj;jg;gl;lJ.
2. je;jp
3. njhiyNgrp
cs;ehl;by; cs;sth;fNshL njhlh;Gnfhs;s (STD) v];.b.b.
ntspehl;by; cs;sth;fNshl njhlh;G nfhs;s I.v];.b
(ISD) Ak; gad;glj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
kf;fs; njhlh;G rhjdk;
1. thndhyp
,e;jpahtpy;
1927
Mk;
Mz;L
kjy;
thndhyp
xypgug;gg;gl;lJ. 1936 Mk; Mz;L mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp
vd ngah;khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
1957 Kjy; Mfhrthzp vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. njhiyf;fhl;rp
,e;jpahtpy;
njhiyf;fhl;rp
Jhh;jh;\d;
vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa tiyaikg;ghFk;.
3. nra;jpj;jhs;
4. ,izajsk;
,izajsk;
vd;gJ
fzpdpfspd;
kpfg;gue;j
tiyaikg;ghFk;.
Muk;gj;jpy;
vOj;Jg;G+h;tkhd
nra;jpfis
kpd;dZ
nra;jpahf
(E-mail0
mDg;gTk;>
ngwTk;
gad;glj;jg;gl;lJ.
,izajsj;jpd; Kf;fpa nritahf ,Ug;git 1. kpd;dZ
mQ;ry;. 2. cyfshtpa tiyj;jsk; (www) kw;Wk; 3.
,izajs njhiyNgrp.
1. xU ehl;bd; vy;iyf;Fs; eilngWk; tzpfk;
m) gy;fpis tzpfk; M) gd;dhl;L tzpfk;
,) cs;ehl;L tzpfk; <) gz;lkhw;W tzpfk; tpil : ,
2. tzpff; $l;likg;Gfs; .................. tzpf tsh;rr
; pia
vspjhf;Ffpd;wd.
40
3.
m) gy;fpis tzpfk; M) Nehpiz tzpfk;

,) cs;ehl;L tzpfk; <) gd;dhl;L tzpfk; tpil : m
ek;
ehl;by;
Fiwe;j
nryT
kw;Wk;
midtuhYk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Nghf;Ftuj;
; ..................
tujJ
m) thd;top M) rhiytop
,) ePht
; op
<) Foha;top
tpil : M
,e;jpa ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J jiyikafk; cs;s ,lk;
m) Kk;ig M) nly;yp
,) ehf;G+h;
<) jpUr;rp
tpil : M
Ntfk; kw;Wk; tpiy cah;ej
; etPd Nghf;Ftuj;J
m) thd;top M) rhiytop
,) ePht
; op
<) ,uapy; top
tpil : m
fpuhkr;rhiyfs;
- gQ;rhaj;J
khtl;l rhiyfs;
- khefuhl;rp
kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt
- Kk;ig
njw;F ,uapy;Nt
- nrd;id
tlf;F ,uapy;Nt
- nly;yp
(GPS) rhh;eJ
; %d;W ngUk; gphpTfs; cs;sd.
gug;Gg;gphpT
24
Kjy;
32
nraw;iff;Nfhs;fis
cs;slf;fpaJ.
,r;nraw;iff;Nfhs;fs; Gtptyg; ghijapy; tyk; tUfpd;wd.
cyf miktplq;fs; fz;lwpAk; njhFjp (GPS) mbg;gilf;
fUj;J
4.
nraw;iff;Nfhs;fspy;
,Ue;J
tUk;
rq;Nfjq;fs;>
miktplk;> fhyk; kw;Wk; Ntfk; vd 3 ghpkhzq;fis
fzf;fpl Fiwe;jj 3 nraw;if NfhshtJ Njitg;gLk;.
5.
cyf miktplq;fs; fz;lwpAk; njhFjp (GPS) gad;ghLfs;
epy msit> Nkg; tiujy;> fly;top Nghf;Ftuj;J ifNgrp
1.
kw;Wk; GEO FENCING Mfpatw;wpy; (GPS) nghjkf;fs;
2.
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdh;
3.
1.
thd;top
Gifg;glq;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp
tiuag;
; Lk;
tiuagg
4.
tiuglq;fs; ..................
5.
m) nrq;Fj;J
M) thd;top
,) ,aw;if
<) murpay;
tpil : m
njhiy Ez;Zzh;T
2.
nghUis
fz;Lgpbf;Fk;
topKiwia
.....................
Gtpapayhsh;fs; njhiy czh;tpfs; (sensors) vd;w
vd;wiof;fpNwhk;.
fUtpfisg; gad;gLj;jp Gtpiag; gw;wpa tptuq;fisr;
m) ,yf;F
M) %yk;
,) czhp
Nrfhpf;fpd;wdh;.
<) gjpkk;
tpil : m
,j;jfty;fs; nghUl;fspd; kPJ gl;L gpujpgypf;fpd;w my;yJ 3. kpd;fhe;jk; gpujpgypg;gij fz;lwpAk; fUtp
jpUg;gp
mDg;gg;gLfpd;wd
R+hpa
xspapd;
kpd;fhe;j
m) ,yf;F
M) czhp
,) nghUs;
miyfis gjpT nra;tjd; %yk; ngwg;glfpd;wd.
<) Gifg;glf; fUtp
tpil : M
njhiy Ez;Zzh;tpd; Muk;gk;
- Vuhskhd topfs;
1858 Mk; Mz;L gpnuQ;R Nkg;gpayhsh;fs; gYhd;fisAk; 1. epy msit
- FWfpa fhyk;
Gifg;glk;
fUtpfs;
nghUj;jg;gl;l
tpkhdq;fisAk; 2. njhiy Ez;Zzh;T
- gpnuQ;R Nkg;gpayhh;
gad;gLj;jp
epyj;Njhw;wq;fis
rha;Nfhzj;jpy;
glk; 3. fhw;wpy; kpjf;Fk; gYhd;
4. tpkhdk;
- thd;top epow;glk;
gpbj;jdh;.
- mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehLfs;
ntt;NtW Nfhzq;fspy; vLf;fg;gl;l glq;fids xg;gpl;L. 5. b.I.Mh;.X.v];(TIROS)
rhpahd msitfisj; jPhk
; hdpf;fpd;w Kiwf;F Gifg;gl
msit vd;W ngah;.
thd;topg; glq;fis gad;gLj;jp tiuag;gLfpd;w epytiu
glq;fs;
my;yJ
Nkg;gpw;F
nrq;Fj;J
tiuglq;fs;
(orthophotomap) vdg;gLfpd;wd.
1960 fspy; njhiy Ez;Zzh;T El;gj;Jiwapy; nraw;fi
; f
Nfhisg; gad;gLj;jpa gpd; xU Gul;rp Vw;gl;lJ.
Kjy; thdpiyr; nraw;fi
; fNfhs; (TIROS-1 - Television and
Infarred Observation Satellite) mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehl;L
murhy; tpz;zpy; Vtg;gl;lJ.
1970 Mk; Mz;L Gtp ts El;g nraw;iff; Nfhs;
Vtg;gl;ljd; %yk; njhiy Ez;Zzh;T El;gj;jJiwapy;
,uz;lhtJ Gul;rp Vw;gl;lJ.
1975 y; ,jd; njhlh;rr; p Nyz;lr; hl; vdg; ngahplg;gl;lJ.
,aw;if Kiw vd;gJ R+hpa xspapy; nghUl;fspd;
gpujpgypg;G> nraw;if Kiwapy; Nulhh; fUtp %yk;
ngwg;gLk; xypia gpujpgypg;gJ MFk;. ,tw;Ws; kpff;
FWfpa miyePsk; nfhz;l fhkh fjph;fs; Kjy; NubNah
miyfs; tiu cs;sd.
cyf miktplq;fs; fz;lwpAk; njhFjp (Globa; Positioning
System)
vy;yh fhyepiyfspYk; 24 nraw;iff;Nfhs;fs; mnkhpf;f
If;fpa ehl;bdhpd; ghjfhg;G gilapduhy; tbtikf;fg;gl;L
,af;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd.
1973Mk; Mz;L cyf miktplq;fs; fz;lwpAk; njhFjp
gioa KiwfspypUe;j Fiwfs; ePff
; g;gl;L gad;ghl;Lf;F
te;jJ.
41

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mstw;w mUshsDk;> epfuw;w md;GilNahDkhfpa Vf,iwtdpd; jpUg;ngauhy;...

MPMPROF TRAINING ACADEMY

TNPSC exam material

[Gjpa ghlj;jpl;lj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;]

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

Nfhspd; jw;Row;rpf; fhyk;

5.79 Nfhb fp;kP

10.82 Nfhb fp.kP

(-) 243 ehs;fs;

22.79 Nfhb fp.kP

77.83 Nfhb fp.kP

142.7 Nfhb fp.kP

287.1 Nfhb fp.kP

(-) 17 kzp 14 epkplq;fs;

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

G+kp Xh; caph;fN

Rod;Wk; Rw;wpAk; tUk; G+kp

G+kpapd; mr;R rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy; gUtfhy khw;wk;

ehk; thOk; G+kp

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

epyg;gFjpfs; nfhz;l G+kpapd; Nkw;gFjp epyf;Nfhsk;

tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk;

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

G+kpapd; ikaj;jpy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; NfhL

fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; Nguh

grpgpf;> Mg;gphpf;fh kw;Wk; ,e;Njh-M];jpNuypah Nghd;wit

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

mq;fhuh kw;Wk; Nfhz;Lthdh vd;w ,uz;L nghpa

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

fz;l NkNyhL rpNahy; mLf;fhy; MdJ.

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

gs;sj;jhf;F my;yJ My;/igd; gdpahWfs; vdTk;

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

ghiwfs; cilf;fg;gLtJ kw;Wk; rpijf;fg;gLtJkhd

thdpiy kw;Wk; fhyepiyfis jPhk

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

kz;lyj;jpypUe;J NknyOk;gpa fhw;W> Fiwe;jntg;gepiyapd;

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs;

Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;

gbfq;fshfNth khw;wg;gLtjpd; njhFg;Ng Nkfq;fs; vd;W

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

vy;epNdh vd;why; ];ghdpa nkhopapy; Foe

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; cah; ml;rNuif gFjpfspy; cUthfp

kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Kbahj R+oypy; cs;s ts

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;en

%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

Kjy;epiy njhopypd; tiffs;

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

jhJf;fspd; gbtq;fs; ghiwfspDhNl Fiwe;j msT

kz;lyg; gapuhFk;. NfhJik tsu Fsph;ej

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

MELAPALAYAM PROGRESSIVE FORUM (MPMPROF)

Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs;

rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;

je;jpj;njhlh;G fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l tUlk;

kf;fs; njhif tsh;rr