SCHOOL POOL

GUIDELINES

July 2006

INDEX
1.

Public Health Requirements

2.

Filtration

3.

Pool Water Sanitization (Chlorination)

4.

pH

5.

Total Alkalinity

6.

Calcium Hardness

7.

Total Dissolved Solids

8.

Water Balance

9.

Stabilized Pool Water

10.

Super Chlorination

11.

Salt Water Pool

12.

Flocculation

13.

Winterizing Pool

14.

Water Testing

15.

Water Testing using a Comparator

16.

Circulation

17.

Algae Control

18.

Pool Safety

19.

Amenities

20.

Pool Contamination

O:\Publications\Pool Water Treatment Guidelines2006.doc

2

Introduction

A healthy swimming pool is obviously one that contains water free from disease-causing organisms
and bacteria, has clear and sparkling water with well-maintained surrounds.
Well managed swimming pools are healthy environments there is negligible risk of infections or
illness.
The purpose is to provide advice and guidance on issues of pool operation and water treatment, so
that school pool operators will be encouraged to:

Follow safe working procedures

Maintain plant and equipment

Achieve regulatory compliance

and

Provide the best swimming experience possible for the pool user

The information in this handbook is advisory in nature.

1.

PUBLIC HEALTH REQUIREMENTS

Public Health Act 1997 (Guidelines for Health Safety)

The importance of maintaining optimum water quality for all school swimming pools cannot be
underestimated and Principals are to be reminded they carry a duty of care to ensure the
swimming pool is maintained at all times meeting current public health requirements.
It is the responsibility of each school to contact their Local Government Environmental Health
Officer to arrange for ongoing monthly samples of the pool water to be tested for the
microbiological quality of water E. coli, and thermo tolerant (or faecal) coliforms. This service has a
fee attached and it is recommended schools budget annually for this service.
What are Recreational Water Illnesses (RWIs)?
RWIs are illnesses that are spread by swallowing, breathing, or having contact with contaminated
water from swimming pools, spas, lakes, rivers, or oceans. Recreational water illnesses can cause
a wide variety of symptoms, including gastrointestinal, skin, ear, respiratory, eye, neurologic and
wound infections. The most commonly reported RWI is diarrhea. Diarrheal illnesses can be
caused by germs such as Crypto, short for Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Shingella, Norovirus, and E.
coli 0157:H7.
Why doesnt chlorine kill these RWI germs?
Chlorine in swimming pools does kill the germs that may make people sick, but it takes time.
Chlorine in properly disinfected pools kills most germs that can cause RWIs in less than an hour.
Chlorine takes longer to kill some germs such as Crypto (short for Cryptosporidium), which can
survive for days in even a properly disinfected pool. This means that without proper care,
recreational water illnesses can be spread even in well-maintained pools.
Healthy swimming behaviours are needed to protect children from RWIs and will help stop germs
from getting in the pool.

How can we prevent RWIs?

Maintain water at recommended levels (see page 33 )

Super chlorinate pool once a week for a minimum of 12 hours (see page 26)
Do not let children with diarrhea swim until at least one week after symptoms have cleared
Discourage the swallowing of water or even getting water in mouth.
Encourage using toilet before swimming
Have a contamination management plan (see page 44)
Have Council regularly check pool water for microbiological quality

2.

FILTRATION

Turnover rate/volume
The filters on a swimming pool must be adequate to handle the required turnover rate or volume of
water necessary to maintain clear, clean and attractive water a 4 hour turnover is the optimum.

Pressure Sand Filters

These filters are a vessel containing sand as the actual filter medium. The sand is not common
beach sand and should never be topped up with any sand except the correct filter sand. The filter
normally has a top layer of fine sand, beneath which are several layers of graded gravel to prevent
intermixing of the filter medium. Below the gravel is a water collecting point for the pool water after
it has passed through the sand. The pressure from the pump forces the water through the sand.
There should be pressure gauges before and after the filter to indicate when a backwash is
necessary.

FILTERING
As the water passes between the sand, the dirt etc. is caught between and on the sand and
remains there. The removal of very fine clay or algae can be assisted by the use of Alum
Flocculation.
The amount of dirt held in the filters slowly increases and at the same time the water flow is slowly
restricted and indicated on the pressure gauge(s), indicating a backwash is necessary.

BACKWASHING
This involves reversing and increasing the flow rate through the filter media and then discharge of
the dirty water to waste. At the start of a backwash the discharge water is very dirty, when the
water becomes clean the filters should be clean (a sight glass in line to view)
Correct backwashing is the most important maintenance procedure for a filter. If it is not
backwashed properly it may develop the following problems:

Mud balls may develop in the sand.

Clay deposits on the surface, not allowing the whole filter area to be used.

Decaying matter on or in the filter medium.

Weak spots may develop reducing the effective filter area.

The time a filter will run between backwashes depends on several factors:
6

Flow Rate

Size and efficiency of the filter.

Clarity of the water.

Amount of wind blown pollution.

Clarity of make-up water.

The efficiency of the backwashing.

ALUM FLOCCULATION
Alum flocculation can be used to assist with filtration. Aluminium Sulphate is used for this purpose.
The Alum is dissolved in water to form a solution that can be fed into the system by metering pump
or by hand. The Alum should be added to the system as far back from the filters as possible, e.g.
balance tank or first reception well, within one or two hours after a backwash.
Aluminium sulphate is available in granular or liquid form.
This chemical is acidic. However, for it to form a gelatinous floe on the surface of the sand, the pH
of the water must be between 7.0 and 7.6; otherwise the Alum may move through the filter and turn
the pool water into a milky looking condition, which is undesirable.
As a general rule use 1 kg alum per 15,000 litres of water pumped. Addition of alum should be
over 1-2 hours immediately after backwashing.
Alum mix should be mixed with water in a 10% solution.

MAINTENANCE
Providing a filter is backwashed correctly the sand should last for many years. A little sand may be
lost over a period of time, this may be topped up occasionally.
An operator should maintain a record of filter operations such as the number of backwashes.
The frequency of backwashes is recommended by the manufacturer of the filters (Range from 1 a
day to weekly).

CARTRIDGE FILTERS
This system, which may be pressure or vacuum, consists of a tank which surrounds a cartridge
made of specially manufactured filtration media.
The filter may be cleaned by shutting off the pump, removing the cartridge and hosing the cartridge
surface. Cartridges require periodic replacement. Unlike sand filters, cartridge filters cannot be
backwashed.

3.

POOL WATER SANITIZATION

POOL WATER SANITIZATION

We have to treat pool water to kill harmful bacteria and to stop the growth of algae. Diseasecausing bacteria and parasites are carried into the pool by wind, rain, pollen and dust, and, of
course, on the bodies of swimmers.
Bacteria are one of the simplest life forms and so tiny that they may become visible only under a
powerful microscope. Once in the pool, these bacteria multiply with amazing rapidity because the
relatively warm water provides an excellent breeding ground. Bacteria multiply by the simple
process of each dividing into two separate living cells.
However, they can be destroyed with chemical treatment. Algae are tiny forms of plant life that
grow to form discoloured water and if left unchecked, will accumulate and become slime.
To be effective, any swimming pool water disinfectant, including chlorine, must:
(1)

quickly control bacteria and other organisms present in the pool water;

(2)

provide sufficient chemical residual (i.e., the amount remaining) in the water to swiftly
control new harmful organisms as they are introduced into the pool.

CHLORINE
Chlorine is an excellent sanitizer. It is the most common form of pool sanitization today, although
new methods with less side effects are now being introduced.
Types Of Chlorine
1.

Chlorine Gas
This is Chlorine in its strongest (100%) and most dangerous form, contained in very
strong cylinders. To use, it must be fed through an instrument called a Chlorinator.
Chlorine in this form is generally used in older public swimming pools, and is slowly
being replaced by more stable and less dangerous methods. Is acidic and lowers pH
and requires treatment with soda ash to maintain alkalinity.

2.

Sodium Hypochlorite
This form of Chlorine is a liquid basically of sodium and water with approximately 12.5%
available Chlorine. Sodium Hypochlorite is generally used in small community pools,
school pools and some home pools. This form of Chlorine is ofen called Hypo. Sodium
Hypochlorite is not a stable product and should be stored inside away from light. It will
raise pH and requires treatment with Carbon Dioxide (CO2) or Hydrochloric Acid to
maintain alkalinity. Safer to use than other forms of Chlorine but more expensive.

3.

Calcium Hypochlorite
This substance is available in powder, granular, or tablet form. It usually has about 6570% available Chlorine. In this form it is easily measured and used. Dangerous if
spilled on moist areas, since lumps may explode when wet. Calcium Hypochlorite in
tablet form is used in the errosion pulsar units, usually maintains PH at 7.5 7.7 ppm.

4.

Salt Chlorination
A saltwater chlorinator is basically a chlorine generator, which comes in two parts; a low
voltage power supply and an electrolytic cell. Through the process of electrolysis the
units convert salt to sodium hypochloride (chlorine) When the chlorine has completed
its work on cleaning the water, it reforms back into salt. It does not sue up any salt
through the process. The advantages of salt in swimming pools, apart from the
chlorination effect are the pleasantness of the water, lack of red eyes from prolonged
bathing, convenience, lower chemical costs and the fact that asthma and hay fever
sufferers can now swim in and under water without adverse side effects.
Common salt is added to the pool water, 4kg for every 1000 litres which is equivalent to
1/8th the salinity level of seawater.

5.

Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate
(A stabilized sodium based chlorine in granule form) used as a booster for salt water
pools especially when large numbers are using pool. Recommended with salt water
chlorinators as it does not deposit calcium on the electrolytic cells.

6.

Ozone Generators
Ozone Generators take oxygen from the air and convert it into very safe levels of
ozone. When ozone is introduced into your pool or spay water, it will remove
contaminants and chemical byproducts which cause poor water quality and unpleasant
odours. Ozone does not contain harsh chemicals. It starts as oxygen and finishes as
oxygen. It will give a sparklier and clearer water.
Ozone generators substantially reduce chemical usage and cost only a few cents a day
to operate.
Ozone is a very powerful oxidizer. It sanitises spay and pool water effectively and
removes bacteria, body oils, urine, deodorants, soaps, viruses, minerals etc. It is a
much stronger oxidant than chlorine and will destroy viruses, which the others wont
touch. Ozone has the advantage of being healing to damaged skin, and will not cause
allergies, dry skin, or hair discolouration.
It is recommended when large numbers are using the pool, as in school lessons,
additional chlorine (calcium hypochlorite) is used to maintain the immediate sanitizing
effect.

7.

UV Treatment
UV works in two ways. Its primary action is to kill bacteria, viruses, moulds and their
spores, drastically reducing the risk of infection to bathers. UV also has an important
secondary action; it initiates photochemical and photo-oxidation reactions which destroy
chloramines, the compounds responsible for unpleasant smells in pools.
UV treatment allows chlorine levels to be kept to a minimum, with only a trace residual
amount (0.55 mg/l) needed. This means bathers can remain in the water for longer
periods without being exposed to excessive levels of chloramines and chlorine smells.

CHLORINE DEMAND
This is the amount of chlorine needed in any particular pool to destroy bacteria or living organisms.
This amount may vary from pool to pool, depending on the swimming load and the amount of
debris and bacteria introduced into the pool.
The amount of chlorine required to treat the water to safe standard, will vary with the following
factors.
(1)

The volume, depth and condition of the water in the pool.

(2)

Type of circulation and turnover.

(3)

The number of people using the pool, also the age.

(4)

Weather conditions.

(5)

The environment, i.e.,subject to wind blown leaves or grass clippings.

(6)

pH level.

(7)

Temperature of water

(8)

The type of chemicals used.

FREE CHLORINE RESIDUAL

This is the active available chlorine left in the water after the chlorine demand has been met. It
serves as a protection against further contamination by harmful bacteria. However, free chlorine is
quickly destroyed by sunlight (UV) and is also liberated into the atmosphere by wind and wave
action.
During early morning and late afternoon, the loss is not as great as at mid-day. By the same token,
on cloudy days the ultra-violet light is filtered out and the loss of chlorine is negligible without
loading.
Free chlorine is more reactive with bacteria at a lower pH level, also a rise in the temperature of
the water will increase the chemical activity of the chlorine making it react faster with pollution
matter. At a temperature of 30C, the rate is 2 to 7 times greater than that at 5C, depending on
the free chlorine concentration and pH.
Free chlorine does not give off any odour, even in the highest concentrations reached in a pool.
The odour is due to chloramines.
Effective chlorination with the free residual chlorine level at least from 0.3 to 0.5 is required to
destroy bacteria and viruses.
The recommended chlorine level is 1.0 2.0 ppm
2.0 3.0 ppm

10

Outdoor Pool
Indoor Pool

COMBINED CHLORINE (Chloramines)

This is the by-product that is formed when the chlorine comes into contact with nitrogen products
from body excretions, such as perspiration and urine, and forms chloramines. Chloramines may
cause eye irritation and create an unpleasant 'chlorine' odour in the pool area. They are not as
effective disinfection agent as free chlorine which is up to 50 times more effective.
People often think that it is the free chlorine in the water that causes eyes to sting, but instead, the
cause is the combined chlorine. Stinging eyes indicate that there is not enough free chlorine in the
water to convert the chloramines into harmless products and to protect the water against further
contamination.
Chloramines are formed to a lesser extent, if the pH of the pool water is maintained between 7.2
and 7.6.
With certain stabilising compounds, or continuous dosing equipment, it is found that a free chlorine
level can be maintained in the presence of combined chlorine. Maintaining this free chlorine level
will continuously destroy the objectionable chloramine compounds and, what is most important, will
ensure a safe bacteriological condition.
For every part of ammonia in the water it will take 8 to 10 times the quantity of chlorine to destroy
it. The destruction of the chloramines is a slow process and may take two or more hours to
complete. As chloramines are being destroyed, fresh ones are being formed by additional pollution
introduced by other bathers.
It is therefore only during periods when the pool is not being used, or at night time, that sufficient
chlorine can be added to destroy the chloramines. If sufficient chlorine has been added at night it
will be found that next morning the chlorine in the water will all be in the free form, i.e. Break Point
Chlorination.
Chloramines should not exceed half the total chlorine or exceed 1.0 ppm. Free chlorine prevents
the growth of algae -chloramines do not. The presence of algae in a pool indicates that the
bacteriological condition of the pool cannot be regarded as safe.

TOTAL CHLORINE RESIDUAL

This is a measure of the total amount of chlorine present in the water to combat bacteria and
algae. It consists of the Free Chlorine plus the Combined Chlorine (Chloramines)
Total Chlorine will have a sanitizing effect but only free chlorine will kill algae.
TOTAL CHLORINE

11

FREE CHLORINE
+ COMBINED CHLORINE

BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION
Means that all the chlorine available is free chlorine. This is achieved by adding sufficient chlorine
to burn out all combined chlorine FREE CHLORINE=TOTAL CHLORINE.
The pool at the start of the days swimming should contain all free chlorine residual at a
concentration of at least 1.0 mg/L. This will be active until sunlight and its conversion to
chloramines reduces its efficiency.
Under normal conditions, the concentration of harmful organisms can be kept low PROVIDED
THAT THEY ARE KILLED OFF REGULARLY EACH NIGHT AND NOT GIVEN THE
OPPORTUNITY TO MULTIPLY.
Frequent testing of the concentration of chlorine, both free and total, together with pH, is required
to build up experience and knowledge for your particular pool.
Remember, it is very difficult to have too much free chlorine in a pool. It is not dangerous, but the
reverse, that is, having too little, can be extremely dangerous.
If sufficient chlorine is added to the pool, the chloramines are destroyed. This takes a large amount
of free chlorine, as approximately 10 parts of free chlorine are required to destroy 1 part of
chloramine. The process also takes place over a period of hours and for this reason a high night
time dosage of chlorine is required.
It can therefore be seen, particularly since free chlorine is rapidly destroyed by sunlight, that free
residual chlorination will only be obtained by treatment with a high dosage of chlorine at night. High
chlorine dosage, combined with efficient filtration, will ensure that each day the pool commences
with a free residual chlorine content. That is to say, at the start of the day, the pool is free of
chloramines while only free residual chlorine is ready to deal with any bacteria and other
organisms that may be introduced

SOURCES OF NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS

The chief source of nitrogenous compounds introduced into the swimming pool which result in the
formation of chloramines, is from the bathers themselves. Quite large quantities of both ammonia
nitrogen and organic nitrogen are discharged into the water by way of perspiration and urine. The
proportion of each varies but it would be fair to say that children are the greatest source of
urination, whilst high air temperatures would increase the rate of perspiration lost by swimmers
occupying the pool.
It is interesting to note that a swimmer will lose up to one litre of perspiration per hour when active
in pool water at 24C with an air temperature of 38C. Also a normal adult excretes a volume of
1.2 to 1.5 L of urine every 24 hours.

12

4. pH
Regardless of the sanitizer used to disinfect water, its ability to maintain sanitary water conditions
will be less than satisfactory if the pH is not properly maintained in pool water.
NOTE: pH is written with a small letter p and a capital letter H

REMEMBER! pH is the relative measure of acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of the

water. A scale of pH ranging from 1 to 14 has been set up in which a reading
of 7 indicates NEUTRAL water.

The lower the pH reading is below 7, the higher is the concentration of acid ions, and the water is
said to be acidic. Conversely, the higher the pH reading is above 7, the higher is the concentration
of alkaline ions, and the water is said to be alkaline.

At pH 7, solutions are NEUTRAL..

ABOVE pH 7, up to the maximum pH 14, Solutions are ALKALINE.
Below pH 7, down to the minimum pH1, solutions are ACIDIC.

Table 5.1 shows a list of the pH of common substances and displays the three rules we have just
learnt.
TABLE 5.1
PH of Common Substances
ALKALINITY
INCREASING
ALKALINE-

NEUTRAL
ACIDICACIDITY
INCREASING

14 - 4% Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda)

13 - Lime
12 11 10 - Milk of Magnesia
9 - Borax
8 - Egg White
7 - Pure Water
6 - Milk
5 - Cottage Cheese
43 Orange Juice
2 - Lemon Juice
1- 0.5% Sulphuric Acid

13

DETERMINATION OF pH
pH may be determined by two methods.
(1) By the Use of Coloured Substances (indicators) which change their Colour at Different pH
vaLues. The different colours produced are compared with coloured glass or plastic standards as
in pool water test kits, or against colours produced in water in test tubes in a laboratory.
(2) Electrically Using a pH Meter. The quality and life of these meters vary considerably, depending
on price, a good one being too expensive for most pool owners.
After the pH of the pool water has been determined, it is then adjusted to the slightly alkaline range
of 7.2 to 7.8, depending on the type of pool it is, by the addition of measured amounts of acid or
alkali.
However 7.4 to 7.6 is considered the ideal. This range is beneficial for both bather comfort and
pool protection, since the human tear has a pH of 7.4.

CHEMICALS USED TO ALTER pH

If the pH is too high, (too alkaline), you must add an acid. This is usually liquid hydrochloric acid or
granular dry acid. All acids including hydrochloric acid, as well as alum should be diluted with or
dissolved in water before adding them to the pool water.
Conversely, if the pH is too low (acidic), you must add an alkaline substance. Sodium carbonate,
also called Soda Ash, is the cheapest alkaline additive but successive additions of it will raise the
pH to levels outside the suggested range very quickly. A better chemical to use is Sodium
Bicarbonate' (also called Dry Alkali or pH buffer). Roughly, twice as much sodium bicarbonate is
used relative to sodium carbonate for the same pH increase but it has two advantages.
(1) Irrespective of the quantity used, the maximum pH reached with sodium bicarbonate is 8.2.
See Fig 1.
(2) It is less likely to cause cloudiness when added to pools with high calcium hardness, e.g.,
marble finish pools or pools situated in areas with a hard water supply.
PH

14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Alkaline
Sodium Carbonate
(Soda Ash)
pH 8.2 Maximum
Sodium Bicarbonate
(Dry alkali or pH Buffer)

Acid

pH RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SODIUM CARBONATE (SODA ASH) AND

SODIUM BACARBONATE (DRY ALKALI OR Ph BUFFER
Fig 1.
14

Either of these chemicals should be dissolved in a bucket of water before adding to the pool.
A dosage chart for adding sodium bicarbonate and dry acid is shown in Table 5.2.

BEFORE ADDING ANY CHEMICALS, CHECK pH WITH YOUR TEST KIT

TABLE 5.2
DOSAGE CHART FOR. pH CORRECTION

POOL
VOL.
(kL)
10
20
30
50
100

NOTE:

ADD SODIUM BICARBONATE

DOSAGE
500g
360g
240g
160g
1.0kg
720g
480g
300g
1.5kg
1.08g
720g
480g
2.4kg
1.8g
1.2kg
800g
7.0kg
3.6kg
2.4kg
1.6kg
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
ACTUAL pH READING

IDEAL pH

7.2 7.4 7.6

ADD DRY ACID DOSAGE

50g
110g
180g
100g
220g
360g
150g
330g
540g
250g
550g
900g
500g
1.1kg
1.8kg
7.8
8.0
8.5
ACTUAL pH READING

260g
520g
780g
1.3kg
2.6kg
9.0

POOL
VOL.
(kL)
10
20
30
50
100

WHEN USING SODIUM CARBONATE (SODA ASH) FOR Ph CORRECTION, ,

HALVE THE QUANTITY GIVEN, I.E., 2 KG SODIUM BICARBONATE = 1KG
SODIUM CARBONATE

THE NEED FOR pH TESTING

The swimming pool operator should test the pH of the pool water regularly since this affects the
bactericidal action of any sanitizer. With regard to pool sanitization, pH is also important in the
preservation of the interior pool surface and pool equipment also it is a factor in water comfort
and the total water balance.
Let us now discuss the importance of pH with regard to the effectiveness of chlorine as a pool
sanitizer. When chlorine is added to water, the gaseous chlorine and water react initially to form
hypochlorous acid in equilibrium with hypochlorite ions (depending on the pool water pH). The
hypochlorite ion does not contribute to the purification reactions. It is the hypochlorous acid
which actually kills the microbial bodies. Its ability to diffuse through the bacterial cell walls and
disrupt their metabolic process accounts for its bactericidal power and effectiveness.
Lowering the pH of the pool water causes more hypochlorous acid and less hypochlorite ions to
form as seen in Table 5.3. Although this results in more of the disinfecting form of the chlorine
being produced the lowering of the pH causes corrosion problems, etching of the pool surface and
irritation to the eyes and skin of the swimmer.
(pH in the range 7.4 to 7.8 is known as the 'comfort zone' since this pH closely approximates the
pH of the human blood. When the human body is immersed in a pH quite dissimilar to that of its
own pHs an irritating condition occurs).
On the other hand raising the pH of the pool water causes less hypochlorous acid and more
hypochlorite ions to form as seen in Table 5.3. This drastically reduces the effectiveness of the
chlorine as a sanitizer.
15

TABLE 5.3
RELATIVITY BETWEEN FORMATION OF HYPOCHLORITE ION AND
HYPOCHLOROUS ACID, DEPENDING ON POOL pH WHEN CHLORINE IS
ADDED TO WATER

pH
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5

HYPOCHLORITE ION
(Non-Disinfecting Form)
3.5
10.0
27.5
50.0
78.5
90.0

HYPOCHLOROUS ACID
Disinfecting Form)
96.5
90.0
72.5
50.0
21.5
10.0

You can see that at about pH 7.5 the optimum balance of 50/50 is obtained so you should aim to
keep your pool pH in the range 7.2-7.6.
A summary of the consequences of low pH or high pH of pool water follows and is also shown in
Table 5.4.
Consequences of Low pH (Acidic Water)
1) Swimmers display red eyes (a condition incorrectly attributed to excessive chlorine).
2) Pipes, fittings, filters and heating coils corrode.
3) Pool surfaces may start to stain or pit.
4) Chlorine dissipates at a fast rate.
5) Vinyl liners become slippery and at a pH of about 5, they will become wrinkled.
Consequences of High pH (Alkaline Water)
1) Water is likely to become cloudy.
2) Scale formation is promoted.
3) The efficiency of chlorine to sanitize is reduced.
4) The skin of bathers becomes itchy as the pH is well outside the comfort zone of 7.4 to 7.6.

16

TABLE 5.4
EFFECTS OF pH

Non Irritating

Irritating to eyes,
etc.

Corrosive to pipes

Too Low

Vinyl Liners Slippery,

etc.

Operating range
still satisfactory
though
effectiveness of
chlorine begins to
decrease.

Ideal range
for most
effective
bacterial
control.

Chlorine
effectiveness
decreases rapidly.

Irritating to skin.

Efficiency of
Chlorine.
Residual is at
a maximum.
6.0

6.8

7.0

7.2

7.4

7.6

Acidic
Alkaline

Increasing Acidity

Increasing Alkalinity

17

7.8

8.0

8.2

8.4

8.6

5. TOTAL ALKALINITY
This is the most important chemical property of your pool water to be tested and it is probably the
least understood.
TOTAL ALKALINITY IS THE MEASURE OF ALL THE ALKALINE
CHEMICALS PRESENT IN THE POOL WATER INCLUDING
BICARBONATES, CARBONATES AND HYDROXIDES.

Total alkalinity is commonly measured in mg/L. A measurement in the range of 80 to 120 mg/L is
usually the most desirable, but as we shall see in the section on 'Water Balance' this is not always
so.
Total alkalinity can be thought of as the buffering system or an alkaline reserve which helps "us in
controlling pH to a great degree. The total alkalinity reading will tell you whether or not your pool is
in proper balance. Note that it is not the same as pH which refers merely to the relative alkalineacid balance. Total alkalinity controls the amount the pH changes, acting as a buffer or resistance
to change. In effect, it is a measure of how much acid can be added to the pool water without
causing a great change in pH.
Low Total Alkalinity
If the total alkalinity is low (< 80 mg/L) , the pH will fluctuate widely even when only a small addition
of sodium carbonate or an acid is added. The effect is likened to a motor car with weak shock
absorbers hitting a bump and responding with a wild bouncing effect. Low total alkalinity can also
lead to staining of the interior surface of the pool.
For the total alkalinity to be high enough to act as a buffer, it needs to be at least 80 mg/L. Sodium
bicarbonate should be used if there is need to raise the total alkalinity content of the water.
High Total Alkalinity
If the total alkalinity is high (>200 mg/L), the pH readings will be high indicating a high demand for
acid to be added to the pool. Until the excess alkalinity is reduced, the pH will rise again to an
excessively high level. High total alkalinity can also be scale-forming (ideal range 110-120 mg/L)
Use liquid hydrochloric acid or dry acid to lower high total alkalinity. Since acid also reduces pH, it
is necessary to add acid in small amounts over a considerable period of time (weeks rather than
days). The reason for the long treatment period is that carbon dioxide gas is initially released when
the acid is added and this lowers the pH, but as the free carbon dioxide gas dissipates into the air,
the pH rises. Continued treatment will lower total alkalinity. A large amount of acid added at one
time would cause the pH to drop too far.
ADJUSTMENT OF TOTAL ALKALINITY
The total alkalinity of water in the pool should be adjusted as soon as the pool is filled with water
for the first time. The test for total alkalinity should be performed about once a week until the
alkalinity is in the desired range. Thereafter, testing once a month should be sufficient unless you
find that the total alkalinity reading is outside the desired range, in which case more frequent
testing is needed.
REMEMBER! ALWAYS ADJUST THE TOTAL ALKALINITY
BEFORE ADJUSTING pH.

18

6. CALCIUM HARDNESS
Calcium hardness is a measurement of the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in your
pool water. Generally about 70 to 75% of the total hardness of pool water is calcium. Too much
calcium is
undesirable because it can cause the formation of calcium scale in the coils of a heater if fitted,
and can also block the filter on pool walls.
The amount of water hardness tends to increase in a pool due to evaporation and additions of
water 'to top the pool up' to the normal level.
The recommended levels for calcium hardness are 80 mg/L to 200 mg/L.
NOTE: The use of calcium hypochlorite also increases the calcium hardness of a pool.
If the calcium hardness reaches a level of 500 to 600 mg/L,the pool should be wholly or partly
drained and refilled with fresh water to dilute the hardness. If the pool cannot be drained, use a
scale prevention chemical to prevent or delay scaling.
On the other hand, completely soft water with no hardness is also undesirable in a pool because
such water tends to be corrosive. A minimum reading of about 80 mg/L is recommended.
If the calcium hardness level in a pool is too low, you can increase it by the addition of calcium
chloride dihydrate. This material is weakly acidic, so you should dissolve it in water before adding
it to the pool. You should then check the pH of the pool one hour after making the addition.
If water used to fill a pool has an excessive hardness value, it may be desirable to pass 70 to 80%
of the water through a softener before adding it to the pool. However, you should not totally soften
pool
water for reasons given above.

19

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

This is a measure in mg/L of the total amount of dissolved materials in the pool water comprising
calcium compounds, sodium compounds, chlorides and sulphates which would become solids if
the water was
completely evaporated. A high TDS generally shows as dull or dead or 'leady' coloured water that
refuses to sparkle despite filtration and chlorine. additions. A high TDS is 1500 mg/L or more.
Usually swimming pool water contains under 1000 mg/L TDS, but measurements can range from a
few hundred to many thousand milligrams per litre. Measurement is done using a TDS meter.
Salt increases TDS but does not cause water problems. The amount of sodium chloride in a saltchlorinated pool can be measured and deducted from the TDS reading for more accurate
calculating of
calcium hardness.
SOURCES OF TDS
Tap water used to fill a pool contains materials which promote hardness in water such as calcium,
as well as dissolved organic and inorganic materials. In addition, salts from the residual of active
chlorine which has been used up to form a chloride, as well as those from perspiration, urine
waste, hair sprays and suntan oil all add to the total. Material dissolved from leaves and grass
clippings as well as dust, etc., also add to TDS.
Once in the pool, TDS material remains and becomes more concentrated as pool water
evaporates.
CONTROLLING TDS
With regular backwashing of sand and DE filters, the pool has to be topped up to replace the water
used in backwashing. This dilutes the TDS level.
With cartridge filters, however, enough water is not discarded to effectively control TDS. It is
recommended that water in the pool be partly emptied and replaced with tap water more regularly
than with other types of filters.
Generally, if the water in the pool has been there for 10 years or thereabouts and has a high TDS,
you would be well advised to partly empty the pool and replace the water. Take care to avoid the
risk
of the partly emptied pool floating out of the ground.

20

8. WATER BALANCE
Introduction
Pool professionals place great importance on water balancing and this view is supported but is
not a requirement of these guidelines.
The term "chemical water balance" means that the swimming pool water is in a state of
equilibrium with calcium compounds. This usually defines water as neither corrosive nor scaling.
A balanced water prolongs the life of a pool and its fittings, assists with preventing stains and
improves bather comfort. If pool water does not have enough dissolved calcium salts it will try to
obtain them by etching or eroding the pool surfaces and fittings. If the pool water has too much
dissolved salts it will try to get rid of the excess in the form of salt precipitates or deposits known
as scaling.
The five factors which determine water balance are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

PH
Total Alkalinity
Calcium Hardness
Temperature
Total Dissolved Solids

Of these, only the first three are normally adjusted to obtain or maintain water balance.
pH
The usually recommended range is 7.2 7.8.
TOTAL ALKALINTITY
The usually recommended range for Total Alkalinity is usually 80 to 200 mg/L However, a Total
Alkalinity rating as low as 40 to 50 mg/L may be adequate in some pools while levels of 140 to 150
mg/L may be barely adequate or possibly inadequate in others.
CALCIUM HARDNESS
Calcium Hardness which constitutes approximately 75% or the total water hardness should be at
least in excess of 80 mg/L, and usually needs to be in excess of 200 mg/L for balanced water.
DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL WATER BALANCE
A. Calcium Saturation Index.
The Calcium Saturation Index can be used to determine chemical water balance from pH, total
alkalinity and calcium hardness. In order to simplify the Calcium Saturation Index, a chart called
the "Water Balance Chart" for temperatures of 30C, has been devised and is attached. Other
more versatile charts are available for purchase from some chemical suppliers and pool shops.
The water balance chart for water at 30C should be used (Fig. 1)

21

For swimming pools, test the pool water for pH, total alkalinity and calcium hardness and then:
1. Plot calcium hardness on its scale first because it is the most difficult parameter to alter.
2. Plot total alkalinity because it is also a stable parameter.
3. Draw a line between the plots for calcium hardness and total alkalinity.
4. Note the pH from the chart.
5. Compare the chart pH to the measured pool pH:

If the pool pH is within 0.2 of the chart pH then the pool is

balanced.

If the pool pH is greater than the chart pH by more than 0.2

then the pool has a positive imbalance and could cause scaling.

If the pool pH is less than the chart pH by more than 0.2 then
the pool has a negative imbalance and is termed corrosive.

Other methods to determine chemical water balance are:

a. Ryznar Stability Index
b. Langelier Saturation Test

22

Fig. 1

23

KEEPING THE POOL WATER BALANCED

Suppose that a water sample is tested and found to have a positive Saturation Index, indicating
scale-forming properties. The first factors to consider in correcting this condition are pH and Total
Alkalinity, since they can be adjusted most readily.
A change in pH will change the index by the same amount. The method for lowering pH is to add
an acidic material such as hydrochlolric acid. This not only lowers pH, but also reduces total
alkalinity. Normally, the pH of the water should not be allowed to drop below 7.2.
Scale deposits are sometimes found in pools filled with soft water because calcium carbonate was
dissolved from the concrete or plaster walls during the initial fill and was subsequently reprecipitated
when hypochlorites or other alkaline materials which cause an increase in pH were added.
All chemicals have, some effect on water balance. Chlorine ,gas, hydrochloric acid,
trichloroisocyanuric acid and other acid materials, by decreasing pH, make water more corrosive
while hypochlorites, soda
ash and caustic soda, by raising its pH, increase its scaling properties.
By maintaining a pH range which causes Total Alkalinity to remain at or about that concentration
which, in combination with adequate calcium hardness, gives Balanced Water, problems due to
corrosive or scaling water will be avoided.
By making the required tests, using Calcium Saturation Index it should be possible for pool
owners/operators to achieve and maintain satisfactory water balance even though they may have
little or no
Real understanding of the true concept of Balanced Water.

24

9. STABILIZED POOL WATER

A stabilized pool is one in which Cyanuric Acid has been added. Cyanuric acid is a fine white
powder or granulated product. When it is added to the pool water, it puts into the water an invisible
"screen" that stops the ultra violet rays of the sun from penetrating into the water and taking out all
the chlorine.
For example, you may have experienced putting chlorine into the pool in the night and by midday,
there is no chlorine reading available after testing. The sunlight had penetrated through the water
and taken out all the chlorine. Probably that pool had no cyanuric acid in it, i.e., it was an
unstabilized pool.
Cyanuric acid is measured as mg/L on a cyanuric acid test kit. To have any noticeable effect, the
cyanuric acid level needs to be at least 30 mg/L but much higher levels of stabilizer (cyanuric acid)
can be used and tolerated. However, as the cyanuric acid level is increased to in excess of 50
mg/L, so too must the free available chlorine level be increased. Cyanuric levels above 100 mg/L
is not advisable as it can block the chemical action of chlorine.
It is of great benefit to stabilize pool water particularly if you are using a chlorine compound that
does not contain any cyanuric acid, e.g., chlorine gas, calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite.
Some
Chlorine products contain small amounts of cyanuric acid. These products are often referred to as
the isocyanurates.
Test Kits are available to measure cyanuric acid.
Always check the cyanuric acid level before adding any more. It may need topping up as its
chlorine stabilizing ability is substantially reduced when cyanuric acid concentration falls below 20
mg/L
On the other hand, excess levels of cyanuric acid (> 50 mg/L) will decrease the effectiveness of
chlorine as a sanitizer.

25

10. SUPERCHLORINATION
This means a super large dose of chlorine or one that is approximately 3 to 5 times the normal
daily dose of chlorine, added to the pool water. It results in an increase in the free residual chlorine
to 5 to 10 ppm.
Superchlorination is carried out to control any resistant algae growth or bacteria that may have
become immune to chlorine at daily levels. We also superchlorinate to eliminate the chloramines
combined Chlorine)
Superchlorinate regularly during the swimming season (every 1 to 2 weeks depending on pool
use). Superchlorination should be carried out at night or late in the afternoon after swimming is
finished for the day. Depending on the chlorine demand of the pool that is to say, whether the pool
has been previously strongly contaminated with bacteria or when chlorine loss occurs due to high
wind action, etc.,the chlorine reading, after superchlorination, may drop dramatically over night.
DO NOT RESUME SWIMMING UNTIL THE CHLORINE READING DROPS TO AT LEAST
3.0ppm. Otherwise, eye burn, skin irritation and green hair (in the case of blonde headed
swimmers), may result. Always filter whilst superchlorinating.
Use calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite to superchlorinate. In the case of a salt pool also
run the salt chlorinator and filter for 24 hours.

26

11. SALT WATER POOL

A salt water pool is, from any point of view, the modern way to go. Common household salt,
sodium chloride (NaCI) is added to pool water in approximately 2-8 parts per million (ppm)
concentration (or2-8 mg of salt per litre of water) and the pool sanitizer (still chlorine, of course) is
produced by an electrolytic process by a salt chlorinator.
Salt chlorinators have come a long way from the days when they dangled over the side of the pool
wall. They are an ideal way, both practically and economically, to sanitise pool water
automatically. Inside the chlorinator cell are platinum-coated titanium plates ( the best and most
modern models have solid plates, not mesh or expanded metal) which act as catalytic electrodes
through which electric current flows to make sodium hypochlorite. The combined surface area of a
number of plates dictates the amount of chlorine output the greater the plate surface area the
greater the chlorine production.
This electro-chemical reaction does not use up salt in the pool water as the salt is chemically
regenerated and chlorine production continuous. Salt can only be lost by backwashing the filter,
splashing water from the pool, or by diluting the pool water with rainwater, so the salt level in the
water needs to be checked and adjusted only about twice a year.
While there is an initial capital outlay for a salt chlorinator, a salt water pool is cost effective. You
dont have to buy chlorine, so the capital outlay can be recovered in a reasonable time (in about
four years, based on present costs, for an average domestic pool. If it is fitted with an Rh probe, a
salt chlorinator will take care of the most critical chemistry requirement in the pool water the
chlorine level automatically, so if you forget, are too busy, or cant be bothered checking the pool
chemistry, it does not matter so much if you have a correctly functioning salt chlorinator. And,
once you have recouped your initial capital outlay, the salt chlorinator produces chlorine at very
little cost.
There is, on the other hand, no truth in the belief that a salt water pool can provide any therapeutic
or health benefit over other pools, except for the benefits the saline solution may provide for human
tissue. Nor does a salt water pool help with buoyancy. The salt is there to produce chlorine
(sodium hypochlorite). Salt content in a salt pool is, as I have said, between 2 and 8 ppm, whereas
seawater is about 35 ppm.
One benefit of salt-generated chlorination is that there is little chemical side-effect. The liquid
chlorine produced is alkaline and raises the pH. You will need to do the acid demand test regularly
and add acid to lower the pH again. By running the filter fitted with a salt chlorinator continuously,
it is possible to superchlorinate pool water.
A power pack transforms mains voltage to a low and harmless voltage to run your salt chlorinator,
and this also has indicators for power level, water flow, gas detection, salt level and cell plate
condition, plus a control to adjust chlorine production. There will also be a flow switch, pressure
switch or electronic sensing device to switch the unit off if the water flow slows or stops. Correct
installation is essential as the cell can produce hydrogen gas as well as sodium hypochlorite and
this gas should not be allowed to accumulate in the filter body.

27

Various sizes of salt chlorinators are available from good manufacturers. It always pays to install a
model with a more than adequate capacity as the chlorinator cell gradually wears. Salt chlorinators
with solid plates preferable to those with open mesh. Solid plates do not allow the calcium
compounds to build up on chlorinator plates so easily. They are also much easier to clean and as a
rule they produce more chlorine.
The modern salt chlorinator has a chlorine production cell with solid platinum-coated titanium
plates, adequate water-flow monitoring protection, an automatic gas warning and cut-off switch and
a potentiometer to control chlorine production. Salt chlorinators can be controlled by an Rh meter
to produce chlorine as the pool water requires.

28

12. FLOCCULATION
Also known as floccing, flocculation is a process in which a coagulent is added to the water
causing very small particles of unwanted matter in the water to clump together and fall to the pool
floor as a
precipitate. This precipitate or floc can then be vacuumed to waste using the vacuum head and
hose.
Floccing is usually undertaken at the start of the season when the pool has been refilled or if the
pool is very dirty.
There are several reasons for floccing pool water. These include the following.

To remove fine dirt, e.g., clay suspensions from river or dam water.

To remove metals such as iron from the water.

To remove 'haze' from pools which sometimes results from using certain preparations as
pools sanitizers.

There are two common types of flocculants.

Alum (aluminium sulphate crystals).

Polymeric Clarifiers, e.g., Crystasol.

USE OF ALUM
Before alum is added in the dosage recommended in Table 5.7, you should check the pH and the
Total Alkalinity of the pool water.
Alum is very acidic and should be used in conjunction with an alkali, preferably sodium bicarbonate
in the dosage also shown in Table 5.7. Even with a high pH reading of 8 or more, sodium
bicarbonate should be used.
TABLE 5.7
ALUM FLOCCULANT DOSE

Pool Size
Dose (kg)
Colour of Water
Light
Medium
Heavy

25kL
Sodium Bicarb
1.2
2.5
5.0

Alum
0.6
1.25
2.5

50kL
Sodium
Bicarb
2.5
5.0
10.0

29

100kL
Alum Sodium
Bicarb
1.25
5.0
2.5
10.0
5.0
20.0

Alum
2.5
5.0
10.0

The procedure for using alum together with sodium bicarbonate is as follows.
1) Dissolve the sodium bicarbonate in a bucket of tap water and spread it over the pool
surface.
2) Dissolve the alum (no more than 1 kg per 10 L of warm water) in a bucket. Using a stick or
plastic rock, add the alum to the water in the bucket stirring continuously. Do not add water
to the alum as. it may go sticky like chewing gum.
3) Using a plastic water can, 'spray paint' the pool surface with the alum solution.
4) Using a pool broom or large leaf rake, mix the chemicals into the top 500 mm layer of the
pool water.
5) Allow the pool water to settle overnight -up to 24 hours may be necessary. DO NOT RUN
THE FILTER.
6) Vacuum the precipitate (i.e., the accumulated deposits of fine debris) to waste.
7) Readjust the pH and the Total Alkalinity of the pool. If the pH is low, the addition of alkali
may cause a light second flocculation. Vacuum this to waste also.
You can prove whether the addition of the alum as a flocculant to your pool is going to be effective
by carrying out the following procedure which takes about 30 minutes. Take a sample of the
treated
water in a clean, clear glass bottle. Allow to stand for 10 to 20 minutes. If the upper layer is starting
to clear and little white fluffy particles appear, the flocculation of the pool will occur. If after 30
minutes, there is still no sign of a reaction, it is most unlikely that flocculation of the pool will take
place. You should therefore add a polymer flocculant, e.g., Crystasol.
USE OF LIQUID POLYMERIC FLOCCULANTS (CRYSTASOL)
Follow the directions on the label always but typical directions for use are as follows.
To remove suspended particles and brighten up the pool water without upsetting pH or the water
balance:
1) backwash or clean the filter;
2) measure the recommended amount of flocculant to be used as follows:
newly fitted pools -500 ml per 50 to 60 kL,
periodic use -200 mL per 50 to 60 kL;
3) dilute the product with water in a bucket and add to the pool;
4) run the filter for 8 hours and then vacuum.

30

13. WINTERIZING THE POOL

A pool should be maintained the whole year round regardless of whether or not it is used.
Otherwise, it will soon become a breeding ground for bacteria, and algae growth will emerge
developing into a profuse growth of green slime. Not only does this look very unsightly but also an
unpleasant odour will be given off. Additionally, there is the danger of the filter pump and motor
seizing up through lack of use. resulting in the burning out of the motor when, it is eventually
switched on.
During winter many pools are covered but all pools should still receive certain winter treatment to
make it easier and less costly to start up the pool again. If a winterizing programme of maintenance
is carried out properly, it will reduce the labour and expense of winter maintenance and keep the
pool in good condition.

Super Chlorinate on a monthly basis.

Run filter pump (or plant) when super chlorinating

Add Algaecides

Raise pH to 8.3 to minimize algae growth

Vacuum monthly

Cover pool to reduce algae growth

31

14. TESTING WATER

Frequency of Testing of Pool Water
Testing should be carried out in accordance with the frequency specified by table 1:
Table 1: Testing Frequencies
TEST

MINIMUM MANUAL TESTING FREQUENCY

Daily

Continuous non-automatic control dosing:

Free Chlorine

Total Chlorine

Prior to opening and thence two hourly.

pH

Automatic control dosing:

Free Chlorine
Total Chlorine
pH

Daily
Prior to opening and then once during the day to
confirm automatic readings. (Automatic readings
should be logged four hourly).

Weekly

(Total) Alkalinity
Calcium Hardness
Clarity
Water Balance
Total Dissolved Solids
Bacteriological Sampling (after first two months)

Monthly
Monthly (Council)

(Department of Health, NSW 1996)

Sampling Location
Water samples for testing all chemical parameters except ozone should be collected immediately
prior to carrying out the test.

Water should be sampled from a depth of at least 300mm using an inverted plastic beaker
in a location representing a point furthest from inlets, or by assessment of various locations
to determine the area of lowest readings.

Tests should be carried out at least every two hours under extremely busy times.

The test should be conducted using a test kit with the recommended reagents.

Sample collected in clean opaque plastic container, with the test done immediately for
chlorine, out of direct sunlight.

32

Recommended Chemical levels

Where water in a swimming pool is being disinfected with a chlorine disinfectant it shall be
maintained, when the pool is open for bathing, in accordance with the following parameters:
1 The swimming pool water shall be disinfected using continuous dosing equipment.
2 The chemical parameters of the swimming pool water shall conform to Table 2.
Table 2:
Chemical Requirements for Chlorinated Public Swimming Pools
(Department of Health NSW 1996)
Chemical Parameters for Pool type
Pool Type

Outdoor
Outdoor
stabilised
with
isocyanuric
acid
Indoor
temperature
26
Indoor
temperature
> 26

Free
Chlorine
(mg/l)
minimum
1.0

Combined
Chlorine
(mg/l)
maximum
1.0

3.0

PH range

Calcium
Hardness

Cyanuric
Acid

7.2 7.8

Total
Alkalinity
(mg/l)
range
80 200

80 200

30 - 50

Not
applicable

7.2 7.8

80 200

80 200

30 - 50

1.5

1.0

7.2 7.8

80 200

80 200

2.0

1.0

7.2 7.8

80 200

80 - 200

NOTE: Combined chlorine shall not exceed half the total chlorine concentration.

Log Book
To ensure efficient and safe pool management a logbook records:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Chlorination levels
PH levels
The number using each pool on each day
Back washing dates
Weather
Dosage Rate
Flow Rate

33

15. WATER TESTING USING A

COMPARATOR
1. Free and Total Chlorine
The comparator may be used to determine the relative amounts of free chlorine and combined
chlorine (chloramines) which, when added together, give the total chlorine, i.e.
total chlorine = free chlorine + combined chlorine (chloramines)

Testing for Chlorine

In order to ensure efficient and economic use of chlorine it is essential to take regular tests for free
and available chlorine after a specified contact time.
The common apparatus used for the measurement of free and available (total) chlorine is the
Palintest Comparator.
The basis of each test with the comparator is that the colour developed by the addition of reagents
to the sample is matched against a scientifically calibrated permanent colour disc.
Two tests are required, free chlorine and total chlorine:
Discs required:

Palintest disc chlorine

DPD comparator tablets No. 1
DPD comparator tablets No. 3

Water Testing procedure for Free and total

chlorine
Take a water sample of the chlorinated water in a plastic non-transparent beaker from the area of
the pool with the slowest turnover and highest usage (usually shallow and near exit steps).
Keep water sample from direct sunlight and do test as promptly as possible.
1. Measure free chlorine.
a) Fill one cell with water sample up to the 10 mil mark and place in the left side of the
comparator.
b) Rinse a similar cell with sample water.
c) Then fill rinsed cell about half (5 ml) with sample water.
d) Add DPD tablet 1 and allow to disintegrate. Assistance may be required, be careful not
to break cell, by using plastic rod to crush up tablet.
e) Add sample to the 10 ml mark and mix through.
f)

Place cell in right side of comparator.

g) Match colours immediately.

h) Record result as free chlorine.
34

2. Measure total chlorine

a) Add DPD No 3 tablet to right cell with existing solution, crush and mix.
b) Match colours immediately.
c) Record results as total chlorine.
3. Calculate combined chlorine (chloramines):

Combined chlorine (chloramines) = total chlorine minus free

chlorine.

2. pH Measurement
Using the Palintest comparator the pH is measured in a similar way to that of testing for free and
total chlorine. Depending on the circumstances the pH can fluctuate from 7 to 8.4 and a differently
calibrated disc is required to get a pH reading palintest disc diphenol purple
Water Testing Procedure for pH
a) Fill one cell with water from sample to the 10 ml mark and place in the left side of the
comparator.
b) Fill another cell with water from the sample to the 10 ml mark.
c) Place a DPD Phenol tablet in the water in this cell and stir until dissolved.
d) Place cell in right side of comparator.
e) Check pH disc is inserted and match colours
f)

Record your result on pool water log.

Total Alkalinity Measurement

As for pH but using Total Alkalinity tablet and Total Alkalinity disc (blue).

Adjusting Chemical Dosing Equipment

By regular testing and recording (log book) you are able to build up a knowledge and
understanding of the nature of your pool.
By using chlorine readings, weather, numbers, dosage, pH and backwashing you are able to make
fairly accurate estimates of adjusting chemical dosing equipment instead of guessing.

35

36

16.

CIRCULATION

The Circulation Pump

The circulation pump is one of the most important items in a plant room. If the pump stops all other
functions cease. If the wrong pump is chosen initially, most of the other pieces of equipment will
not perform efficiently. The choice of what size or type of pump to be used is usually made by an
engineer.
The pump discharge rate should be sufficient to obtain the desired turnover rate.

Turnover Rates
The turnover rate is the amount of time it takes to circulate through the filters the quantity of water
contained in a pool, eg if a pool holds 200,000 litres and the pump discharge rate is 40,000 litres
per hour the turnover rate would be 5 hours.
Desirable Rates

Olympic 50 metre + 2m deep 4 hours

Shallow or Learner pools

3 hours

Toddler pools

2 hours

These rates are required so that with a reasonably busy pool, a good standard of water clarity can
be maintained. The reason for faster rates in the shallower pools are:

Because the water is shallower, the effect of sunlight on the chlorine is greater

The shallow pools are usually more crowded than deeper pools, resulting in greater
pollution

Distribution
While a swimming pool is in operation, there is continual pollution from bathers or wind borne dust
and leaves. Therefore the filters should be operating 24 hours per day.
It should be understood that all the water is not filtered on one turnover. When filtering begins, the
first portion will be all dirty water. Shortly the dirty water in the pool will be diluted by returning
filtered water. To obtain 99.9% clarity from dirty water it takes 10 turnovers.

37

BASIC SWIMMING POOL DESIGN

Balancing tank

Swimming Pool

Hair and
Lint strainer

Water Heater

Filtration

Disinfection

Recirculating
pump

PH control

38

17.

ALGAE CONTROL

Introduction
The presence of algae in the swimming pool will develop turbidity, produce odour and taste in the
water and will necessitate more frequent backwashing due to their clogging action on filter beds.
Algae growths are objectionable in appearance. As they are slimy and cause surfaces to become
slippery, they are the cause of accidents in and around a swimming pool. They create a high
Chlorine demand should heavy growths develop; these growths then harbour and foster bacterial
growth and retard the action of Chlorine. They also give rise to odour problems when reacting with
Chlorine.

Types of Algae
Green Algae
The most common type of algae found in swimming pools are the green algae. Green algae
usually appear free-floating in the water, often resembling a pea-soup appearance. If left
untreated, green algae can attach itself to pool surfaces, making treatment difficult.
Blue-green (Black Spot) Algae
Blue-green algae is the simplest member of the algae family but one of the more difficult to treat. It
is most commonly found growing as black spots on the surface of improperly treated plaster pools.
Blue-green algae connect together, forming hairlike structures which can penetrate plaster
surfaces, resulting in extensive surface damage. Acid washing and replastering may be required
in extreme cases. Blue-green algae are also surrounded by a protective gelatinous sheath which
must be destroyed by brushing for chemical treatment to be effective.
Mustard (Yellow) Algae
Mustard algae is frequently found on the shaded sides of pool walls. It exhibits a significant
resistance to routine chlorination. It is easily brushed away from pool walls but has a tendency to
return shortly thereafter.
TREATMENT
These conditions in a swimming pool are an indication that a regular free chlorine residual is not
being maintained in the water.
Provided a free chlorine level is maintained at all times, algae growth will not appear.
However, should these conditions develop and heavy growths becomes established, the chlorine
demand is increased to a point where the ordinary levels of free chlorine residuals will not kill them
off.
For all algae growth, brushing is required before chemical treatment. After brushing it is necessary
then to super chlorinate, eg maintaining a free chlorine level of 10 ppm or over, during the night
when the pool is closed to bathers. This is the most effect treatment and next day it will be found
that the dead algae growth will brush or slough off quite readily.
This can be achieved by adding 1 kg of calcium hypochlorite 60,000 litres of water.
39

A number of other chemicals are sometimes added to water as algaecides. They act in two ways:

to prevent growths (algistatic) and

to kill growths (aIgaecidal). In most cases the amount required to kill a growth in four hours
may be 3-8 times greater than that required to prevent one forming within ten days.

Some algaecides possess a high chlorine demand and therefore rob the water of its chlorine
residual. Others cause severe frothing in the water and in the filters.
It should also be noted that some strains of algae will build up a resistance to some types of
organic algaecides.
Porous surfaces or cracks in a swimming pool make it difficult to control or eliminate algae as the
spores may be protected by the 'dead' water in the porous structure and will readily give rise to
spontaneous growth should the free chlorine level in the water be lost for any length of time.
During winter months when the pool has been left full of water and without treatment, the growth of
algae can be quite alarming before the start of the next swimming season.
To prevent or minimise the growth, it is recommended that at the close of the season the pH of the
water should be raised to 8.3 in order to lower the level of dissolved carbon dioxide.
At intervals of approximately a month, depending on the visual observation of the development of
growth, the plant should be turned over during the night and super chlorinated with chlorine.
Another alternative is to cover the top of the water, by floating black polythene sheets and thereby
eliminating sunlight necessary for growth.

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18.
1.

CHEMICAL STORAGE

2.

Designated Area
Locked
Not on Floor
Chemical Manifest displayed adjacent to storage area (types, amounts)
Hazchem signage
Material safety data sheets
SAFE CHEMICAL HANDLING

3.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) located close to chemical handling

and storage area
Eye wash and shower available
PPE and no smoking symbolic signage
TEST ROOM

Separate Room
Sink with tap water
Bench space

PLANT ROOM
All pipes and hoses labeled for flow direction
Electric motors housed above water level

4.

8.

POOL SIGNAGE

9.

POOL SAFETY
REQUIREMENTS

Depth (metric) markings for shallow and deep water

Contrast Colour
Danger Shallow Water and Danger Deep Water signage
First Aid equipment
EVACUATION EMERGENCY PROCEDURE

Displayed Plan
Phone Access

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10.

RESCUE STATION
Pole
Rope
Buoyant Rescue Aid

11.

FIRST AID
Designated Area
Bed
Air Viva
Appropriately stocked with first aid supplies

12.

POOL TEMPERATURE
Early Childhood
Primary

10.

Min. 27
Min. 25

FIRE EXTINGUISHER
On Site next to plant room

11.

POOL SURROUNDS

Non Skid
Hand Rails
Shade Areas
Power Outlets: minimum 1 m above floor/3m from pool
Wheelchair access change rooms, pool
Outdoors high security fence
Child-proof gate

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19.

AMENITIES REQUIREMENTS

Dressing Rooms
Floors should be covered by non slip surface
Benches should be constructed of smooth impervious material and if wood is used it should be
maintained by a lacquer or tough paint in a light colour.
Adequate bench seating
Hooks for clothing

Toilets
It is extremely important to encourage toileting prior to bathing as urine is the most polluting
material to enter a pool.
Toilet numbers should be designed for intended loads.
Closets should be cleaned daily and toilet paper provided.
Provision should be made for separate disposal of sanitary pads, napkins and tampons.

Showers
An adequate number of showers should be provided
Cleaning should be performed daily with disinfection of shower floors and weekly scrubbing to
remove soap accumulation.
Non slip surface in wet areas

Hand basins
Hand basins should be located adjacent to toilets and ideally soap should be provided.

Garbage
Adequate garbage bins should be provided.
Bins should be emptied as necessary and the garbage bagged or bin liners used.
The garbage area should be maintained in a clean condition and free from vermin.

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20.

POOL CONTAMINATION
MANAGEMENT

All patrons Including infants) should be required to wear bathing briefs as a large number of
diseases are transmitted through human faecal accidents.
It is good practice to "super disinfect" (superchlorination to 10 mg/l) overnight on a weekly basis to
overcome possible resistance development and to kill most cysts which may be introduced into the
pool.
All persons should be encouraged to use closet and shower facilities before entry into the pool.
Persons detected with open wounds, sores and rashes, infected eyes, or wearing bandages
should be requested not to swim in the pool. Pool contamination through nose blowing, spitting
and spouting of water should be actively discouraged.
Each pool premises should determine its attitude toward the control or possible exclusion of
incontinent persons who might use the pool. Pool disinfection systems are not designed to accept
or disinfect faecal material.
The pool should be maintained in a clean condition, free from debris and floating materials by
frequent vacuuming and skimming. Walls, floors, overflow weirs and scum gutters should be kept
free from debris, body grease and algal blooms. No animals except guide dogs assisting blind
persons should be permitted on the pool premises.

Diarrhea
If a substantial amount of loose runny stool is introduced into the pool:
the pool in the vicinity of the faecal accident should be cleared of people.
the faecal material should be removed as thoroughly as possible using a fine mesh.
check the disinfectant levels in the pool vicinity and if below required levels then close the
pool immediately.
add a coagulant (alum) and filter for at least one turnover before allowing patrons to use
the pool.
superchlorinate overnight.
thoroughly vacuum the pool.
backwash the filter, and
enter all relevant details on the log sheet.

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Faecea
When a solid stool is introduced into the pool
evacuate the immediate vicinity.
remove the stool as soon as possible and
check the disinfectant levels in the vicinity.
Where disinfectant concentration is low, the pool should be closed for one pool turnover.
Where disinfectant levels are satisfactory allow swimming to continue.

Blood And Vomit

Where blood or vomit is introduced into a pool it should be temporarily cleared and the
contamination dispersed until there is no further trace. Tests for disinfectant levels should be
satisfactory before allowing people to swim.
Blood spillage on the poolside should not be washed into pool side drains. It should be neutralised
with a 1% chlorine solution (household bleach or a 10:1 dilution of sodium hypochlorite) for two
minutes before being washed away.

Infectious Diseases
For exclusion of children with infectious diseases see
www.discover.tased.edu/hpe/swim/health&safety.

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