Developed by Scott Civjan

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

1

INDIVIDUAL COLUMN

Compression Theory

Squash Load
Fully Yielded Cross Section

Compression Theory

When a short, stocky column is loaded the strength is limited by

the yielding of the entire cross section.
Absence of residual stress, all fibers of cross-section yield
simultaneously at P/A=Fy.

P=FyA

L0
yL0

Compression Theory

P
4

RESIDUAL STRESSES

Results in a reduction in the effective

stiffness of the cross section, but the
ultimate squash load is unchanged.

Reduction in effective stiffness can

influence onset of buckling.

Compression Theory

RESIDUAL STRESSES
With residual stresses, flange tips yield first at
P/A + residual stress = Fy
Gradually get yield of entire cross section.
Stiffness is reduced after 1st yield.
No Residual Stress
P=FyA

yL0

Compression Theory

= Yielded
Steel

RESIDUAL STRESSES

With residual stresses, flange tips yield first at

P/A + residual stress = Fy
Gradually get yield of entire cross section.

Stiffness is reduced after 1st yield.

No Residual Stress
P=FyA
P=(Fy-Fres)A

1
yL0

Compression Theory

= Yielded
Steel

RESIDUAL STRESSES

With residual stresses, flange tips yield first at

P/A + residual stress = Fy
Gradually get yield of entire cross section.

Stiffness is reduced after 1st yield.

No Residual Stress

P=FyA
2
P=(Fy-Fres)A

1
yL0

Compression Theory

= Yielded
Steel

RESIDUAL STRESSES

With residual stresses, flange tips yield first at

P/A + residual stress = Fy
Gradually get yield of entire cross section.

Stiffness is reduced after 1st yield.

No Residual Stress
P=FyA

2
P=(Fy-Fres)A

yL0

Compression Theory

= Yielded
Steel

RESIDUAL STRESSES

With residual stresses, flange tips yield first at

P/A + residual stress = Fy
Gradually get yield of entire cross section.

Stiffness is reduced after 1st yield.

No Residual Stress
P=FyA
P=(Fy-Fres)A

4
3
2 Effects of Residual
Stress
1
yL0

Compression Theory

10

Euler Buckling

Compression Theory

11

Euler Buckling
Assumptions:
Column is pin-ended.
Column is initially perfectly straight.
Load is at centroid.
Material is linearly elastic (no yielding).
Member bends about principal axis (no twisting).
Plane sections remain Plane.
Small Deflection Theory.

Compression Theory

12

Euler Buckling
P

P
PE

EI
L2

Bifurcation Point

Stable Equilibrium

Compression Theory

13

Euler Buckling
Dependant on Imin and L2.
Independent of Fy.
For similar unbraced length in each direction,
minor axis (Iy in a W-shape) will control strength.
2 EI x
Major axis buckling
2
L
2 EI y

PE

L2
Minor axis buckling

L
Compression Theory

14

Euler Buckling
Re-write in terms of stress:
2

PE = EI
L2

divide by A, PE/A =
PE/A = FE =

2 EI
AL2

, then with r2 = I/A,

2E
2
L
r

FE = Euler (elastic) buckling stress

L/r = slenderness ratio
Compression Theory

15

Euler Buckling
Buckling controlled by largest value of L/r.
Most slender section buckles first.

2E
2
L
r

Fy

FE
L/r

Compression Theory

16

EULER ASSUMPTIONS
(ACTUAL BEHAVIOR)

Compression Theory

17

Initial Crookedness/Out of Straight

0 = initial mid-span deflection of column

P
o

o
M = Po
P

Compression Theory

18

Initial Crookedness/Out of Straight

P
o = 0
2EI
PE 2
L

Compression Theory

19

Initial Crookedness/Out of Straight

P
o = 0
2EI
PE 2
L

Elastic theory

Compression Theory

20

Initial Crookedness/Out of Straight

P
o = 0
2EI
PE 2
L

Elastic theory

Actual Behavior
o

Compression Theory

21

Initial Crookedness/Out of Straight

Buckling is not instantaneous.
Additional stresses due to bending of the column,
P/A Mc/I.
Assuming elastic material theory (never yields),
P approaches PE.
Actually, some strength loss
small 0 => small loss in strengths
large 0 => strength loss can be substantial
ASTM limits of 0 = L/1000 or 0.25 in 20 feet
Typical values are 0 = L/1500 or 0.15 in 20 feet
Compression Theory

22

Load Eccentricity
e
P

P
o = 0
2EI
PE 2
L

Elastic theory

Compression Theory

23

Load Eccentricity
e
P

P
o = 0
2EI
PE 2
L

Elastic theory
Actual Behavior

Compression Theory

24

Load Eccentricity
Buckling is not instantaneous.
Additional stresses due to bending of the column,
P/A Mc/I.
Assuming elastic material theory (never yields),
P approaches PE.
Actually, some strength loss
small e => small loss in strengths
large e => strength loss can be substantial
If moment is significant section must be designed
as a member subjected to combined loads.
Compression Theory

25

End Restraint (Fixed)

Set up equilibrium and solve
similarly to Euler buckling
derivation.
Determine a K-factor.

Pe

Fe

2 EI

KL

2 EI

KL r

EXAMPLE

4 2 EI
2 EI
PE

2
L
(1 / 2 L) 2
Similar to pin-pin,
with L = L/2.
Load Strength =
4 times as large.

Compression Theory

KL

26

End Restraint (Fixed)

Effective Length = KL
Length of equivalent pin ended
column with similar elastic
buckling load,
Distance between points of
inflection in the buckled shape.

Compression Theory

27

Handout on K-factors
EquivalentLength.pdf

Compression Theory

28

Inelastic Material Effects

Fy

ET= Tangent Modulus

(Fy-Fres)
E

Test Results from an Axially Loaded Stub Column

Compression Theory

29

Inelastic Material Effects

Elastic Behavior
2
Fe

KL

KL/r
Compression Theory

30

Inelastic Material Effects

Fc

Fy

Fy-Fres

2 ET
KL

Fe

Inelastic
Elastic

2E
KL

KL/r
Compression Theory

31

Inelastic Material Effects

Fc

Fy

Fy-Fres

2 ET
KL

Fe

Inelastic
Elastic

2E
KL

KL/r
Compression Theory

32

Inelastic Material Effects

Two classes of buckling:
Elastic Buckling: ET = E
No yielding prior to buckling
Fe Fy-Fres(max)
Fe = predicts buckling (EULER BUCKLING)
Inelastic Buckling:
Some yielding/loss of stiffness prior to buckling
Fe > Fy-Fres(max)
Fc - predicts buckling (INELASTIC BUCKLING)
Compression Theory

33

Overall Column Strength

Fy
FE

2E
KL

Experimental Data
KL/r

Compression Theory

34

Overall Column Strength

Fy

Inelastic Material effects

Including Residual Stresses
FE

2E
KL

Experimental Data
KL/r

Compression Theory

Out of Straightness
35

Overall Column Strength

Major factors determining strength:
1) Slenderness (L/r).
2) End restraint (K factors).
3) Initial crookedness or load eccentricity.
4) Prior yielding or residual stresses.
The latter 2 items are highly variable between specimens.

Compression Theory

36

LOCAL BUCKLING

Compression Theory

37

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Flange is restrained by the web at one edge.

Failure is localized at areas of high stress

(maximum moment) or imperfections.
Compression Theory

38

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Flange is restrained by the web at one edge.

Failure is localized at areas of high stress

(maximum moment) or imperfections.
Compression Theory

39

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Flange is restrained by the web at one edge.

Failure is localized at areas of high stress

(maximum moment) or imperfections.
Compression Theory

40

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Web is restrained by the flanges.

Failure is localized at
areas of high stress
(maximum moment) or
imperfections.

Compression Theory

41

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Web is restrained by the flanges.

Failure is localized at
areas of high stress
(maximum moment) or
imperfections.

Compression Theory

42

Local Buckling is related to Plate Buckling

Web is restrained by the flanges.

Failure is localized at
areas of high stress
(maximum moment) or
imperfections.

Compression Theory

43

FULL STRUCTURE BEHAVIOR

Compression Theory

44

ALIGNMENT CHART
OR
DIRECT ANALYSIS METHODS

Compression Theory

45

ALIGNMENT CHART
Traditional Method
Determine effective length, KL,
for each column.
Basis for design similar to
individual columns.
Does not redistribute restraining
moments into girders/beams.
Compression Theory

46

DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD

Analysis of entire structure interaction.
Include lateral Notional loads.
Reduce stiffness of structure.
All members must be evaluated under combined
axial and flexural load.
No K values required.
Compression Theory

47

ALIGNMENT CHART METHOD

IS USED FOR THE FOLLOWING
SLIDES

Compression Theory

48

ALIGNMENT CHART
Traditional Method
Determine effective length, KL,
for each column.
Basis for design similar to
individual columns.
Does not redistribute restraining
moments into girders/beams.
Compression Theory

49

K-FACTORS FOR END CONSTRAINTS

No Joint Translation Allowed Sidesway Inhibited
0.5 K 1.0
Joint Translation Allowed Sidesway Uninhibited
1.0 K

Compression Theory

50

K-FACTORS FOR END CONSTRAINTS

Two categories,
Braced Frames, 0.5 K 1.0
Sway Frames,
K 1.0
Behavior of individual column unchanged
(Frame merely provides end conditions).

Compression Theory

51

Sidesway Prevented
Floors do not translate relative
to one another in-plane.
Typically, members are pin
connected to save cost.

Compression Theory

52

Sidesway Prevented

K=0.5

K=0.7

K=0.7

K=1

Compression Theory

Assume girder/beam
infinitely rigid or
flexible compared to
columns to bound
results.

53

Sidesway Prevented
Equivalent

Idealized

Shear
Wall
Compression Theory

54

Sidesway Prevented
Equivalent

Idealized

Shear
Wall
Compression Theory

55

Sidesway Prevented
Equivalent

Idealized

Shear
Wall
Compression Theory

56

Sidesway Prevented
Typically, members are pin-connected to save cost (K = 1).
If members include fixity at connections,
Alignment Chart Method to account for rotational restraint (K < 1).
Typical design will assume K = 1 as a conservative upper bound
(actual K 0.8 not much difference from K = 1 in design).

Compression Theory

57

Sway Frame
Floors can translate relative to
one another in-plane.
Enough members are fixed to
provide stability.
Number of moment frames
chosen to provide reasonable
force distribution and
redundancy.

Compression Theory

58

Sway Frame

K=1

K=2

K=2

K=

Compression Theory

Assume girder/beam
infinitely rigid or
flexible compared to
columns to bound
results.

59

Sway Frame

Moment Frame

Compression Theory

60

Sway Frame

Moment Frame

Compression Theory

61

Sway Frame

Moment Frame

Compression Theory

62

Alignment Charts
Calculate G at the top and bottom of the column (GA and GB).
EI
L
columns
G
EI
L
girders

I = moment of inertia of the members

L = length of the member between joints
G is inversely proportional to the degree
of rotational restraint at column ends.
Compression Theory

63

Alignment Charts

Sidesway Inhibited
(Braced Frame)

Sidesway UnInhibited
(Sway Frame)

Separate Charts for Sidesway Inhibited and Uninhibited

Compression Theory

64

Alignment Charts

X Gtop

GbottomX
X

Gtop

Gbottom
Sidesway Inhibited
(Braced Frame)

Sidesway UnInhibited
(Sway Frame)

Separate Charts for Sidesway Inhibited and Uninhibited

Compression Theory

65

Alignment Charts

X Gtop
K
GbottomX
X

Gtop
K

Gbottom
Sidesway Inhibited
(Braced Frame)

Sidesway UnInhibited
(Sway Frame)

Separate Charts for Sidesway Inhibited and Uninhibited

Compression Theory

66

Alignment Charts
Only include members RIGIDLY
ATTACHED (pin ended members are
not included in G calculations).
Use the IN-PLANE stiffness Ix if in major axis
direction, Iy if in minor axis.
Girders/Beams are typically bending about Ix
when column restraint is considered.
If column base is pinned theoretical G = .
AISC recommends use of 10.
If column base is fixed theoretical G = 0.
AISC recommends use of 1.
Compression Theory

67

Alignment Charts
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

68

Alignment Charts
Lets evaluate the assumptions.

Compression Theory

69

Alignment Charts
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

70

Alignment Charts
If the column behavior is inelastic,
Yielding decreases stiffness of the column.
Relative joint restraint of the girders increases.
G therefore decreases, as does K.
Decrease is typically small.
Conservative to ignore effects.
Can account for effects by using a
stiffness reduction factor, , times G.
(SRF Table 4-21)
Compression Theory

71

Alignment Charts
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

72

Alignment Charts
Only include members RIGIDLY
ATTACHED (pin ended members are not
included in G calculations).
Partial restraint of connections and nonuniform members effectively change the
rotational stiffness at the connections.

These conditions can be directly accounted

for, but are generally avoided in design.

Compression Theory

73

Alignment Charts
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

74

Alignment Charts

Calculation of G accounts for rotational stiffness

restraint at each joint based on assumed bending.
For other conditions include a correction factor
m to account for actual rotational stiffness of the
girder at the joint.
EI
L
columns
G
EI
m L
girders
Compression Theory

75

Alignment Charts

Bending Stiffness =

2EI
L

Sidesway Inhibited (Braced)

Assumption: single curvature
bending of girder.

3EI
L
m = (3EI/L)/(2EI/L) = 1.5

Bending Stiffness =

4EI
L
m = (4EI/L)/(2EI/L) = 2

Bending Stiffness =

Compression Theory

Far end pinned

Far end fixed

76

Alignment Charts

Bending Stiffness =

6EI
L

Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway)

Assumption: reverse curvature
bending of girder.

3EI
Bending Stiffness =
L
m = (3EI/L)/(6EI/L) = 1/2

4EI
Bending Stiffness =
L
m = (4EI/L)/(6EI/L) = 2/3
Compression Theory

Far end pinned

Far end fixed

77

Alignment Charts
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

78

Alignment Charts

In general, columns are chosen to be a similar size for more

than one story. For each column section this results in sections
with extra strength in upper floors, and close to their strength
in lower floors.
Design typically checks each story
independently, based on these assumptions.
Actual conditions can be directly accounted
for, but are generally ignored in design.

Compression Theory

79

Alignment Charts
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

80

Alignment Charts
In a story not all columns will be loaded to their full strength.
Some are ready to buckle, while others have additional strength.

An extreme case of this is a leaner column.

This case will be addressed first, with the

concept valid for general conditions as well.

Compression Theory

81

LEANER COLUMNS

Compression Theory

82

Leaner Columns

Moment Frame

Leaner
Columns

For this structure note that the right columns are pinned
at each connection, and provide no bending restraint.
Theoretically G at top and bottom is infinite.
Compression Theory

83

Leaner Columns
For Leaner Columns:
G top= Infinity
G bottom= Infinity
Therefore K= Infinity
KL= Infinite
So the column has no strength
according to the alignment chart

Theoretically the column has an infinite KL.

Therefore, the strength should be zero.
Compression Theory

84

Leaner Columns
Consider only applying a small load to the right columns

Moment
Frame

Compression Theory

Leaner
Columns

85

Leaner Columns
Consider only applying a small load to the right columns

Moment
Frame

Leaner
Columns

Surely a small load could be applied without causing

instability! (Due to connection to the rest of the structure)
Compression Theory

86

Leaner Columns
PA

PA

K < infinity

K = infinity

Pn > zero

Pn = zero

Chart

Actual Condition

Provided that the moment frame is not loaded to its full

strength, it can provide some lateral restraint to the leaner
columns. This is indicated by the spring in the figure above.
Compression Theory

87

Leaner Columns
P

P/H

H
P/H
P

Note that the result of a vertical force trying to translate

through displacement, is a lateral load of value P/H
applied to the system.
Compression Theory

88

Leaner Columns
P3

P2

P1

P4

leaner
P = Pe
P = P1+P2+P3+P4
Pe = P1e+P2e+P3e+P4e=P1e+P4e
In the elastic range, the Sum of Forces concept states that
the total column capacities can be re-distributed
Compression Theory

89

Leaner Columns
P3

P2

P1

P4

leaner
If P2 = P2e
Reach failure even if
P < Pe
However, the total load on a leaner column still must not
exceed the non-sway strength.
Compression Theory

90

Leaner Columns
Actual design considers inelastic behavior of the sections,
but the basic concept is the same.
A system of columns for each story should be considered.
The strength of the story is the load
which would cause all columns to sway.
The strength of an individual column is
the load which would cause it to buckle
in the non-sway mode (K=1).
Compression Theory

91

EXAMPLE DEMONSTRATION
SEE YURA VIDEOS

Compression Theory

92

Alignment Chart
In general, each story is a system of columns which are loaded to
varying degrees of their limiting strength.
Those with additional strength can provide
lateral support to those which are at their
sidesway buckling strength.
Once the limit against lateral buckling and
lateral restraint is reached, the entire story
will exhibit sidesway buckling.

Compression Theory

93

Alignment Chart
ALIGNMENT CHART ASSUMPTIONS:
1) Behavior is purely elastic.
2) All members have constant cross section.
3) All joints are rigid.
4) Sidesway Inhibited (Braced) single curvature bending of
girders.
5) Sidesway Uninhibited (Sway) reverse curvature bending of
girders.
6) Stiffness parameter of all columns is equal.
7) Joint restraint is distributed to columns above and below the joint
in proportion to EI/L of the columns.
8) All columns buckle simultaneously.
9) No significant axial compression force exists in the girders.

Compression Theory

94

Alignment Chart

Axial load reduces bending stiffness of a section.

In girders, account for this with reduction factor on EI/L.

Compression Theory

95

Alignment Chart
It is helpful to think in terms of members controlled by axial
force or bending, rather than girders and columns.
If axial load dominates, consider member a
column with extra strength to prevent the
story from buckling (sum of forces approach).
If bending load dominates, consider the
member a girder with reduced rotational
stiffness at the joint (axial load reduction).

Compression Theory

96

DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD

IS USED FOR THE FOLLOWING
SLIDES

Compression Theory

97

DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD

Analysis of entire structure interaction.
Include lateral Notional loads.
Reduce stiffness of structure.
No K values required.

Compression Theory

98

DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD

Further evaluation of this method is
included in the module on Combined
Forces.

Compression Theory

99