Space

Contents
1. The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects both on it and
around it..................................................................................................................... 1
Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field.......................1
Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done.....2
Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object from a
very large distance away to a point in a gravitational field.....................................3

EP: gravitational potential energy.........................................................................3

2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch,
maintain a stable orbit and return to Earth................................................................4
Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the
Earths gravitational field in terms of horizontal and vertical components.............4
Describe Galileos analysis of projectile motion......................................................4
Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the:..........................................5
Gravitational constant.......................................................................................... 5
Mass and radius of the planet...............................................................................5
............................................................................................................................. 5
Outline Newtons concept of escape velocity..........................................................5
Identify why the term g forces is used to explain the forces acting on an
astronaut during launch.......................................................................................... 6
Discuss the effect of the Earths orbital motion and its rotational motion on the
launch of a rocket.................................................................................................... 6
Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the:........7
Law of Conservation of Momentum......................................................................7
Forces experienced by astronauts........................................................................7
Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects,
including satellites orbiting the Earth......................................................................7
Compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits.....................................7
Define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and qualitative relationship
between orbital velocity, the gravitational constant, mass of the central body,
mass of the satellite and the radius of the orbit using Keplers Law of Periods.......7
Account for the orbital decay of satellites in low Earth orbit...................................8
1

Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earths atmosphere and
landing on the Earths surface.................................................................................9
Identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a manned spacecraft
into the Earths atmosphere and the consequences of failing to achieve this angle
................................................................................................................................ 9
3. The Solar System is held together by gravity.......................................................10
Describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a massive object in terms
of its effects on other masses in it........................................................................10
Define Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation:.....................................................10
Discuss the importance of Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation in understanding
and calculating the motion of satellites.................................................................11
Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes........11
4. Current and emerging understanding about time and space has been dependent
upon earlier models of the transmission of light......................................................12
Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light..................12
Describe and evaluate the Michelson Morley attempt to measure the relative
velocity of the Earth through the aether...............................................................12
Discuss the role of the Michelson Morley experiments in making determinations
about competing theories..................................................................................... 13
Outline the nature of inertial frames of reference.................................................13
Discuss the principle of relativity..........................................................................13
Describe the significance of Einsteins assumption of the constancy of the speed
of light................................................................................................................... 13
Identify that if c is constant then space and time become relative.......................13
Discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms of time in contrast
to the original metre standard............................................................................... 13
Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequence of special relativity in
relation to:............................................................................................................. 14
The relativity of simultaneity.............................................................................. 14
The equivalence between mass and energy......................................................14
Length contraction............................................................................................. 14
Time dilation...................................................................................................... 14
Mass dilation...................................................................................................... 15
Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and length contraction for
space travel........................................................................................................... 16

1. The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on

objects both on it and around it

Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational

field
Weight is the force on an object due to a gravitational field (a region where a
mass experiences a force due to gravity)
W =mg

W: weight (N)
m: mass (kg)
g: acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)

The acceleration due to gravity can vary depending on:

Geographical location (crust density, near poles or equator)

Altitude
Planetary body

Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is

related to work done
The force of attraction between two objects becomes 0 when the distance is
infinity thus EP is 0 when the distance is infinity
EP increases as distance increases and since EP is 0 at infinity, the EP has a
negative value for any distance smaller than that
The change in EP is equal to the work done to move the object from one point
to another

Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to

move an object from a very large distance away to a point in a
gravitational field
EP is the work done needed to move an object from one point to another in a
gravitational field when the EP of an object at an infinite distance is taken to
be 0
E P=G

m1 m2
r

EP: gravitational potential energy

G: universal gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2)
m1: mass of object 1 (kg)
m2: mass of object 2 (kg)
r: distance (m)

2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a

successful rocket launch, maintain a stable orbit and
return to Earth
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Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile

motion within the Earths gravitational field in terms of
horizontal and vertical components
A projectile is any object launched into the air (rockets are not included
because thrusters are used throughout the flight)
A projectiles parabolic trajectory can be split into two components:

Horizontal component: a projectile will not accelerate in its motion in

the x-axis due to no net force (uniform velocity)
Vertical component: a projectile will always be affected by the
acceleration due to gravity (uniform acceleration)

Describe Galileos analysis of projectile motion

The motion of a projectile can be regarded as two separate and independent
motions superimposed upon each other

Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the:

Gravitational constant
Escape velocity is proportional to the gravitational constant

Mass and radius of the planet

Escape velocity is proportional the mass of the planet and is inversely
proportional the radius of the planet
The escape velocity is the initial velocity required to completely escape the
Earths gravitational field when launched vertically upwards. The total of
kinetic energy and the gravitational potential energy will equal to 0 as an
object goes towards infinity.
E Ki + E Pi=E Kf + E Pf
1
GmM
m v 2
=0
2
r

Escape velocity v=

2Gm
r

G: universal gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2)

m: mass of the planet (kg)
r: radius of the planet (m)

Outline Newtons concept of escape velocity

When a projectile is launched and its initial velocity is fast enough, it could
never fall back to the ground due to the curved surface therefore it orbits the
Earth

Identify why the term g forces is used to explain the forces

acting on an astronaut during launch
G-force is a term used to express a persons apparent weight as a multiple of
their true weight
gforce=

apparent weight
true weight

Apparent weight (what we feel): the sum of the contact forces resisting true
weight
An astronaut has an upward reaction force (mg) and upward force from the
rocket (ma) hence the g-force experienced by the astronaut is:
gforce=

mg+ ma
9.8 m

gforce=

g+ a
9.8

Discuss the effect of the Earths orbital motion and its

rotational motion on the launch of a rocket
The Earths rotational motion as well as revolving around the sun can be
used in a way to give the rocket higher orbital velocities relative to the sun.
The rocket should be launched in the direction of the Earths rotation
(towards east) and at a certain time period throughout the year to achieve a
desired course relative to the sun.
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Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in

terms of the:
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Using the Law of Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum
(impulse) of the gases is equal to the change in momentum of the rocket but
in opposite direction. This means that the force of the gas propelled
backwards is equal to the force of the rocket forwards. Whenever there is a
force, there is acceleration hence the rocket accelerates increasingly due to
the changing mass of the rocket (as fuel is used) and g decreases slightly
with higher altitudes
p gases = procket

Forces experienced by astronauts

As acceleration increases, the g-force experienced by the astronauts
increases as well

Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a

range of objects, including satellites orbiting the Earth
Since it is in a uniform circular motion, the centripetal force involved is the
gravitational attraction between the Earth and the object
Fc =

m v2
r

Compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits

Low Earth orbits are higher than 250km, avoiding atmospheric drag, but
lower than 1000km below the Van Allen radiation belts (high radiation
trapped by the magnetic field).
Geostationary orbits are at an altitude where the period of the orbit matches
that of the Earth; if over the equator it will appear stationary in the sky.

Define the term orbital velocity and the quantitative and

qualitative relationship between orbital velocity, the
gravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass of the
satellite and the radius of the orbit using Keplers Law of
Periods
Orbital velocity is the instantaneous speed and direction of an object during
circular motion

Orbital velocity:
v=

2 r
T

T=

2 r
v

Keplars Law of Periods:

r 3 GM
=
T2 4

Thus the orbital velocity can be changed to:

v=

GM
r

Or another derivation:
F g=F c

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GmM m v 2
=
r
r2

Account for the orbital decay of satellites in low Earth orbit

The thin atmosphere still causes friction with the satellite which causes the
satellite to slow down or reduce its velocity. Since force stays the same, the
radius has to decrease thus the satellite spirals back down to Earth. As the
satellite gets lower there is increasing air density and thus increasing the
rate of descent.
Fc =

mv
r

Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earths

atmosphere and landing on the Earths surface
De-orbit manoeuvre: the spacecraft has to enter the atmosphere at a shallow
angle otherwise it would generate too much heat and g-forces during reentry but not too shallow otherwise it will bounce off the atmosphere.
Extreme heat: the spacecraft will have a lot of kinetic energy converted into
heat from friction in the atmosphere potentially melting the framework. Heat
shields and certain materials are used.
Decelerating g-forces: the astronauts inside the spacecraft will experience
high g-forces due to higher rates of deceleration. To increase tolerance,
astronauts lie down, always face upwards and supporting chairs.
Ionisation blackout: there is a loss of communication due to a surrounding
layer of non-penetrable ionised atoms as heat builds up.
Reaching the surface: how the spacecraft or astronauts reach the surface;
through parachuting or landing the spacecraft.

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Identify that there is an optimum angle for safe re-entry for a

manned spacecraft into the Earths atmosphere and the
consequences of failing to achieve this angle
To de-orbit, the spacecraft must enter the atmosphere at a certain angle to
prevent high amounts of generated heat and g-forces (if the angle is greater)
and to prevent it bouncing off the atmosphere (if the angle is lower)

3. The Solar System is held together by gravity

Describe a gravitational field in the region surrounding a
massive object in terms of its effects on other masses in it
A gravitational field is the region around a large mass (planet) where another
mass will experience a gravitational force towards the centre. When two
massive bodies are near each other, they combine to form complex
gravitational field.

Define Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation:

The attractive force (F) between the centres of two masses (m1 and m2) a
distance (r) apart
F=G

m1 m2
r2

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F: force (N)
G: Universal Graviational Constant (6.67 x10-11 N m2 kg-2)
m1: mass of body 1 (kg)
m2: mass of body 2 (kg)
r: distance between the centre (m)

Discuss the importance of Newtons Law of Universal

Gravitation in understanding and calculating the motion of
satellites
The orbital velocity equation could also be derived from Newtons Law of
Universal Gravitation and centripetal force showing that gravity has a direct
influence on the motion of satellites.

Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for

space probes
A slingshot effect allows space probes to change in velocity without using too
much fuel by using a planets gravitational field

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4. Current and emerging understanding about time and

space has been dependent upon earlier models of the
transmission of light
Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission
of light
The luminiferous aether was a medium in which electromagnetic waves
(including light) travelled through. It filled space, had low density, was
transparent and had great elasticity.

Describe and evaluate the Michelson Morley attempt to

measure the relative velocity of the Earth through the aether
Light from a source is split into two rays, one ray going against the aether
wind then back and the other ray going perpendicular to the wind. The
apparatus was rotated 90o to interpose the rays to see if there was a
difference. It was a good test to detect aether wind if there was then one
ray would reach the sensor before the other.

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Discuss the role of the Michelson Morley experiments in

making determinations about competing theories
This proved the aether model wrong and led to the development of other
scientific theories to replace it such as Einsteins theory of Special Relativity.
However, at the time the aether model was not rejected but rather modified
to suit the results obtained from the experiments.

Outline the nature of inertial frames of reference

Inertial frames of reference are non-accelerated environments (stationary or
moving at uniform velocity)

Discuss the principle of relativity

In an inertial frame of reference, no mechanical experiments or observations
can be done to determine whether you are stationary or uniformly moving.
Motion cannot be detected without a reference to an outside point.

Describe the significance of Einsteins assumption of the

constancy of the speed of light
The luminiferous aether is no longer needed to explain the fact that the
speed of light will always be observed as the same regardless of the
observers motion.

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Identify that if c is constant then space and time become

relative
V=

S
T

For the speed of light c to be constant or absolute, the distance (space) and
time has to change thus space and time become relative to the motion of the
observer.

Discuss the concept that length standards are defined in terms

of time in contrast to the original metre standard
The metre is currently defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum
during

1
299 792 458

of a second

Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the consequence of

special relativity in relation to:
The relativity of simultaneity
Simultaneous events occurring in one frame may not be simultaneous in
another frame

The equivalence between mass and energy

Infinite mass requires infinite force. A moving object acquires mass due to
the energy from the work done to it. The rest energy is the energy of a
stationary object:
E=mc 2

E: rest energy (J)

M: mass (kg)
C: speed of light (3 x 108 ms-1)

There is an equivalence of mass and energy given by the formula

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Length contraction

Lv =L0 1

v2
2
c

L0: length measured from the rest frame

Lv: length measured from a different frame of reference
v: relative speed of the two frames of reference
c: speed of light

Lv is always smaller than L0; a moving object shortens its length in the
direction of motion

Time dilation
t0
t v=
2
v
1 2
c

t0: time taken in the rest frame of reference

tv: time taken as seen from the frame of reference in relative motion to
the rest frame
v: relative speed of the two frames of reference
c: speed of light

Since the speed of light c is the same in any frame of reference time
dilation occurs. The time measured in the rest frame is t0. The measurement
of this time from any other inertial reference frame in relative motion is tv
and is always greater than t0. Or simply put, moving clocks are slower.

Mass dilation
m0
mv =
2
v
1 2
c

m0: mass taken in the rest frame of reference

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mv: mass taken as seen from the frame of reference in relative motion
to the rest frame
v: relative speed of the two frames of reference
c: speed of light

The Law of Conservation of Momentum still applies and mass is dilated to

account for the different velocities due to time dilation. The mass in the rest
frame is m0 and this measurement in another inertial frame in relative
motion is mv and is always greater. In other words, a moving object increases
in mass when observed from a reference frame in relative motion.

Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation and

length contraction for space travel
Time dilation and length contraction would have effects for people on space
travel, assuming they travel using great speeds (e.g. 0.1c). For example, the
time measured on the moving ship would actually be shorter than the time
measured on Earth and the distance measured by the ship is also shorter
than the distance measured from Earth. This could mean that space travel
has reasonable travelling times for the passengers. However, to reach great
accelerations and speeds it requires very large amounts of energy which is
not possible using current technologies.

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