Flow Measurement and Control

295

hydrostatic. Thus, the pressure difference measured at the DP cell is the

same as that at the elevation of the probe, because the static head between
point 1 and the pressure device is the same as that between point 2 and the
pressure device, so that
P P2  P1 .
We usually want to determine the total ow rate (Q) through the
conduit rather than the velocity at a point. This can be done by using
Eq. (10-1) or Eq. (10-2) if the local velocity is measured at a sufcient
number of radial points across the conduit to enable accurate evaluation
of the integral. For example, the integral in Eq. (10-2) could be evaluated
by plotting the measured vr values as vr vs. r2 , or as rvr vs. r
[in accordance with either the rst or second form of Eq. (10-2), respectively], and the area under the curve from r 0 to r R could be determined numerically.
The pitot tube is a relatively complex device and requires considerable
effort and time to obtain an adequate number of velocity data points and to
integrate these over the cross section to determine the total ow rate. On the
other hand the probe offers minimal resistance to the ow and hence is very
efcient from the standpoint that it results in negligible friction loss in the
conduit. It is also the only practical means for determining the ow rate in
very large conduits such as smokestacks. There are standardized methods
for applying this method to determine the total amount of material emitted
through a stack, for example.

III.

THE VENTURI AND NOZZLE

There are other devices, however, that can be used to determine the ow
rate from a single measurement. These are sometimes referred to as
obstruction meters, because the basic principle involves introducing an
obstruction (e.g., a constriction) into the ow channel and then measuring the pressure drop across the obstruction that is related to the ow
rate. Two such devices are the venturi meter and the nozzle, illustrated in
Figs. 10-2 and 10-3 respectively. In both cases the uid ows through a
reduced area, which results in an increase in the velocity at that point.
The corresponding change in pressure between point 1 upstream of the
constriction and point 2 at the position of the minimum area (maximum
velocity) is measured and is then related to the ow rate through
the energy balance. The velocities are related by the continuity equation,
and the Bernoulli equation relates the velocity change to the pressure
change:
1 V1 A1 2 V2 A2

10-5

296

Chapter 10

FIGURE 10-2

Venturi meter.

FIGURE 10-3

Nozzle.

For constant density,

V1 V2

A2
A1

10-6

and the Bernoulli equation is

P2  P1 1 2
V2  V12 ef 0
2


10-7

where plug ow has been assumed. Using Eq. (10-6) to eliminate V1 and
neglecting the friction loss, Eq. (10-7) can be solved for V2 :



2
P 1=2
V2
1  4

10-8

where
P P2  P1 and  d2 =D1 (where d2 is the minimum diameter

at the throat of the venturi or nozzle). To account for the inaccuracies
introduced by assuming plug ow and neglecting friction, Eq. (10-8) is
written

V2 Cd

2
P
1  4

1=2
10-9

Flow Measurement and Control

297

FIGURE 10-4 Venturi and nozzle discharge coefcient versus Reynolds number.
(From White, 1994.)

where Cd is the discharge or venturi (or nozzle) coefcient and is determined by calibration as a function of the Reynolds number in the conduit.
Typical values are shown in Fig. 10-4, where
NReD

D1 V1 


and

NRed

d2 V 2 
NReD =:


Because the discharge coefcient accounts for the non-idealities in the

system (such as the friction loss), one would expect it to decrease with increasing Reynolds number, which is contrary to the trend in Fig. 10-4. However, the
coefcient also accounts for deviation from plug ow, which is greater at lower
Reynolds numbers. In any event, the coefcient is not greatly different from
1.0, having a value of about 0.985 for (pipe) Reynolds numbers above about
2  105 , which indicates that these non-idealities are small.
According to Miller (1983), for NReD > 4000 the discharge coefcient
for the venturi, as well as for the nozzle and orice, can be described as a
function of NReD and  by the general equation
Cd C1

b
n
NRe
D

10-10

where the parameters C1 , b, and n are given in Table 10-1 as a function of .

The range over which Eq. (10-10) applies and its approximate accuracy are
given in Table 10-2 (Miller, 1983). Because of the gradual expansion

Venturi nozzle (ISA inlet)

Venturi
Machined inlet
Rough cast inlet
Rough welded sheet-iron inlet
Universal venturi tubeb
Lo-Loss tubec
Nozzle
ASME long radius
ISA

Primary device

0.5
1.15

6:53b0:5
17088936b
19; 779b4:7
0
0.9975
0.99000.2262b4:1
0.98580.195b4:5

0
0
0
0
0

Exponent
n
0
0
0
0
0

Coefcient
b

Reynolds number term

0.995
0.984
0.985
0.9797
1:05  0:471b 0:564b2  0:514b3

Discharge coefcient C1 at innite Reynolds number

TABLE 10-1 Values for Discharge Coefcient Parametersa in Eq. (10-10)

298
Chapter 10

b4
b3
 0:184b 0:039
 0:0337
D
1  b4

b4
b3
;
0:0337
D
D1  b4

91:71b2:5

91:71b2:5

b4
 0:184b 0:039
 0:0158b3
4
1b
8

0:5959 0:461b2:1 0:48b8 0:039

0:5959 0:0312b

2:1

b4
1  b4

91:71b2:5

b4
b3

0:856
D*
1  b4

0:5959 0:0312b2:1  0:184b8 0:039

91:71b2:5

91:71b2:5

91:71b2:5

91.71b2:5

b4
b3

0:856
D*
D*1  b4

0:5959 0:0312b2:1  0:184b8 2:286

0:5959 0:0312b

2:1

0:5959 0:0312b2:1  0:184b8 0:09

0:5959 0:0312b2:1  0:184b8

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

Detailed Reynolds number, line size, beta ratio, and other limitations are given in Table 10-2.
From BIF CALC-440/441; the manufacturer should be consulted for exact coefcient information.
c
Derived from the Badger meter, Inc. Lo-Loss tube coefcient curve; the manufacturer should be consulted for exact coefcient information.
d
From Stolz (1978).
Source: Miller (1983).

2 12 D and 8D tapsd

D and D=2 taps

50:8  D*  58:4

Flange taps D* in mm)

D*  58:4

2  D  2:3

Orice
Corner taps
Flange taps (D in in.)
D  2:3

Flow Measurement and Control

299

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Chapter 10

Flow Measurement and Control

301

302

Chapter 10

designed into the venturi meter, the pressure recovery is relatively large, so
the net friction loss across the entire meter is a relatively small fraction of the
measured (maximum) pressure drop, as indicated in Fig. 10-5. However,
because the ow area changes abruptly downstream of the orice and nozzle, the expansion is uncontrolled, and considerable eddying occurs down-

FIGURE 10-5 Unrecovered (friction) loss in various meters as a percentage of

measured pressure drop. (From Cheremisinoff and Cheremisinoff, 1987.)