Quantitative

Qualitative

Data in numerical form

Data in non-numerical form about
the qualities or characteristics of
what is being studied

Objective data

Data based on measurements of a

participants response that can be
directly observed and verified by the
researcher

Subjective data

Data determined by the research

participants that the researcher
cannot directly verify and therefore
be certain of their accuracy

research methods

A tool or technique psychologists

use to obtain accurate and reliable
information about thoughts, feelings
and behaviour

Objective quantitative
methods

standardised tests eg IQ test

physiological measures eg heart rate
behaviour counts eg no. of smiles

Subjective quantitative
methods

questionnaires & surveys with

rating scale items
eg many personality tests

Subjective qualitative
methods

questionnaires with open-ended items

eg allow participants to respond freely
verbal responses from discussions,
focus groups & interviews
visual responses eg pictures drawn by
children

Population

Population refers to the entire group

of research interest from which a
sample is drawn

Sample

A sample is a subsection of
research participants selected from
a population

Sampling

Sampling is the procedure by which

some members of a given
population are selected as
representatives of the entire
population

Representativeness

Representativeness is achieved by
ensuring the sample chosen is a
reasonable reflection of the
population under study.
Researchers consider both the size
and composition of the sample
compared to the population.

Sampling population

Random samples

Chosen to match the target

population in:
1. Person
2. Place
3. Time
Each participant has a known
probability of being chosen
Reduces possibility of selection
bias
Allows application of statistics to
results

Sampling error

No sample is the exact mirror

image of the population
Researchers try to arrive at the
largest and best possible sample
given the time and costs constraints

Validity

The degree to which a research

study had produced results that
accurately measure the behaviour
or event that it claims to have
measured

Reliability

The extent to which an experiment,

test or measuring procedure yields
the same results on repeated trials,
i.e. the degree of stability exhibited
when a measurement is repeated
under identical conditions

3 investigation designs
used in psychology

1. Experimental
2. Quantitative observational
3. Qualitative

Experimental investigation design

An investigation design used to test

whether one variable influences or
causes a change in another
variable. It includes participants
being randomly allocated to an
experimental group

4 basic elements of an
experiment

1. Control group
2. Random allocation
3. Pre-testing & post-testing
4. Hypothesis testing

Experimental investigation design

Control group

doesnt receive treatment

acts as a basis for evaluating
experimental group - same in all
other respects
without it wouldnt know if it is the
treatment or something else
affecting the experimental group
i.e. minimises effect of extraneous
variables

Experimental investigation design

Groups are equivalent in all other

respects if we do not pick and
choose which group they go into

Random allocation

i.e. minimises effect of extraneous

variables particularly by evenly
distributing participant variables

Experimental investigation design

gives information on the size of

change occurring because of the
treatment

Pre-testing & post-testing

Experimental investigation design

Hypothesis testing

Experimental investigation design

Advantages

Experimental investigation design

Disadvantages

researcher has a particular idea

about what the effect of the
independent variable will be
because of their prior knowledge

1.
2.
3.
4.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Infer causal relationship

Can be replicated
Control extraneous variables
Generalise results from sample to
population
Might not apply in real world
Sample may not represent population
May have ethical concerns
Many variables cant be controlled
Extraneous variables may interfere

Quantitative observational
research design

Quantitative observational design

Advantages

Researcher collects quantitative data by

observation of selected participants
because:
1. May be unethical/impractical to allocate
participants
2. Groups may pre-exist (eg age, gender)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Quantitative observational design

Disadvantages

The differences between

experimental & quantitative
observational designs

Quantitative investigations
Advantages
Quantitative investigations
Disadvantages

Convenient
Makes research possible where it is
unethical
Can be carried out in natural setting
Correlation allows entire population to
be included (eg census data)
Using standard scales is very reliable

1. Sample may not represent population

2. Does not always show a causal
relationship
3. Naturalistic observations cannot be
repeated
4. May be observer bias
researcher manipulates independent
variable vs the effect of the independent
variable is being studied under natural
conditions
presence of control group allows
researcher to limit extraneous variables
often not poss in Q.O.
results of experiments may not be the
same in natural conditions

1. Allows control of amount of data

2. May allow researcher to
establish causality
1. May not apply in real world
2. Dont take into account unique
characteristics of individual
cases
3. Dont allow participants to qualify
their responses

Focus groups

An informal interview of a small (6-12)

group of people.
Use a series of questions on one or more
topics that the group discusses
facilitator leads discussion by asking the
questions
observer takes notes or records
may record consensus or individual
opinions

Delphi Technique

A series of questionnaires sent out to

a group of people asking their opinion
on a complex problem
First questionnaire may be openended, subsequent ones may include
rating scales on issues raised
(quantitative data)
The aim is to produce consensus on
the major factors involved in the
problem

Content analysis

Qualitative investigations
Advantages

Qualitative investigations
Disadvantages

Technique for compressing large

amounts of text into fewer categories
by coding
Coding is the process of identifying the
meaning of the messages in text or
images and assigning labels for units
of meaning called themes.
Frequencies are often given to these
themes by counting the number of
responses in each theme
allows study of complex problems
may allow formation of hypotheses
maintains individual data
focus groups can be used with illiterate
people
focus groups may save embarrassment

cant be replicated
responses cant be verified
doesnt establish causation
researcher bias may come in
presence of researcher may change
responses
doesnt allow generalisation (selection
bias)
individuals may dominate a focus group

focus group participants may try to agree

Standard deviation

The average distance of

individual scores from the mean
Shows how widely the scores
vary

Normal distribution

Why do we need ethics?

5 ethical principles

Respect for dignity and well-being

of participants (patients)
Treat them fairly
Psychological investigations must
balance importance of gaining new
knowledge against potential harm to
participants - people and animals
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Informed consent
Voluntary participation
Confidentiality/anonymity
Right to withdraw
Accurate reporting of research