Chapter -II

Kings, Farmers and Towns (Early States and Economies)

Developments between 1900 BCE and 600BCE
During the period between 1900 BCE and 600BCE the Rigveda was composed by people
living along the Indus and its tributaries.
During this period Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcont
inent, including north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.
Besides, there is evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further sou
th.
During this period new modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of el
aborate stone structures known as megaliths, emerged in central and south India
from the first millennium BCE.
In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons.
Sources to understand early Indian history(600 BCE to 600 BCE)
Historians attempt to understand early Indian history (600 BCE to 600 BCE) by dr
awing on a range of sources
inscriptions, texts, coins and visual material.
These include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Nort
hern Black Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments, tools, we
apons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials gold, silver, coppe
r, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian
history
It is an era associated with early states, cities.
It is an era associated with the growing use of iron.
It is an era associated with the development of coinage.
It is witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought (Religions) including B
uddhism and Jainism.
It is also associated with emergence of Sixteen Mahajanapadas.
What were the important Mahajanapadas?
Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti were amongst the mo
st important mahajanapadas.
Explain the main features of sixteen mahajanapadas
While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings some were oligarchies which were kn
own as ganas or sanghas, where power was shared by a number of men, often collec
tively called rajas.
Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
Each mahajanapada had a well maintained standing army and regular bureaucracies
for administration.
Dharmasutras, written by Brahmans laid down norms for rulers. Rulers were ideall
y expected to be Kshatriyas.
Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and a
rtisans. They were allowed to raid on neighbouring states which were recognised
as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth.
How did Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada?OR (What are the different
explanations offered by early writers and present-day historians for the growth
of Magadhan power?)
Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
In Magadha iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapo
ns.

Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the regi
on.
The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communica
tion.
Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the p
olicies of individuals.
The ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the be
st known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Sources to understand Mauryan Empire
Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Maur
yan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially sculpture, buildings,
monasteries etc
Contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes- (a Greek ambassador to t
he court of Chandragupta Maurya), called Indica , which survives in fragments.
Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were prob
ably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be the minister
of Chandragupta.
Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literatu
re, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.
The inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231BCE) on rocks and pillars are often re
garded as amongst the most valuable sources.
What was the extend of Mauryan Empire?
Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the empire (c. 321 BCE), extended control as fa
r northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and his grandson Asoka, arguably the
most famous ruler of early India, conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa
).
Explain Administration of Maurian Empire
There were five major political centres in the empire
the capital Pataliputra an
d the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all mentio
ned in Asokan inscriptions.
It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capit
al and the provincial centres. These centres were carefully chosen, both Taxila
and Ujjayini being situated on important long-distance trade routes.
Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of
the empire. Journeys from the centre to the provinces could have taken and arra
nging for provisions as well as protection for those who were on the move by the
army.
Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating militar
y activity. Of these, one subcommittee looked after the navy, the second manage
d transport and provisions, the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fou
rth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants
Asoka also tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, the principl
es which were simple and virtually universally applicable. This would ensure the
well-being of people in this world and the next. Special officers, known as the
dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.
Dhamma Policy included included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brah
manas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly,
and respect for religions and traditions other than one s own.
How important was the Mauriyan Empire? (OR) (The emergence of the Mauryan Empire
was regarded as a major landmark in early Indian history-Why?)
When historians began reconstructing early Indian history in the nineteenth cent
ury, the emergence of the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major landmark. Maury
an Empire ruled India for about 150 years. It extended control as far northwest
as Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the south up to Andhra Pradesh.

India was then under colonial rule, and was part of the British Empire. Ninetee
nth and early twentieth century Indian historians found the emergence of the Mau
ryan Empire in early India was both challenging and exciting.
Some of the archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone sc
ulpture, were considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of empire
s.
Many of these historians found the message on Asokan inscriptions very different
from that of most other rulers, suggesting that Asoka was more powerful, indust
rious and humble than later rulers who adopted grandiose titles.
So the nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded Asoka as an inspiri
ng figure.
New Notions of Kingship in Early Indian History.
The new kingdoms that emerged in the south, including the chiefdoms of the Chola
s, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam proved to be stable and prosperous under the
control of chiefs, who performed special rituals, leadership in warfare, and arb
itrating disputes.
Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western
and central India and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who establis
hed kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent claimed
social status in a variety of ways such as religious rituals and marriage allian
ces.
The Kushanas who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northw
est India. Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shr
ine at Mat near Mathura. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas c
onsidered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaput
ra, or son of god .
Rulers of the Gupta Empire depended on samantas, men who maintained land and ar
my and they offered homage and provided military support to rulers.
Gupta encouraged poets to compose poems in praise of them. While historians ofte
n attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, they found that ru
lers were compared as equal to Gods.In the Allahabad Pillar inscription ( compos
ed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta) Samudragupta was co
mpared with Gods.
Changing Countryside or condition of villages in the Early Historic period
1. Popular perceptions of kings
a)
Historians have tried to reconstruct life in the country side with the h
elp of the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Many of these stories probably originat
ed as popular oral tales that were later committed to writing. One story known a
s the Gandatindu Jataka describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king.
b)
When the king went in disguise to find out what his subjects thought abo
ut him, each one of them cursed him for their miseries, complaining that they we
re attacked by robbers at night and by tax collectors during the day. To escape
from this situation, people abandoned their village and went to live in the fore
st.
c)
As this story indicates the relationship between a king and his subjects
, especially the rural population, could often be strained kings frequently trie
d to fill their coffers by demanding high taxes, and peasants particularly found
such demands oppressive.
2. Strategies for increasing agricultural production
a)
One such strategy to increase agricultural production was the shift to
plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those
of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE.
b)
The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas
which had high rainfall.
c)
In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically

increased by the introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-brea

king work for the producer.
d)
Areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan and tho
se living in hilly tracts in the northeastern and central parts of the subcontin
ent practiced hoe agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.
e)
Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use
of irrigation, through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals, which were c
onstructed by kings and communities.
.
3. Differences in rural society
a)
There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agricultur
e were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technolo
gies.
b)
In the country side of Northern India people were divided into three gro
ups - landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landhold
ers.
c)
The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second a
nd third categories.
d)
Early Sangam texts also mention different categories of people engaged in
agriculture were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the n
ew technologies.
e)
In south India people who were divided into three groups large landowners
or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.
4. Land grants and new rural elites
The land grants were made to religious institutions, Brahmanas, samantas and lan
dless peasants.
Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of Chandragupta II, one of the most important
rulers in early Indian history,According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not
supposed to have independent access to resources such as land.
However, the inscription indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she
then granted. This may have been because she was a queen and her situation was
therefore exceptional.
There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated ranging from small p
lots to vast stretches of uncultivated land to donees (the recipients of the gra
nt).
Some Historians feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling
lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Others suggest that when kings were
losing control over their samantas, they tried to win allies by donating lands
to people.
Towns and Trade in early Historic period
1. New cities
Many urban centres emerged in several parts of the subcontinent from c. sixth ce
ntury BCE. As we have seen, many of these were capitals of mahajanapadas.
Virtually many major towns were located along routes of trade and communication.
Some of the cities were located on riverine routes, others were along land rout
es and yet others were near the coast.
Many cities like Mathura were bustling centres of commercial, cultural and poli
tical activities.
2. Urban populations
Kings and ruling elites lived in fortified cities. People who lived in towns wer
e washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths,
officials, religious teachers, merchants etc.
Inscriptions mention about guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers a

nd merchants. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production

, and marketed the finished products.
2.

Trade in the subcontinent and beyond

From the sixth century BCE, land and riverine routes extended in various directi
ons which connected all the parts of India.
Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection
for a price
(by collecting tax). Those who used these routes included peddl
ers who probably travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with caravans of
bullock carts and pack-animals.
Sea routes connected across the Arabian Sea to Central Asia, North Africa, West
Asia and beyond. Sea routes also connected Southeast Asia and China through the
Bay of Bengal.
Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable. Suc
cessful merchants of south India, designated as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis
and satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich(some times more richer
than kings)
A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another
salt, grain, cloth,
metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices, especia
lly pepper, etc.
4. Coins and kings
Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins ma
de of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest
to be minted and used by many dynasties including the Mauryas.
The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-G
reeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent c
. second century BCE.
The first gold coins were issued in the first century CE by the Kushanas. These
were virtually identical in weight with those issued by Roman emperors and the P
arthian rulers of Iran.
Coins were also issued by tribal republics of Punjab and Haryana called the Yaud
heyas. Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued by the
Yaudheyas.
Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. The ear
liest coins issued by Guptas were remarkable for their purity. These coins facil
itated long-distance transactions from which kings also benefited.
From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off. Does this indic
ate that there was some kind of an economic crisis?
Historians are divided into two groups on this issue. Some suggest that with the
collapse of the Western Roman Empire long-distance trade between India and Rome
declined, and this affected the prosperity of India and trading communities.
Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging around this
time with in India.
Some scholars point out that though finds of coins of were few but coins contin
ue to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts.
Some historians suggest that people might have recycled the old coins for other
purposes.
How were Brahmi and Kharosthi Inscriptions Deciphered?
James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brah
mi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. This
gave a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history.
From the late eighteenth century, European scholars aided by Indian pundits work

ed backwards from contemporary Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts, comparing the

ir letters with older specimens. James Princep was able to decipher Asokan Brahm
i in 1838.
Kharosthi, the script used in inscriptions and coins in the northwestern part of
India by Indo-Greek kings. Indo-Greek coins contain the names of kings written
in Greek and Kharosthi scripts. European scholars who could read the Greek scrip
t compared the letters. Prinsep identified the language of the Kharosthi inscrip
tions as Prakrit and it became possible to read longer inscriptions.
James Princep found that Brahmi script is older form of Devanagari script. James
Princep matched the inscriptions in terms of content, style, language and paleo
graphy.
He also discovered that Asoka is the name of the ruler and devanampiya and piya
dassi are titles used for Asoka in many inscriptions. Epigraphists and historian
s studied Asokan inscriptions more closely. They noted Asoka, devanampiya and pi
yadassi are different names of the same ruler.

The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence OR problems faced by Epigraphists

There are technical limitations in studying the Inscriptions. In some inscriptio
ns letters are very faintly engraved.
Some inscriptions are damaged and in some inscriptions letters are missing. So r
econstructions are uncertain.
Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words u
sed in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time
. This has to be done carefully, to ensure that the intended meaning of the auth
or is not changed.
Several thousand inscriptions were made but only some hundreds have been discove
red in which all are not deciphered, published and translated.
There is another more fundamental problem. Politically and economically signific
ant matters are recorded in inscriptions but routine agricultural practices and
the joys and sorrows of daily existence are not found in inscriptions.
Historians and Epigraphists have to constantly assess statements made in inscrip
tions to judge whether they are true, plausible or exaggerations.
Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways
is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?(Text book question)
a.
In Harappa almost all the cities were abandoned so that we have discove
red enough evidences to understand craft production but it is difficult to condu
ct extensive excavations at most sites of Early Historic cities because people l
ive in these areas even today (unlike the Harappan cities)
b.
A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from the people of early h
istoric cities such as fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, know
n as Northern Black Polished Ware, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines
gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass,
, made of a wide range of materials
shell and terracotta tostudy craft production in Early Historic cities
ASSIGNMENT
Mention the developments that took place between the end of the Harappan civiliz
ation and 600 BCE in India.
Mention the sources to understand the history of early historic period (600BCE t
o 600 CE)
Explain any five features of Mahajanapadas.
Explain any five factors responsible for the growth of Maghada into a most power
ful Mahajanapada.
Explain the sources available to understand Mauryas.
Explain the message of DHAMMA inscribed in the Mauryan (Asokhan) inscriptions.
Explain the five features of Mauryan administration.
Why was Mauryan Empire regarded as a major land mark in Indian history?
Explain the new notions of kingship developed in the post Mauryan period in Indi

a.
How did Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
What were the strategies followed to increase agriculture production?
How do we understand the differences prevailed in rural society of India from 60
0BCE to 600 CE?
How do we understand the changing county side of India from 600 BCE to 600CE?
How do we understand the development of towns and trade of India from 600 BCE to
600CE?
How were inscriptions deciphered in India by James Princep?
What are the limitations of inscriptional evidences? (OR) What are the problems
faced by Epigraphists?
Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are
evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth
century, D.C. Sircar, There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the I
ndians that is not reflected in inscriptions. Discuss.
Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consi
deration?