Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Session
2010-2014
Group Members
Hafiz Adeel Hassan
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-011
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-025
Noman Rasool
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-028
Muhammad Usman
UW-10-Ch.E-BSc-036
DEDICATION
The project is dedicated to our beloved parents, who nurtured
us from our childhood and not only prayed for our better
future but even did struggle for while getting all troubles on
their own heads.
In addition, we would also like to dedicate this project to our
honorable and respected teachers who helped us in compiling
this report.
PREFACE
UREA is a major FERTILIZER product. Different processes are available for the production
of urea. This design report is about the TOYOS ACES process for Urea synthesis. This
report is divided in different sections. First of all the introduction of ACES process is given,
which highlights the importance of this process. Different manufacturing processes for urea
are also described. Detail description of TOYOS ACES process for Urea synthesis.
Afterwards material and energy balance of equipments is presented.
In preceding chapters introduction to different equipments of plant along with their designing
procedure and specification sheets are presented.
Hazop study, Instrumentation & Control and Cost Estimation for this plant are also included
in this report.
ii
ABSTRACT
Urea is in many ways the most convenient form for fixed nitrogen. It has the highest nitrogen
content available in a solid fertilizer (46 %).It is easy to produce as prills or granules and
easily transported in bulk or bags with no explosive hazard. It leaves no salt residue after use
on crops. Its specific gravity is 1.335, decomposes on boiling and is fairly soluble in water.
The principal raw materials required for this purpose are NH3 & CO2.Two reactions are
involved in the manufacture of urea. First, ammonium carbamate is formed under pressure by
reaction between CO2 & NH3.
CO2 + 2NH3
NH2COONH4
H= -37.4 Kcal
We selected the Advanced Cost and Energy Saving process for the manufacture of urea. The
preference of ACES process to other urea manufacturing processes is briefly discussed in first
chapter. Some advantages of ACES process include High CO2 conversion, efficient stripping,
maximum heat recovery, less corrosion and product quality.
Energy balance & material balance of the plant is done. The selected capacity of the plant is 6,
00,000 tons/year of urea producing 75, 583.33 kg/hr of urea with 98.5 % purity. Urea reactor
is mechanically designed. The volume of reactor is calculated & found to be 129 m3. The
length & diameter of the reactor are 25 m & 2.5 m respectively. The Reactor used is of plug
flow type.
iii
Advanced Cost and Energy Saving process involves a high NH3 to CO2 ratio in the reactor,
usually 4/1 and 66-68% conversion of CO2 is done. CO2 is used as stripping agent. NH3 (l) is
entered into reactor and CO2 (g) into stripper.
Uses of Urea:
About 56 % of Urea manufactured is used in solid fertilizer.
About 31 % of Urea manufactured is used in liquid fertilizer.
Urea-formaldehyde resins have large use as a plywood adhesive.
Melamine-formaldehyde resins are used as dinnerware & for making extra hard surfaces.
The wide nature of the subject and the size restrictions left many areas to be touched very
briefly, however an effort has been made to cover significant facet of the topic.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express gratitude and praise to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, The Creator of universe, who is
beneficent and merciful, guided us in difficult circumstance, who endowed us with the will to
undertake this design project. Great respect our Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH),
who taught us to learn till lap of grave.
We are highly thankful to honorable Prof. Dr. A.K Salariya who provided us with a chance
to work on such an interesting topic. His constructive suggestions, constant guidance and
friendly attitude encouraged us to work in a better manner.
We are grateful to our honorable group advisor Prof. Dr. G.M. Mamoor and group
supervisor Mr. Kashif Iqbal for their nice cooperation in our design work.
We also show appreciation to our friends who encouraged and cooperated with us throughout
our work.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO UREA
1.1 Fertilizer
1.2 Characteristics of Urea
1.3 Commercial Production of Urea
1.4 Fertilizers Available In Pakistan
1.5 Demand and Supply of Urea in Pakistan
2
4
5
8
11
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
13
19
20
22
26
CHAPTER 3
MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS
29
31
32
34
35
36
38
39
40
41
43
45
C H A P TE R 4
E N ER G Y B A LA N C E C A LC U LA T I O N S
4.1 Specific Heat Calculations
4.2 Energy Balance around Reactor
4.3 Energy Balance around Stripper
4.4 Energy Balance around Scrubber
47
49
51
53
53
55
56
57
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS DESIGN
59
62
63
73
74
81
82
87
88
97
98
101
102
104
CHAPTER 6
MECHANICAL DESIGN
106
112
113
CHAPTER 7
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
115
116
118
120
CHAPTER 8
HAZOP STUDY
123
123
125
126
126
CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
129
130
130
131
131
132
CHAPTER 10
COST ESTIMATION
135
137
138
140
CHAPTER 11
SIMULATION IN ASPEN HYSYS
143
REFERENCES
References
143
1.1 FERTILIZER
Fertilizers restore soil fertility by supplying nutrients to the soil. These nutrients
are utilized by crops for their growth and development. Without the addition of
fertilizers, crop yield would be significantly reduced as our soils are deficient in
major nutrients, like, N, P & K. Mineral fertilizers are used to increase the
nutrient concentration of the soil and these minerals can be quickly absorbed and
used by the crops.
Urea is the most concentrated solid straight nitrogen fertilizer.
fertilizer Its prills or
granules are white in color and free flowing. Urea is readily soluble in water. It
contains 46 per cent Nitrogen
N
in amide (NH2) form which is changed to
ammonium (NH4+) in the soil. Because of its high water solubility, it is well
suited for use in solution fertilizers or foliar sprays.
Urea is an organic compound with chemical formula (NH2)2CO. Urea is also
known by international nonproprietary name (INN) carbide, as established by
world health organization. Other names include Carbide Resin,
R
Isourea,
Carbonyl Diamide, and Carbonyl Diamine.
Synthetic Urea:
It was first organic compound to be artificially synthesized from inorganic
starting materials, in 1828 by friedrich Wohler, who prepared it by reaction of
potassium cyanate with maximum sulfate. Although Wohler was attempting to
prepare ammonium cynate by foaming urea, he inadvertently discredited
vitalism the theory that the chemicals of living organisms are fundamentally
different from inanimate matter, thus starting the discipline of organic
chemistry.
This artificially urea synthesis was mainly relevant to human health because of
urea cycle in human beings. Urea was discovered: synthesis in human liver in
order to expel excess nitrogen from the body. So in past urea was not considered
as a chemical for agriculture and industrial use. Within 20th century it was found
to be a best for the iatrogenic fertilizer for the plant and become widely used as a
fertilizer. Urea was the leading fertilizer worldwide in 1990s. Apart from the
urea is being utilized in many other industries.
Urea is produced on a scale of some 100,000,000 ton per year worldwide. For
use in industry, urea is from produce synthetic ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Urea can be produce as prillers, granuls, flakes, pellets, crystal and solution.
More than 90% of world production is destined for use as a fertilizer. Urea has
the highest nitrogen content of all nitrogenous fertilizer in common use (46.7%).
Therefore, it has the lowest transportation cost per unit of nitrogen nutrient. Urea
is highly soluble in water and is therefore, also very suitable for use in fertilizer
solution (in combination of ammonium nitrate).
1.33 10
Melting point
solid
Boiling point
NA
Solubility in water
108
(20c)
167
(40c)
251
(60c)
400
(80c)
733
(100c)
Vapor pressure
<10pa
Bulk density
0.8
Di amino methanal
Chemical formula
(NH2)2CO
Molecular mass
60.07g/mole
Dipole moment
4.56 p/d
pH
(NH2)2CO+H2O
(NH2)2CO + H2O
The urea molecule is planar and retains its molecular symmetry, due to
conjugation of one of each nitrogen s p orbits to the carbonyl double bond.
Each carbonyl oxygen atom accept four N-H-O hydrogen bonds, a very usual
feature for such a bond type .This dense (and energetically favorable) hydrogen
5
Uses of Urea:
(1) Industrial uses
As a raw material for the manufacture of various glues (ureaformaldehyde or urea-melamine-formaldehyde). The latter is waterproof
and is used for marine plywood.
It is also used as a reactant in some ready-to-use cold compresses for firstaid use, due to the endothermic reaction it creates when mixed with water.
As a flame-proofing agent.
Urea Demand:
Ureas demand in world survey of 2011 is some 170.348 million MT and it is
expected to 180 million MT in 2015. Asia would contribute 68% in this
increment India 25%, China 24% and Pakistan 5%. On the other hand, in
America the major contribution would be from Brazil (6%) and USA 6%. In
Europe notable increment is expected in Russia (4%). To fulfill all this demand,
investors are trying to install urea plants in highly populated countries where
food demand is at its peak.
7
South Asia
Total Demand:175.348 MT
East Asia
4.90%
12%
31.50%
5.90%
Cental Europe
3%
West Europe
0.80%
East Europe &
8.10%
Cental Asia
1%
3.40%
Oceania
31.60%
Africa
P2O5
K2O Sulphur
Urea
46
Ammonium sulphate
21
24
26
18
12
46
1.5
18
46
11
52
50
18
60
Nitrophosphate (Nitrophos)
23
23
Complete NPKs
15
15
15
10
20
20
6.8
13
13
21
6.0
17.8
Nitrogenous fertilizers
Phosphatic fertilizers
Potassic fertilizers
Complex fertilizers
Micronutrients
Zinc sulphate (Zn 36.0 %)
Company
Capacity(MT/year)
1.
2.32106
2.
2.275106
3.
0.45106
4.
0.426106
5.
0.501106
6.
0.445106
10
8
7
metric ton
6
5
Demand
4
production
3
2
1
0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
11
Several processes are used to urea manufacturing. Some of them are used
conventional technologies and others use modern technologies to achieve high
efficiency. These processes have several comparable advantages and
disadvantages based on capital cost, maintenance cost, energy cost, efficiency
and product quality. Some of the widely used urea production processes are:
1. Conventional Processes
2. Snamprogetti Ammonia and self stripping processes
3. Isobaric double recycle process
4. Advanced Cost and Energy Saving (ACES) process
13
Decomposes into gaseous NH3 evaporate simultaneously. The off gas from this
first decomposition step was subjected to rectification, from which relatively
pure ammonia at the top and a bottom product consisting of an aqueous
ammonium carbamate solution were obtain. Both products are recycled
separately to the urea reactor. Because of the detrimental effect of water on
reaction conversion, achieving a minimum CO2 recycle so achieve maximum
CO2 conversion was more important than achieving a low NH3 recycle. All
conventional processes therefore typically operate at high NH3:CO2 ratios
(4-5mole/mole) to maximize CO2 conversion per pass. Although some of these
conventional processes partly equipped with ingenious heat exchanging net
works have survived until now. Their importance decreased rapidly as the socalled stripping process was developed.
14
The mixture of gas & liquid issuing from the high pressure condenser is fed to
the reactor for total CO2 condensation to carbamate & subsequent conversion to
urea. The inerts are vented from the reactor through a water cooled vent
condenser. The reactor effluent, at about 185 o C & 140 atm, is fed to the high
pressure stripper as described above.
15
16
The reactor operates at about 130 atm & 180-190 C and the stripper operates at
about 130 atm & 190 o C. The stripper off-gas is condensed in a vertical shell &
tube condenser, operating at about 130 atm & 148-160 o C. Low pressure steam
is produced in the high pressure carbamate condenser. The urea product
solution, leaving the stripper & still containing 2-3 % of residual unreacted
carbamate, is further degassed in a low pressure decomposition-absorption
system. The recovered ammoniacal solution of ammonium carbamate is
pumped back to the reactor.
17
ACES process:
ACES (Advanced Process for Cost and Energy Saving) process has been
developed by Toyo Engineering Corporation. Its synthesis section consists of
the reactor, stripper, two parallel carbamate condensers and a scrubber all
operated at 175 bars.
The reactor is operated at 1900C and an NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 4:1.
Liquid ammonia is fed directly to the reactor, whereas gaseous carbon dioxide
after compression is introduced into the bottom of the stripper as a stripping aid.
The synthesis mixture from the reactor, consisting of urea, unconverted
ammonia carbamate, excess ammonia, and water, is fed to the top of the
stripper. This process consists of following sections.
1) Synthesis section
2) Purification section
3) Absorption section
4) Evaporation section
5) Condensate treatment section
6) Finishing section
Synthesis section is operated at 175 bars. It has following components:
Reactor
Stripper
Carbamate condenser
Scrubber
18
Advantages
Simple process
Conventional Processes
High CO2
conversion
Low consumption
of low pressure
steam
Complex process
Snamprogetti Ammonia
and self stripping process
Conventional recycle
process
Stamicarbon CO2
stripping process
Disadvantages
Low production
cost
High energy
recovery
Low
environmental
pollution
High efficiency
19
20
()
C. Reactor contains
internal baffle plates to keep off from back mixing of product formed. This urea
solution is ejected out of reactor through funnel at top. This funnel is kept
dipped in solution to avoid any recycle from stripper. A stream from carbamate
condenser operated at 176C is also fed to bottom of reactor. This stream consists
of mostly ammonia, carbon dioxide. Through these two streams, N/C molar ratio
fed to reactor is 4.1 and operating conditions of reactor are 190c and 175 bars. It
gives 68% of CO2 conversion into urea through following two steps:
CO2 + 2NH3
NH4COONH2
NH4COONH2
(NH2)2CO + H2O
Remaining 32% could be converted only into carbamate due to residence time.
If more residence time is given to solution in reactor, urea decomposition may
start. This effluent with 54% urea concentration is piped to stripper under
gravitational flow.
22
()
23
Gaseous
Vacuum concentrator
(ii)
Final concentrator
Each concentrator consists of two sections lower and upper. Solution is fed to
lower section of vacuum concentrator which is operated at 150mmHg and 77C.
Heat required for evaporation of water is obtained from absorption section
(HPA). This solution is then transmitted to upper section where vaporized water
is separated and resultant urea solution achieves concentration of 84%. Then it is
lead to final concentrator operating at 132C and 25mmHg. It gives further
rectification of product up to 97.7% accompanied with Biuret and a small
fraction of moisture content.
24
COUNTRY
ON-STREAM
SPAIN
BANGLADESH
PLANT CAPACITY
(MT/D)
750
1,422
FERTIBERIA S.L
UREA FERTILIZER
FACTORYLTD.
P.T.PUPUK
SRIWIDJAJA
P.T.PETROKIMIA
GRESIK
P.T.PUPUK
SRIWIDJAJA
WEIHE CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
WEIXIAN
CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
PAK-AMERICAN
FERTILIZER
ENGRO CHEMICAL
PAKISTAN LTD
CHAMBAL
FERTILIZERS LTD
PT.PUPUK
ISKANDAR MUDA
INDONESIA
1,725
MAR. 1994
INDONESIA
1,400
MAY 1994
INDONESIA
1,725
FEB 1994
CHINA
1,760
MAY. 1996
CHINA
180
JAN.1997
PAKISTAN
1050
SEP.1998
PAKISTAN
1,755
OCT. 1998
INDIA
2,350
OCT.1999
INDONESIA
1,725
2001
25
OCT. 1988
FEB. 1993
27
Pakistan is an agricultural country. Its economy mostly depends upon agricultural production.
This need is increasing exponentially with time for multiplying population. More over for
many years continually Pakistan is facing natural disasters in terms of earth quack, flood and
storm. These disasters also reduce fertility and production capacity of a country. Hence
demand of food from rest of area increases to meat necessities.
All these needs of Pakistan can be met only if some agricultural aid is provided to nation.
There would be no best assistance other than installing a urea plant. This plant is not only a
suitable for nation but also more economical for investment. Urea has best vicinity for export
from Pakistan as mostly region is agriculture dependent.
300 days
Product Composition
Urea
98.85%wt
Biuret
0.9%
Moisture
0.25%
Component Amounts
.
Urea
) 75583.33kg/hr
Biuret
(0.9/100) 75583.33kg/hr
= 680.25
Moisture
(0.25/100)75583.33kg/hr
=188.9
29
= 74714.12
Raw Materials
2(NH2)2CO
103kg Biuret is produced by :
1 kg Biuret is produced by
680
NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
120 kg urea
Biuret is produced by :
) 680.25 = 792.52
74714.12 + 792.52
75506.64
(NH2)2CO + H2O
CO2 consumed
: 2NH3 consumed
H2O generated
44g
18g
60g
: 55371.54
: 42787.1
75506.64
34g
22651.94
Urea=7414.12
CO2=55371.54
Urea Plant of
Biuret=680.15
2000.37 TPD
Water=188.9
Capacity
Water=?
NH3=42787.10
30
- 188.95
4th stream
22463.04
From Condenser
CO2=?
NH3=?
Carba=?
Total=?
UREA=75506.64
To
Stripper
NH3= 42787.1 kg/hr
Fresh feed
Water=22651.99
Ammonia=?
Carbamate=?
Stream to Stripper
We know;
Fraction
0.36
Total flow
! " "! #
!$ % &
% &
'
.
( .
= 209740.66
31
(36%
Stream to Scrubber
Un-reacted CO2
Un-reacted ammonia =
5537.154
14089.450
8552.296
Rests of unknowns are determined after applying balance on stripper and condenser.
UREA=75506.64
To Condenser
Water=22651.99
CO2= 56% Et
NH3=44%Et
NH3=?
Carba=?
Total= 209740.66
UREA=75506.64
Water=22651.99
CO2= 55371.54
Carba=? NH3=14%Eb
Fresh CO2
To MPD
Eb
(14/100) 139827.11
32
19575.795
Now carbamate in Eb =
Carbamate in Eb
=
=
Et
accumulation
139827.11+ Et
125285.095
*+
= 56%Et
(56/100) 125285.095 =
70159.653
NH3
= 44%Et
(44/100) 125285.095 =
55125.442
*+
*+
70159.653 55371.54
14788.113
CO2 + 2NH3
CO2 generated
Carbamate Consumed
44g
1g
14788.11
2NH3 Produced
78g
34g
1.773
0.773
26215.29
11427.17
So,
Total carbamate in stream from reactor (Fr):
Carbamate in Fr
at
26215.29
+ 22092.68
= 48307.97
Ammonia in Fr
Ammonia in Fr
55125.442 + 19575.795
Ammonia in Fr
63274.05
Total in
Total out
265112.20
265112.20
So,
-11427.17
Urea=75506.64
Water=22651.99
To MPA
NH3=19575.79
CO2=30%Et
NH3=70%Et
total=Et=?
Carbamate =
22092.68
From stripper: Fs
Total= 139827.11
Urea=75506.64
To LPD
= Eb
'
.
,.//
Overall Balance:
34
117979.125
Water=22651.99
NH3=?
Carba=?
Total=Eb=?
Inflow
outflow
Fs
Et + Eb
139827.11
Et + 117979.1
21847.98
6554.39
Et
Now components of Et are:
CO2
30% of Et
) 21847.98
70% of Et
'
) 21847.98
= 15293.590
Carbamate Consumed
2NH3 Produced
44g
78g
34g
1g
1.773
0.773
6554.39
11619.15
5064.76
Feed
Bottom effluent
Carbamate in Eb
Carbamate in Eb
generation
consumption
22092.68
11619.15
22092.68
10473.52
35
11619.15
Balance on NH3
(Bottom effluent + top effluent) = Feed + generation - consumption
Bottom effluent
19575.79 + 5064.76-15293.590
Total in
Total out
139827.11
139827.11
9346.96
CO2=?
NH3=?
Total=?
Water= 22651.99
NH3 = 9346.96
To LPA=Et
Carbamate = 10473.52
Total =117979.125
From MPD=Fd
Urea=?
H2O= 22651.99
Fresh feed=Ff
To Evaporation
Biuret=679.55
CO2= 6312.35
Carbamate is decomposed so
CO2 generated
44
Carbamate Consumed
78
:
:
0.56
5908.14
10473.52
2NH3 Produced
34
:
36
0.43
4565.38
2(NH2)2CO
NHCONHCONH2 + NH3
Biuret Formed
urea decomposed
: ammonia produced
103
120
17
1.16
0.165
679.55
112.15
791.71
4677.54
Urea Balance
Feed
75506.64 Effluent
effluent
=
= accumulation
+ 0 - 791.7
74714.92
Ammonia Balance
Feed - effluent + generation 9346.96 Nt
Nt =
consumption
+ 4677.54
= accumulation
14024.51
- consumption
6312.35 - Ct + 5908.144
Ct
= 12220.50
Total in
Total out
124291.48
124291.48
= accumulation
37
CO2 = 12220.50
Effluent= E
NH3 = 14024.51
Total = 26245.01
NH3=?
Carba=?
Total=?
From LPD = Fl
CO2
NH4COONH2
CO2 consumed
2NH3 consumed
Carbamate generated
44
34
78
0.773
1.773
12220.50
9443.11
21663.61
Ammonia Balance
Feed
effluent
14024.5101
Ne
4581.39
Ne
+ 0
Total in
Total out
26245.01
26245.010
generation consumption
= accumulation
9443.113865
38
CO2 =
From LPA=Fa
6554.39
NH3 =
15293.59
Total =
To scrubber=
From MPD=Fd
21847.98
2NH3 consumed
Carba generated
44
34
78
0.773
1.773
6554.39
5064.76
11619.15
Carbamate Balance
In -
out - consumption
+ generation = accumulation
33282.77
NH3 Balance
In -
39
accumulation
NH3=?
Carba=?
Total=?
19874.98651 - NH3 in Es
- 5064.760417 + 0
NH3 in Es
14810.22
Total in
48092.99
Total out
48092.99
NH3
=14810.22
Carbamate =
From MPA=Fm
33282.7
Total
=48092.9
kg/hr
Vent
CO2 = 5537.1
To condenser
Carba=?
NH3=?
Total?
NH3 = 8552.2
From reactor=Fr
Inerts=6424.5
Total: 20513.9
Reaction in Scrubber:
2NH3 +
CO2
NH4COONH2
CO2 Consumed
NH3 Consumed
Carba generated
44
34
78
0.773
1.773
40
5537.1
4278.7
Carbamate in effluent
43098.63432
NH3 in effluent
19083.81257
6424.5
Total in
Total out
68606.97
68606.97
9815.8
Co2= 70159.6kg/hr
NH3 =55125.4kg/hr
Total =125285.0kg/hr
From stripper=Fs
Carbmate 43098.63
To reactor=Er
NH3= 19083.81
Total 62182.44
From scrubber=Fu
49111.75
CO2 consumed
2NH3 consumed
44
34
Carba generated
:
41
78
NH3=?
CO2=?
Carba=?
49111.75
0.773
37949.9
1.7
87061.7
out - consumption
70159.65351 - CO2 in Er
CO2 in Er
+ generation
-
accumulation
49111.75746 +
= 21047.89
NH3 Balance
In -
= accumulation
NH3 in Er = 36259.26
Carbamate Balance
In - out - consumption
+ generation =
accumulation
130160.38
Total in
Total out
187467.54
187467.54
42
Vapour =?
Total= 98046.47kg/hr
Material Balance
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x
0.76
0.902
P.y
74714.92
= P 0.902
P(outlet)
= 82832.50
98046.47
83274.80 + E
15213.96
P+E
7438.02
43
Total in
98046.47
Total out
98046.47017
Air 26C
Air (25C)
Material Balance
Let x & y be the mass fractions of Urea in feed (F) & product (P) resp.
x
= 0.98
= 0.9885
= P.y
44
74714.92
P 0.9885
75584.14 kg/hr
Total in
76239.71
655.57
Total out
76239.71
45
NH2COONH4 + HEAT
NH2COONH4 + HEAT
-84
NH2CONH2 + H2O
2NH3 + CO2
+23
NH2CONH2 + H2O
-60
Ammonia Liquid
T (C)
Cp (
60
80
5.6
5.87
112
8.6
Ammonia Vapor
T (C)
Cp (
87
127
167
207
2.2
2.3
2.37
2.44
CO2 (g)
T (C)
Cp (
27
127
227
0.84
0.94
1.01
Urea Vapour
T (C)
Cp (
80
120
200
1.26
1.36
1.56
80
120
200
1.4
1.6
2.1
Urea Liquid
T (C)
Cp (
47
Urea Solid
T (C)
Cp (
27
77
127
1.56
1.8
2.04
27
127
177
4.18
4.26
4.39
Water Liquid
T (C)
Cp (
a + bT + cT2
5.6
a + 333b + 3332 oC
(1)
5.87
a + 353b + 3532 oC
(2)
8.6
a + 385b + 3852 oC
(3)
b = - 0.9338
c = 1.38 10
= 163.44
a + bT + cT2
2.2
a + 360b + 3602 oC
(4)
2.3
a + 400b + 4002 oC
(5)
2.44
a + 480b + 4802 oC
(6)
b = 7.2510
c = -6.2510
= 0.4
48
a + bT + cT2
0.84
a + 300b + 3002 oC
0.94
a + 400b + 4002 oC
(8)
1.01
a + 500b + 5002 oC
(9)
(7)
= 0.36
c = -1.510
b = 2.0510
For Urea:
Cp
a + bT + cT2
1.4
a + 353b + 3532 oC
(10)
1.6
a + 393b + 3932 oC
(11)
2.1
a + 473b + 4732 oC
(12)
= 1.08
c = 1.0410
b = -2.7710
42787.1
42787.1785.6
33617261.05
42787.1
42787.1500.13
"#
49
21399137.89
"#
Low pressure steam load at 5 bar pressure and 151.8 C for ammonia heating
% 2109
33617261.05
15939.90
"#
"#
Medium pressure steam load at 13 bar and 191.6 C for ammonia heating
%$ 1972
21399137.89
%$
10851.48
"#
"#
&'
75506.64
&'
28944.21
"#
48307.97
&'
-52023.97
(
!(
"#
(42787.1+
36259.26)
(163.44 0.9338 +
1.5 10
$)
36713240.09+5987377.764+412959.7206
43113577.58
"#
50
(0.36 +
43090497.81
+,
-.
Medium pressure steam load at 15 bar and 198.3C for reactor heating
% 1947
43090497.81
22131.74
"#
"#
(48307.97-22092.68)
28231.85
(
!(
"#
75506.64
75506.64 -23.83
-1799713.586
"#
-609758.1213
"#
51
+ 1.04 10
$)
-1196025.072
"#
55371.54
55371.5476.63
4243481.816
1.5 10
$)
"#
8820070.727
55125.44 2 (463-383)
8820070.727
"#
Or
"#
9486287.617
+,
-.
9486287.617
4810.490678
"#
"#
52
-1751130.641 -3667693.781
-5418824.422 Kj/hr
14810.22 {
$
$
698479.883 + 229651.1158
928130.99
-4497272.13
"#
Energy loss
"#
(
!(
"#
53
43098.632.3 (443)-(423)
1982537.179
"#
19083.81
19083.81310.55
5926477.992
"#
55125.44
55125.44 - 473.25
-26088115.45
"#
10
(0.36 + 2.05 10
70159.65
70159.65 -19.615
-1376181.604
1.5
$)
"#
-19649040.69
"#
54
4.27
19649040.69
%01
9189.64 kg/hr
12512.93
"#
(1.08 2.77 10
75506.64 -90.68
-6846942.115
"#
22092.682.3 (430-451)
-1067076.712
"#
-2045474.69
"#
55
+ 1.04 10
$)
9346.96
-165391847.3
"#
14024.5101 200
2804902.01
"#
Energy loss
Q
-172533925.9
+,
-.
21663.61
-23330.04
(
!(
"#
14024.51 (-210)
-2945147.12 Kj/hr
-23330.04 -2945147.12
-2968477.166
+,
-.
56
KJ/hr
33617261.05
21399137.89
43090497.81
9486287.617
107593184.4
KJ/hr
4497272.137
19649040.69
172533925.9
2968477.166
199648715.9
+,
-.
Total heat output greater than the total heat input. So this difference is due to
heat generated in the reaction. But the amount of theoretical heat generated in
the reaction is much higher than this value. That difference between actual and
theoretical value happens because of the heat losses occurred during the process.
57
CSTR
Organic chemical
industries.
Manufacturing of
expensive products.
Pharmaceutical
industries.
59
of
Design parameters:
Operating Temperature
190
463 k
Operating Pressure
175 bar
17.5
Designing Pressure
(17.5-1) 1.1
18.15
Reactions:
2 NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)
NH2 COONH4 (aq)
NH2COONH4 (aq)
HR0 = 23 kJ/mol
Volume of reactor:
Second reaction is slow reaction so volume of rector will depend on this reaction. For Plug
flow reactor Performance Equation is given as:
=
mate
Where,
!
exp ("# )
= 1.9 105 $%
'.) + ,
-..+' '/.
= 3.46921 hr -1
Above Plug flow reactor Performance Equation can be written as:
=
(1
60
(1
As we know that
2 3
4 3
./-
(1
). ).D..E)'
FG
/+- K
J
372.55
FG
HI
@;
.E).DD
V=
1
|ln(1
3.46921
..'/X)+
)|
0.68
0
= 10
..+'
2.6 m
10D
Volume
147
D3
E.-D
'
]
'
^) L
^) 10^
+'E
61
2.610
26 m
Resistance time:
_ =
5 `ab c
d c` e
5 `ab
_ =
147
= 0.39 = 24 bdga h
372.55
Number of Stages:
Assumptions:
Sieve trays are used
Plate spacing is 2.5m
Number of Sieve trays
Number of Trays
ijklmn op qjrsmot
uvrmj wxrsykl
)/
).D
10
Reactor
Operating Pressure
17.5
Operating Temperature
463 K
Rate Constant
3.46921 hr -1
V (volume of reactor)
147 m3
2.6 m
26 m
Resistance time
24 mint
Plates used
Sieve tray
10
62
Selection criteria:
For using the stripper in ACES process several characteristics should be focused upon:
Flow rate of liquid and gas streams, here our flow rates are very high and also the
liquid holdup is more so we are not using the packed column.
Pressure within the column is very high; therefore our main preference should be the
use of plates within the column.
Within the choice of packing or plates the main factors governed are:
1.
Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
2.
3.
Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and
its internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates
without flooding.
2.
For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than
plate column.
3.
63
4.
Design information for plate column is more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column.
5.
When large temperature changes are involved, tray column are often
preferred because thermal expansion or contraction of the equipment
components may crush the packing.
Vertical tubes have been used to provide heat from the external source (indirect
heating) within the stripper.
The efficient stripper been used by us is TRAY FALLING FILM STRIPPER.
Utilization:
In our stripper the urea synthesis effluent firstly drops on plates and then after passing through
the tray stages, fall in two passes onto the tubes via swirl plate. There the tubes are placed
vertically, where CO2 is coming from the bottom of the tubes as the stripping agent where it
strips NH3 which is been present in excess and also form from the decomposition of
ammonium carbamate (with the help of steam) with CO2 itself.
On plates presence of excess ammonia in urea synthesis effluent is even stripped off with the
help of gases coming out from the tubes.
They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
2.
3.
4.
5.
64
65
No of tubes:
Steam entering temp
471.3 K
471.3 K
451 K
463 K
LMTD
24.49 K
0.550
Heat load
2635.07 KW
|=6< [ 6B
Trial area
195.627 m2
DL
0.025 m
5m
0.39m2
Number of tubes
tprsj rtjr op + mj
Number of tubes
Suppose;
{
}~ [\#
tyrv rtjr
497.96 498
Confirming UD:
As we have,
Tube OD
0.025 m
Thickness (t)
16 BWG
66
0.0243 m2
no of tubes t S
194 m2
+XD./)E )'.'X
0.556
)/.D. E
o op j
)
^ (
Pt
1.25OD
Constant (k1
0.215
n1
2.107
Db
25 (
0.988 m
'XE.X/
)
.)+D
0.031 m
Now from graph in b/w bundle diameter Vs shell ID-bundle diameter (Coulson & Richardson,
ED 3; volume 6, Pg 647)
We found that,
Clearance
73 mm
67
988.285 + 73
Shell ID
1061.285 mm
Shell ID
1.061 m
no of tubes
vo rtjr xjt mj
ko op xrj
0.594 in2
at
497.96
55371.54
Gt
290159.2285 @;.
Re
At, temperature
360 F
Viscosity
0.021 cp
Re
84814.08441
0.00016 ft2/in2
Specific Gravity
1.29
Pt
As mass velocity,
Gt
.E
0.00037 m2
0.190 m2
59429.35168
kg/hr
@;.8<
ym
= 0.000021
pm)ik
D.))+ ym
68
.7=A
= 0.0508
8<.@;
0.001898798 psi
Pr
4 ( )
7 )
3.100 Psi
Pt+ Pr
=
3.102 Psi
Y2
0.670
X1
0.542
X2
0.291
K2
(1 2)
0.48
Y2e
0.26
0.486
69
>
>
= 0.59
= 0.39
21.38kpa
0.952
1.4 - 1.6 (
Hence ( ) actual
1.33
Stripping factor Si
K ( [ )
As, actual
[
Taking 1.4
0.648
S Ne+1 S
S Ne+1 1
Fraction strip =
Where;
Fraction strip =
0.463
+ )
+
If Ne=1.51then,
0.46
By putting Ne
0.463
S Ne+1 S
S Ne+1 1
0.46
Actual no of plates
60%
)
./
3.3
)w u
70
(S)
95000 kPa
17500 kPa
Design Pressure
19248.9 kPa
Ej
0.003 m
0.119 m
Outer Diameter
1.061 + 0.119
Outer Diameter
1.18 m
Ac
Ad
]
'
^)
1.101 b)
cross sectional area x plate cross section
0.165
Ac - Ad
Active area
Ac - 2Ad
Active Area
0.770 b)
= 0.936 m^2
71
Hole Area
0.077 b)
= 0.0052 m
= 1.96429 10
3924.701
]
'
^)
D
b)
ovj rtjr
Tray spacing
0.61
1.83
0.005 m
0.005 3
Length of tubes
5m
7.455 m
Upper clearance
0.745 m
1.118 m
9.31 m
Volume of column
]
'
0.015 m
Volume of Column:
Volume of column
^)
8.246
72
Name of equipment
Stripper
Pressure in column
17500 kPa
Temperature at bottom
451 K
Temperature at top
463 K
Number of tubes
498
0.988 m
1.061 m
21.38 kPa
Length of tubes
5m
3900
Plates used
Sieve tray
Thickness of shell
0.122 m
1.183 m
Height of shell
9.31m
Volume of shell
8.246 m3
Material of shell
73
74
Heat balance:
Formation energy of ammonium carbamate at 170 o C
|
(130160.3862) (43098.63432) ( E- )
-93758.80969
-'
{
@;
Cp of ammonium carbamate
2.3
1982537.179
@;
{
@;
19083.81257 310.55 @;
5926477.992 @;
''.
75
(-473.26) (55125.44204)
-26088115.45
{
@;
(70159.6531) (-19.616)
-1376232.812
{
@;
=
-93758.80969 +1982537.179 +5926477.992 -26088115.45 1376232.812
-1969040.69 @;
-1969040.69
38.2k
T2
25k
TLMTD
#+ #)
vk (
31.135 K
Area of Condenser:
By using, U
550
5699.733 KW
TLMTD
31.135 K
} i
z
DD
= +
76
0.55
{z
318.732 m2
0.025 m
6.096 m
0.4789 m2
No. of tubes
N
T
NT
665
O.D
0.025 m
Thickness
16 BWG
308.56 m2
Equivalent Diameter:
'um
Pt
0.0275 m
D0
0.0220 m
De
0.172 m
]o
Confirmation U
Q
TLMTD
=
=
5699.733 KW
31.135 K
77
322.4 m2
0.567
{z
0.594 in2
665
No of passes
395.278 in2
(I.D)t
0.0725 ft (0.0220 m)
Nt
? 8 677=7
2.744 ft2
Mass velocity:
Gt
Gt
<
9189.644561 @;
X+-X./''D/+
.)DD +-+./
Re
Di
0.0725 ft (0.0220 m)
Re
884.453
78
36035.25892 .
( P )t
1
2
0.0002
fG 2 Ln
(
)
5 . 22 10 10 Dis t
= 4.463 10
psi
1
?
pr
4 7 ( ))
pr
0.1085 psi
pr +pt
0.109 psi
762 atm
)(
./
+ED+.)
)(E/) ./ (+ED))
0.162 cm
di + t =0.0220 +0.00162
0.024 m
Shell diameter:
No of tube at bundle diameter:
ND
[4 NT -0.333]0.50
ND
51.75 52
79
8 <=
Total no of bundle =
Ds
= 12.89
8 ?B9=
13
pt (ND +1)
1.25 d0
ND
52
Ds
2m
1.250.024
Equivalent diameter:
+.+
De
Pt
0.0275 m
D0
0.0236 m
0.0172 m
Viscosity calculation:
NH3 (Gas)
0.27
CO2
0.42
Carbamate
0.307
NH3 (liquid)
0.692
7.78 10
Re
Gs de /
Re
8400
Kg/m sec
80
0.03
Gs
38.06kg/sec.m2
length of tube
20ft
No of passes =
De
Equivalent diameter=0.0172 m
=
2
fG s Ln
Ps =
5.22x1010 De t
PS = 0.125 psi
Carbamate Condenser
Area (A)
318.732 m2
0.55 KW/m2. K
0.567 KW/m2 k
No of tubes
665
Material of construction
Type of Pitch
Square
Baffle Cut
25%
Wall thickness
0.00162 mm
308.56 m2
81
Features:
Cost effective construction, ideal for simple evaporation, concentration applications.
Ideal for volume reduction of dilute streams.
Can be used under recirculation mode.
Continuous operation.
Good for moderately heat sensitive products.
82
Energy Balance:
Inlet Flow Rates are:
Component
Flow Rate
Specific Heat
(. )
Urea
Water
Biuret
Total
107.76
75.37
149
Flow Rate
(
74714.92
22651.99
679.5566
98046.47
Mole Fraction
1245.2487
1258.4439
6.5976373
0.496058
0.501314
0.002628
2510.2903
1.00
Flow Rate
Mole Fraction
Cp of mixture =
x Cpi
18401597.32 @;
Inlet T
80 oC
= 91.63082 .
Outlet Liquid T
85 oC
Stream T
147.165 oC
0.23 atm
63.1 oC
Specific Heat
Urea
Water
Biuret
Total
Flow Rate
(. )
( )
109.28
75.37
149
74714.92
7438.029
679.5566
1245.2487
413.22385
6.5976373
0.747866
0.248172
0.003962
82832.51
1665.0702
1.00
( )
Cp of mixture
xCpi
101.0218722
{.
mCpt
14297723.37
@;
83
9= 4
Heat balance:
Heat input (feed) + Heat input by steam
2123.2
18401597.32 @;
S1s
S1 2123.2
15213.960 @;
H1
2614.97
39784050.84 @;
14297723.37 @;
S1s1
35680176.89
S1
16804.90622 @;
Economy
@;
0.90
U1value is obtained from fig-11.21(From Perry's Chemical Engineer 8th Edition page 18) At
63.1 0C U1 is 270
nt.pm
5519.308 kj/hr m2 k
T1
147.165- 85
84
62.165 oC
w++
A1
103.9 b)
Tube Length
6m
Tube OD inch
0.0254 m
0.021 m
Minimum pitch
1.25 x OD
0.478971429
b)
217.1135
217
N0 0f passes
K1
0.215
N1
2.107
Db
Clearance
64 mm
Shell ID
0.74 m
0.264 m
++
Assuming:
= 0.03175 m
= 0.055 b)
0.149 b)
0.436 m
occupied by tubes
85
Mild steel
0.93 x 10-
0.85
4.5 Atm
Design P
3.905 bar
t (thickness)
0.0017 m
ID + thickness
0.74 + 0.0017 =
86
380500
0.741 m
Name of equipment
Evaporator
Pressure in Evaporator
4.5 atm
Steam T
420.165 k
353 k
358 K
Number of tubes
217
U1
5519.308 @;.
0.677 m
103.9 b)
0.74 m
Length of tubes
6m
Tube OD
0.025 m
0.149 b)
Thickness of shell
0.0017 m
0.741 m
Material of shell
Mild steel
87
b)
c)
Types of Absor5srs:
There are two major types of absorbers which are used for absorption purposes:
Packed column
Plate column
The packed column provides continuous contact between vapor and liquid phases
while the plate column brings the two phases into contact on stage wise basis.
2)
SCALE: For column diameter of less than approximately 3 ft. It is more usual to
employ packed towers because of high fabrication cost of small trays. But if the
column is very large then the liquid distribution is problem and large volume of
packing and its weight is problem.
3)
PRESSURE DROP: Pressure drop in packed column is less than the plate column. In
plate column there is additional friction generated as the vapor passes through the
liquid on each tray. If there are large No. of Plates in the tower, this pressure drop may
be quite high and the use of packed column could effect considerable saving.
4)
LIQUID HOLD UP: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be an Urge
quantity of the liquid in plate column, whereas in a packed tower the liquid flows as a
thin film over the packing.
5)
SIZE AND COST: For diameters of less than 3 ft. packed tower require lower
fabrication and material costs than plate tower with regard to height, a packed column
is usually shorter than the equivalent plate column.
88
From the previous consideration packed column is selected as the absorber, because in our
case the diameter of the column is approximately 0.8 meter which is less than 3 ft. As the
solubility is infinity so the liquid will absorb as much gases as it remain in contact with gases
so packed tower provide more contact. It is easy to operate.
89
Design parameters:
Column Diameter
Area of column
Height of packing
Flow Rates and Physical Properties:
Flow rate of un-reacted carbon dioxide in (from Reactor)
= 1.53kg/sec
2.37 kg/sec
11.97kg/sec
5.29kg/sec
9.24 kg/sec
4.11 kg/sec
Temperature of gases in T1
463K
462 K
Temperature of liquid in t1
423 K
426 K
Density of gases g
77.26kg/m3
Viscosity of gases s
0.00014 kg/m.sec
Density of Liquid L
1690 Kg/m3
Viscosity of liquid L
0.00015 kg/m.sec
90
Packing Specifications:
Packing Type
Packing Size dp
253.00 m2/m3
300.00
V/V*w
To find V*w
V*w =
(9.24/2.37) * (77.26/1690)0.5 =
Floading Velocity =
Floading Velocity =
2.37
9.24
0.83
77.26 / 1690
0.06
91
Above Figure Generalized pressure drop correlation, adopted from a fig by the Norton Co. with
permission
For pressure drop of 20 mmH2O/m packing
K4 (y-axis)
= 0.58
At flooding K4
= 0.85
= V/Vw* = 9.24/9.66
= 0.95m2
Diameter of column
(4/ * A) 0.5
Diameter
[(4/3.14) * 0.95]0.5
Diameter of column
1.10 m
92
Column area
3.14/4 * (1.10)2
A =0.95 m2
Estimation of HOG:
By Ondas method
HOG
= HG+ (mGm/Lm)*HL
HOG
HG
HL
HG
= Gm/KG * aW * P
HL
Lm/KL * aW * Ct
For HG
Find
aw=? ,
kG=? ,
Gm=?
For aw
L*w
aw
0.93*253
93
aw
226 m2/m3
5.23[31]
Dp
packing size, m
426 K
= 9.8 m/sce2
0.00015 /1690
DL
8.88*10-8 m2/sec
{0.0051}*{(11.97/226*0.00015)2/3}*{(0.00015/1690*8.88* 10-8)-
= 0.453/99.26
94
KL
= 5.43*10-3 m/sec
Gm/KG * aw * P
Gm
Gm
5.30/17* 0.95=0.328Kmol/m2 s
Pressure
175 bar
HG =0.144m
HL
Lm/KL*aW*Ct
Lm
Ct
Ct
1690/78
21.67 kmole/m3
Ct
HL
0.0047 m
Value of HOG:
Now value of HG and HL putting in equation
HOG =
0.144 + 0.75*0.0047
HOG =
0.145m
95
Estimation of NOG:
y1
= 0.68
y2
= .01
y1/y2
0.68/0.01= 69
Number of transfer units NOG as a function of y1/y2 with mGm /Lm as parameter
So,
NOG = 13 m
Height of packing (Z)
Z
HOG*NOG =
1.872 m
0.144*13
96
FLV
0.58
Vw* =
9.66kg/m2 .sec
K4
0.85
For these values of FLV see the value of pressure drop from fig 11.44 the pressure drop is 20mm of
water per meter of packing..
Packed scrubber
Function
No-of
of transfer units
13
0.144 m
Diameter of column
Height of packing section
1.10 m
1.872 m
3.14 m
Packing arrangement
Dumped
Liquid distributors
Orifice type
Material of construction
97
98
5. Type of flow distribution. If non pulsating flow is required, certain types of pumps,
such as simplex reciprocating pumps, may be unsatisfactory. Similarly, if operation is
intermittent, a self-priming pump may be desirable, and corrosion difficulties may be
increased.
6. Type of power supply. Rotary positive-displacement pumps and centrifugal pumps are
readily adaptable for use with electric-motor or internal-combustion- engine drives;
reciprocating pumps can be used with steam or gas drives.
7. Cost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
Selected Pump:
From above factors that influence the pump selection, we select H.P centrifugal for
pumping the Ammonia to the reactor.
Advantages of centrifugal pump
They are simple in construction and cheap.
Fluid is delivered at uniform pressure without shocks or pulsations.
They can be coupled directly to motor drives. In general, the higher the speed, the
smaller the pump and motor required for a given duty.
The discharge line may be partly shut off or completely closed off without damaging
the pump.
They can handle liquid with large amounts of solids.
There are no valves involved in the pump operation.
Maintenance costs are lower than for other types of pumps.
Calculations:
=
++.-/+-
1.52 10-5
=
99
.7=A
K
0.019 7=A
9 =<;>A 89 : ;6<=
89 : 6;=6
. +X
2.42
Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number
. +X
E-D
7=A
/+- .+).')
+.D) + ,
98392
=
=
.+)D
0.0014 +
"= .K
0.005
Efficiency of a Pump =
8) [
(L=10m)
0.186 m
78%
(From using Figure 12.17 of Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fifth
edition at capacity of 0.019
7=A
or 68.4
@;
Wp = A (Z2-Z1) +
hha ^dcc
+ 8 + )
g (P) = 8 = 115
14
100
Power
Power
166.32
7=A
14 11.88
1170
= 1568 hp
Pump Type
Fluid Handle
Ammonia
Capacity
68.4 @;
Efficiency
0.78
Pressure Developed
115
Inlet Pressure
Outlet pressure
175 bar
Power Required
1568 hp
0.186 m
Density of fluid
618
101
+D..''
7=A
9=
+D..-
= 0.35
= 0.07 7=A
X.X
102
Calculations:
(1) Adiabatic Head
6B = + (
) +
) ( )( ) 1
1
+
Where;
6B
Adiabatic head in .
Gas constant in .{
+
k
=
=
P1 & P2 =
0.189
298
+.'+//
.-//
= 1.64
1.64
7500 (+./' +)
) (
) +./' 1
1.64 1
101.325
6B
6B = 15.38 630
6B = 9690
103
7500 +./' +
) +./'
101.35
) = 1600
(4) Efficiency:
75% from table 12.8 of Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, fifth edition
Compressor Type
Centrifugal
Fluid Handle
Carbon Di Oxide
Capacity
0.07
Efficiency
7=A
or 252
@;
0.75
Pressure Developed
115
Inlet Pressure
Outlet pressure
7500 kPa
Power Required
9690 kW
Inlet Temperature
298 K
Outlet Temperature
1600 K
Density of fluid
209.9
1.64
Handled (CO2)
104
Mass %
Cr
27.0
Ni
7.00
Mo
0.80
2.10
0.30
TOYO Engineering Co. (Designers of ACES process) and Sumitomo Metal Ind., Ltd. (SMI)
has jointly developed new duplex stainless steel DP28W for urea plant.
107
175 bar
17.5
Design Pressure
(17.5-1) 1.1
18.15
t=
Where;
t
Thickness
Design Pressure
18.15
Diameter of Reactor
2.6 m =
Joint Factor
= 240
1 (Fully Radiography)
2.8 m
+ 2 = 101.0983 mm = 0.1 m
I.D + 2(t)
2.6 + 2(0.1)
108
2600 mm
+ 0.8
Where;
=
wall thickness in mm
Put all these values in above equation to find the weight of shell:
= 240 1.08 2.7 26 + 0.8 2.7 101.0983 = &''()'*. &+ ,
= &''( -,
109
Pressure bearing
Assembly
Agitator assembly
Most expensive
Ratio of head
thickness to
cylindrical shell
thickness = 7/17
Cost of forming
Thickness
calculations
Ellipsoidal
Moderate pressure
can be bear
Torispherical
Moderate pressure can
be bear
Very easy to
maintain agitator
on a constant
speed without
fluctuations.
Less expensive
PD
i i
t=
2 JS 0.2 Pi
A bit difficult
maintenance than that in
ellipsoidal heads.
Less expensive
PR
i c Cs
t=
2 JS Pi (Cs 0.2)
From above given criterion, we select hemispherical head for our case because of the
following reasons:
Pressure inside the tank must not be fluctuating, therefore head should be so
tightly fixed with cylindrical shell and no leakage should be there. For this
purpose, best recommendations are for hemispherical heads.
Its thickness calculations are easier than those for other two head types.
Cost of forming these types of heads is lower than that for other two head types.
.
+
4/0 0.4.
18.15 2600
+ 2 = 51 33 = 4. 45 6
4 240 1 0.4 18.15
110
Thickness of the shell is 0.1 m and from above calculation it is clear that thickness of head is
half of the shell thickness.
Stress Calculations:
789:;< =>899?>8 7:@.AB C8@DEA>
1) Longitudinal Stress
Longitudinal Stress
233.38
2) Circumferential Stress
Circumferential Stress
2350075.702 pa
235 LL(
4) Compressive Stress
Compressive Stress
FG:DH<899
. I J
,
66(
MN
P QR R
J.
II JI .
. Q .
2350075.702
S FG:DH<899
7:@.TB C8@DEA>
777
. I J
K
LL(
111
Operating temperature
Operating pressure
17.5
190 0C
Design temperature
Design pressure
18.5
Diameter
2.6 m
Reactor Length
26 m
Volume of reactor
147m3
Residence time
24 min
Catalyst
No catalyst
Material of Construction
DP28W
Thickness of wall
0.1 m
2.8m
Number of trays
10
Type of head
Hemispherical head
Thickness of head
0.05 m
Weight of shell
1992 kN
Longitudinal stress
233.38
Circumferential stress
116.69
235
112
113
These are not separate objectives and must be considered together. The order in which they
are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective over another, other than that
of putting safety first. Product quality, production rate and the cost of production will be
dependent on sales requirements. For example, it may be a better strategy to produce a better
quality product at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a combination of
automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
115
2. Controller
Sense
(ii)
compare
(iii)
respond
(iv)
Action
Classification of Controllers:
In general the process controllers can be classified as:
1. Pneumatic controllers
2. Electronic controllers
3. Hydraulic controllers
116
In the urea manufacturing, the controller and the final control element may be pneumatically
operated due to the following reasons:
The pneumatic controller is very rugged and almost free of maintenance. The
maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in electronics, so
basically pneumatic equipment is simple.
The pneumatic controller appears to be safer in a potentially explosive atmosphere
which is often present in the urea.
Transmission distances are short. Pneumatic and electronic transmission systems are
generally equal up to about 250 to 300 feet. Above this distance, electronic systems
begin to offer savings.
Modes of Control:
The various types of control are called "modes" and they determine the type of response
obtained. In other words these describe the action of the controller that is the relationship of
output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that it is error that actuates the
controller. The four basic modes of control are:
1. On-off Control
2. Integral Control
3. Proportional Control
4. Rate or Derivative Control
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the control
system. The On-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the error
signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sits or completely sets the
system.
117
Interlocks
Where it is necessary to follow the fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant
start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations-inter-locks are included to prevent operators
departed from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control system design,
as pneumatic and electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
118
Thus pressure
119
Temperature Measurement
In PFR operation, temperature is controlled by controlling the flow rate of water inside
reactor. This water removes heat from reactor by absorption of heat. In case that temperature
is raised inside, water inlet valve is opened and it removes higher amounts of heat from
reactor while stabilizing temperature.
Composition Measurement
A sensor for measuring composition is also introduced into system as higher N/C ratio will
cause energy load on plant. Similarly, lower ratio will cause less conversion leading towards
in-economic process.
For this reason, composition controller checks the valve on fresh ammonia stream maintain
N/C ratio around 4/1.
120
Figure 9.2 Process Control Scheme of PFR Installed in ACES Urea Plant
121
To identify areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard potential.
To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of a
hazardous incident occurring.
To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard
potential.
To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the team.
Process description.
123
Layout drawings.
Operating procedures.
Maintenance procedures.
Conduct the study. When the nodes are identified and the parameters are
identified, each node is studied by applying the specialized guidewords to each
parameter. These guide words and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP
procedure.
They are listed in Table (8.1)
Meaning
No
Less
Quantitative decrease
More
Quantitative increase
Part of
Qualitative decrease
As well as
Qualitative Increase
Reverse
Other than
Complete substitution
124
Flammability
Urea is non-flammable material
125
Skin
Wash exposed area with soap and water. If irritation persists, get medical attention as
soon as possible.
Eyes
Wash eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting lids occasionally. Seek
Medical Aid.
Inhalation
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen.
Ingestion
If swallowed, induce vomiting immediately after giving two glasses of water. Never
give anything by mouth to an unconscious person.
126
Fire Extinguisher
Any means suitable for extinguishing surrounding fire. Fire extinguisher should available in
any risky places in the plant.
Extinguishing media: CO2, foam, dry powder, water
Exposure Control:
Exposure Standards
Workplace Exposure Standards (WES): Particulates not otherwise classified
Inspirable dust 10mg/m3
Respirable dust 3mg/m3
Disposal Considerations
Observe local authority restrictions that may apply. Collection into sealable
Containers and dispose of in an approved land fill.
Rinse containers thoroughly prior to re-use. Otherwise render unusable, and dispose of as
waste.
127
128
129
Not only ammonia, carbon dioxide and urea releases from process plants have a negative
influence on the environment but also the unnecessary use of energy is negative from an
environmental point of view and from the economic point of view as well.
Fugitive Emissions
These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive
emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilization of vapor from vats, open vessels, or
spills and materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline roof-vents and open doors
of a building as well as equipment leaks, and leaks from valves and flanges are also examples
of fugitive emissions.
130
131
132
evaporation section of the plant. Removal of ammonia and urea from wastewaters can be a
problem as it is difficult to remove one in the presence of the other.
One method used to overcome this problem is the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium carbamate,
which is decomposed to ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases can then be stripped from
the wastewaters. Urea plants are in operation that produces wastewaters with ammonia and
urea levels below 1ppm. This water can then be used for a variety of purposes depending on
the required quality suchas cooling water or Boiling Feed Water make-up. The recovered
ammonia and carbon dioxide are returned to the process to be subsequently converted into
urea.
3. Absorbers
Absorbers are used in urea plant to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be classified as
follows:
The vent from the synthesis section of the plant
The purge from the urea synthesis section contains inerts, ammonia and carbon
dioxide. To avoid ammonia emissions from this purge a low pressure absorber is installed in
purge stream. First the ammonia is washed out with a large flow of low concentrated and
cooled process water and secondly the remaining ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate
or clean waste water.
The vent from the low pressure section of the plant
The ammonia and carbon dioxide present in the off gases of the recirculation section, the
Process Water Treatment System and the evaporation section are washed out in an
atmospheric absorber where large amounts of cooled low concentrated process water are used
to absorb all the ammonia present in off gases.
133
Before the plant to be operated, specified money must be supplied to purchase and install the
equipment. The capital needed to supply the necessary plant facilities is called fixed capital
investment while that for the operation of the plant is called the working principal and sum of
two capitals is called total capital investment.
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit. Since,
Net profit = total income - all expenses
It is essential that chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of cost involved in
manufacturing processes. Capital must be allocated for direct plant expenses; such as those
for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides direct expenses, many other indirect
expenses are incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to
be obtained. Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries, product
distribution costs and cost for interplant communication.
Cost of major equipments of Urea ACES plant is calculated by using CEPCI (Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index) of September 2001 and then evaluated that cost by using above
formula.
Cost index In September 2003
397
603
135
Sr. No.
Equipment
No. of
Equipment
Per Equipment
Cost In 2003
(US Dollar)
(US Dollar)
1
Autoclave
123,000
123,000
Reactor
2
Stripper
16,400
16,400
Condenser
38,300
76,600
Scrubber
7,460
7,460
Vacuum
23,900
47,800
10,0000
10,0000
Evaporator
6
CO2
Compressor
NH3 Pump
115,000
115,000
Prilling Tower
20,0500
20,5000
691260 $
Total
1049949 $
136
Item
% Purchased
Equipment Cost
Total Cost
(US Dollar)
Equipment Cost
100%
1049949
Installation
25%
262487.25
Instrumentation &
Control
10%
104994.9
Piping
25%
262487.25
Electrification
20%
209989.8
Building
30%
314984.7
Service Facilities
40%
419979.6
Land Requisition
4%
41997.96
Total
2666870.46 $
137
Item
% Purchased
Equipment Cost
Total Cost
(US Dollar)
Engineering &
Supervision
10%
104994.9
Construction
10%
104994.9
Contractor
5%
52497.45
Total
$ 262487.25
0.10(TPC)
2. Utility Cost
0.20(TPC)
0.04(FCI)
$ 3176.142
138
$ 21174.28
0.15(0.10TPC)
0.03(TPC)
1+2+3+4+5+6
0.345(TPC) + 24350.422
0.10(FCI)
$ 52935.7
2. Local Tax
0.015(FCI)
$ 7940.35
3. Insurance
0.01(FCI)
$ 5293.57
Fixed Charges
1+ 2 +3
$ 66169.62
Administrative Expenses
0.10(TCP)
139
5% of FCI
$ 26467.85
(G) Interest
Interest
8% of FCI
Interest
42348.56 $
A+B+C+D+E+F+G
TPC
1-0.53 TCP
68816.41
$ 146417.8936
0.36 $
Total Income
74714.92
140
53794742
Total Income
53794742 0.36
Total Income
$ 1.9 10
Gross Profit
Gross Profit
1.9 10 - 146417.8936
Gross Profit
$ 1.88 10
Taxes
Net profit
Net Profit
1.9 10 7541432.843
7541432.843
!! "
$ %&'(&)*+,*-.
#
/,
1.33 156
$
#
7 years
141
= 6.9 7
/
$ 11 10
143
144
145
1. Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus, K.D., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering , 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1991.
2. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering,
volume 6, 5th Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 2001.
3. Ludwig, E.E, Applied Process Design, 3rd ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional Publishers,
2002.
4. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering,
volume 2, 4th Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 1998.
5. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Smith J.C., Harrioatt, P., Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 5th Ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., 1993.
6. Kern D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill Inc., 2000.
7. Levenspiel, O., Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3rd ed ,John Wily and Sons Inc.,
1999.
8. Stephanophoulos, G., Chemical Process Control, Prentice Hall, 2007.
9. Perry, R.H., Perrys R.H., Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th Ed.,
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1997.
10. Manual of Toyo Corporation
11. ACES21_Brochure
12. Fertilizer Manual by UN industrial developmental organization
13. Khan Eqan Ali, Fertilizers in Pakistan, Demand, Production and Imports March 30,
2011.
14. http://www.scribd.com/doc/13728575/Urea-Final-Report
15. http://www.stamicarbon.com/
16. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
147