transactional speaking, you and the listener or listeners are trying to share information in as

efficient way as possible. Think of calling the bank. When you call your bank on the telephone, you
want specific information say the amount of money in your savings account. You ask very direct
questions and there are many social rules in this conversation. You wouldnt ask the other person about
the weather, for example. That would be very strange and would be breaking the social rules of this
conversation. You and the other people in the conversation stay on topic and when that topic is finished,
you end the conversation, usually.
By interactional speaking, we are looking at casual conversation. Two or more people sitting
around chatting about many things. The rules are completely different in this style of conversation. Topics
will change very often, a conversation that starts about the weather might move into sports and then into
current news before ending. There are still many social rules in this type of conversation, but the rules are
very different.
In interactional speaking, we use many rejoinders, such as, Really? or Oh no!. We often interrupt each
other, where one person will stop the other person from speaking by asking a question. In transactional
speaking this would be very rude and is generally not done. That sort of thing.

Brown and Yule (1983) suggest that language has two main functions : interactional and transcational.
The interactional function is concerned with the maintenance of social relationships for
example, if two people pass in the street and say ...
A : Hi, all right?
B: Yeah, fine thanks.
... the function of the exchange is purely interactional - it serves only as an acknowledgement of the
relationship, and the answer is conventional - it may not even actually be true.
Transactional discourse, on the other hand, is concerned with the transmission of
information. If at the greengrocers I say ..
A: Two pounds of cherry tomatoes.
... it is important that I transmit, and the greengrocer understands, the information accurately : so that
for instance I don't end up with three kilos of plum tomatoes. If the greengrocer has any doubts he might
ask for further information
A: Two pounds of cherry tomatoes.
B : These ones, or the ones next to the potatoes?
A: The ones next to the potatoes
B : That's 5
Most language is, of course, not wholly transactional or interactional but a mix of both, and for this reason

Brown and Yule (ibid) suggest that exchanges are generally better described as primarilytransactional or
interactional. Social chat will contain some information - eg if I'm telling you about my last holiday - but it
remains primarily interactional in terms of its function. It doesn't really matter if you don't retain the
details. And transactional exchanges will often be interspersed with elements which are there to serve an
interactional function. Compare the exchange above with :
A : Good morning. Can I have two pounds of cherry tomatoes.
B : Would you like these ones, or the ones next to the potatoes?
A: The ones next to the potatoes please.
B: Here you are. That's 5 please.
A: Thank you.
None of the underlined elements are essential for the transmission of information, even though the
exchange remains primarily transactional. They serve an interactional function.
Small

talk

and

conversation

are

examples

of

interactional

talk,

which

refers

to

communication that primarily serves the purpose of social interaction Small talk consists of
short exchanges that usually begin with a greeting, move to back-and-forth exchanges on noncontroversial topics, such as the weekend, the weather, work, school, etc. and then often conclude with a
fixed expression, such as See you later. Such interactions are at times almost formulaic and often do not
result in a real conversation. They serve to create a positive atmosphere and to create a comfort zone
between people who might be total strangers. Topics that are appropriate in small talk may differ across
cultures, since topics that are considered private in some cultures (e.g. marital status or religion) can be
considered as appropriate topics for small talk in other cultures. While seemingly a trivial aspect of
speaking, small talk plays a very important role in social interaction. Learners who cannot manage small
talk often find they come away from social encounters feeling awkward, or that they did not make a good
impression, and, consequently, may avoid situations where small talk is required.
Skills involved in mastering small talk include:

Acquiring fixed expressions and routines used in small talk.

Using formal or casual speech depending on the situation.
Developing fluency in making small talk around predictable topics.
Using opening and closing strategies.
Using back-channelling. Back-channelling involves the use of expressions such as really, mm, Is
that right?, yeah, etc., nodding of the head, and, very commonly, short rhetorical questions, such as Do
you? Are you? or Did you? Such actions and expressions reflect the role of an active, interested and
supportive listener.

One of the most important aspects of conversation is managing the flow of conversation around topics.
Whereas topics are only lightly touched on in small talk, as we noted above, conversation involves a joint

interaction around topics and the introduction of new topics that are linked through each speakers
contributions. The skills involved include:

Initiating a topic in casual and formal conversation.

Selecting vocabulary appropriate to the topic.
Giving appropriate feedback responses.
Providing relevant evaluative comments through back-channelling.
Taking turns at appropriate points in the conversation.
Asking for clarification and repetition.
Using discourse strategies for repairing misunderstanding.
Using discourse strategies to open and close conversations.
Using appropriate intonation and stress patterns to express meaning Learners need a wide range
of topics at their disposal in order to manage the flow of conversation, and managing interaction and
developing topic fluency is a priority in speaking classes. Initially, learners may depend on familiar
topics to get by. However, they also need practice in introducing new topics into conversation to move
beyond this stage.

Agenda management and turn-taking are also important features of small talk and conversation. The
former refers to the participants right to choose the topic and the way the topics are developed, and to
choose how long the conversation should continue. This includes strategies for opening, developing and
closing conversations, and for introducing and changing topics. This process is often jointly managed by
the participants, depending on the social relationship between them (e.g. teacher student, friendfriend,
employedemployee). Turn-taking involves providing opportunities for another person to take a turn in
speaking and recognizing when another speaker is seeking to take a turn.
Another important communication skill is the ability to use English to accomplish different kinds of
transactions. A transaction is an interaction that focuses on getting something done, rather
than maintaining social interaction. (In communicative language teaching, transactions are generally
referred to as functions, and include such areas as requests, orders, offers, suggestions, etc.) A transaction
may consist of a sequence of different functions. Two different kinds of transactions are often
distinguished. One type refers to transactions that occur in situations where the focus is on giving and
receiving information, and where the participants focus primarily on what is said or achieved (e.g. asking
someone for directions or bargaining at a garage sale). The second type refers to transactions that involve
obtaining goods or services, such as checking into a hotel or ordering food in a restaurant. Talk in these
situations is often information- focused, is associated with specific activities and often occurs in specific
situations. The following are examples of communication of this kind:

Ordering food in a restaurant.

Ordering a taxi.
Checking into a hotel.
Changing money at a bank.
Getting a haircut.

Buying something in a store.

Borrowing a book from the library.

Transactional activities can be thought of as consisting of a sequence of individual moves or functions

which, together, constitute a script. For example, when people order food in a restaurant, they usually
look at the menu, ask any necessary questions and then tell the waitperson what they want. The
waitperson may ask additional questions and then repeat their order to check. When people check into a
hotel, the transaction usually starts with a greeting, the clerk enquires if the person has a reservation,
the client confirms and provides his or her name and so on.
In using language in this way, the goal is to carry out a task. Communicating information is the central
focus, and making oneself understood, unlike small talk or conversation, where social interaction is often
as important as what the participants actually say. In addition, the language used in carrying out
transactions is often predictable, contains many fixed expressions and routines, and, as we noted in the
earlier example, and may contain elliptical or short forms instead of fully-formed sentences ,since
transactions can often be performed using key words and communication strategies, but not necessarily
employing grammatically appropriate language. Communication strategies are tactics learners use to
compensate for limitations in their linguistic skills and that enable them to clarify their intentions,
despite limitations in grammar, vocabulary or discourse skills.
The skills involved in using English for transactions thus include:

Selecting vocabulary related to particular transactions and functions.

Using fixed expressions and routines.
Expressing functions.
Using scripts for specific transactions and situations.
Asking and answering questions.
Clarifying meanings and intentions.
Confirming and repeating information.
Using communication strategies.