Trigonometry Handbook

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
(www.mathguy.us)
Trigonometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.0
January1,2016
Copyright20122016,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
NotetoStudents
ThisTrigonometryHandbookwasdevelopedprimarilythroughworkwithanumberofHigh
SchoolandCollegeTrigonometryclasses.Inaddition,anumberofmoreadvancedtopicshave
beenaddedtothehandbooktowhetthestudentsappetiteforhigherlevelstudy.
OneofthemainreasonswhyIwrotethishandbookwastoencouragethestudenttowonder;
toaskwhataboutorwhatif.Ifindthatstudentsaresobusytodaythattheydont
havethetime,ordonttakethetime,toseekoutthebeautyandmajestythatexistsin
Mathematics.And,itisthere,justbelowthesurface.Sobecuriousandgofindit.
Theanswerstomostofthequestionsbelowareinsidethishandbook,butareseldomtaught.
IsthereamethodIcanlearnthatwillhelpmerecallthekeypointsonaunitcircle
withoutmemorizingtheunitcircle?
WhatsthefastestwaytographaTrigfunction?
CanIconvertthesumoftwotrigfunctionstoaproductoftrigfunctions?Howabout
theotherwayaround,changingaproducttoasum?
IsthereaneasywaytocalculatetheareaofatriangleifIamgivenitsverticesaspoints
onaCartesianplane?
DontsomeofthePolargraphsinChapter9lookliketheyhavebeendrawnwitha
Spirograph?Whyisthat?
Acycloidisbothabrachistochroneandatautochrone.Whataretheseandwhyare
theyimportant?(youwillhavetolookthisoneup,butitiswellworthyourtime)
Whatisavectorcrossproductandhowisitused?
Howdothepropertiesofvectorsextendto3dimensions,wheretheyreallymatter?
Additionally,askyourself:
WhattrigidentitiescanIcreatethatIhavenotyetseen?
WhatPolargraphscanIcreatebymessingwithtrigfunctions?Whatmakesapretty
graphinsteadofonethatjustlooksmessedup?
CanIcomeupwithasimplermethodofdoingthingsthanIambeingtaught?
WhatproblemscanIcomeupwithtostumpmyfriends?
Thosewhoapproachmathinthismannerwillbetomorrowsleaders.Areyouoneofthem?
Pleasefeelfreetocontactmeatearl@mathguy.comifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments.
Thankyouandbestwishes!
Earl
Version 2.0
Page 2 of 109
January 1, 2016
Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
11
11
11
12
13
14
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
Introduction
AngleDefinitions
FunctionDefinitionsonthex andy Axes
PythagoreanIdentities
SineCosineRelationship
KeyAnglesinRadiansandDegrees
Cofunctions
UnitCircle
FunctionDefinitionsinaRightTriangle
SOHCAHTOA
TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination
15
17
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
BasicTrigFunctions
CharacteristicsofTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
TableofTrigonometricFunctionCharacteristics
SineFunction
CosineFunction
TangentFunction
CotangentFunction
SecantFunction
CosecantFunction
Application:SimpleHarmonicMotion
33
33
34
35
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Definitions
PrincipalValuesandRanges
GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
ProblemsInvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Version 2.0
Page 3 of 109
January 1, 2016
Table of Contents
Page
Description
37
38
41
41
41
42
Chapter4:KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAddition,DoubleAngle,HalfAngleFormulas
Examples
PowerReducingFormulas
ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas
Examples
43
44
47
48
Chapter5:TrigonometricIdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentities
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
SolvingTrigonmeticEquations
SolvingTrigonmeticEquationsExamples
51
52
53
54
56
57
59
60
Chapter6:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
SummaryofMethods
LawsofSinesandCosines
LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
TheAmbiguousCase
FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
AmbiguousCaseExamples
Bearings
BearingsExamples
61
61
62
62
63
Chapter7:AreaofaTriangle
GeometryFormula
Heron'sFormula
TrigonometricFormulas
CoordinateGeometryFormula
Examples
64
64
65
65
67
68
Chapter8:PolarCoordinates
Introduction
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
DeMoivre'sTheorem
DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Version 2.0
Page 4 of 109
January 1, 2016
Table of Contents
Page
Description
69
69
70
70
71
74
75
76
77
Chapter9:PolarFunctions
PartsofthePolarGraph
Symmetry
GraphingMethods
GraphingwiththeTI84PlusCalculator
GraphTypes(Circles,Roses,Limaons,Lemniscates,Spirals)
Rose
Cardioid
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
ParametricEquations
79
79
79
80
81
83
84
86
86
86
87
90
92
Chapter10:Vectors
Introduction
SpecialUnitVectors
VectorComponents
VectorProperties
VectorPropertiesExamples
DotProduct
DotProductExamples
VectorProjection
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Work
ApplicationsofVectorsExamples
VectorCrossProduct
VectorTripleProducts
93
103
105
Appendices
AppendixASummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
AppendixBSolvingTheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
AppendixCSummaryofPolarandRectangularForms
106
Index
Version 2.0
Page 5 of 109
January 1, 2016
Table of Contents
UsefulWebsites
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,based
ontheauthor'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandin
mathtutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
http://www.mathguy.us/
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissite
containsdefinitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTube
onnumeroustopics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
www.khanacademy.org
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJava
appletstoexploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentisaSchaums
Outline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseand
asubstantialnumberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworked
outinthebook,sothestudentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandotherbooksellers.
Version 2.0
Page 6 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
FunctionsandSpecialAngles
Introduction
WhatisTrigonometry?
ThewordTrigonometrycomesfromtheGreektrigonon(meaningtriangle)
andmetron(meaningmeasure).So,simplyput,Trigonometryisthestudyof
themeasuresoftriangles.Thisincludesthelengthsofthesides,themeasures
oftheanglesandtherelationshipsbetweenthesidesandangles.
ThemodernapproachtoTrigonometryalsodealswithhowrighttrianglesinteractwithcircles,
especiallytheUnitCircle,i.e.,acircleofradius1.Althoughthebasicconceptsaresimple,the
applicationsofTrigonometryarefarreaching,fromcuttingtherequiredanglesinkitchentilesto
determiningtheoptimaltrajectoryforarockettoreachtheouterplanets.
RadiansandDegrees
AnglesinTrigonometrycanbemeasuredineitherradiansordegrees:
Thereare360degrees i.e.,360 inonerotationaroundacircle.Althoughtherearevarious

accountsofhowacirclecametohave360degrees,mostofthesearebasedonthefactthat
earlycivilizationsconsideredacompleteyeartohave360days.
Thereare2 ~ 6.283 radiansinonerotationaroundacircle.The

ancientGreeksdefined tobetheratioofthecircumferenceofa
circletoitsdiameter(i.e.,
).Sincethediameterisdoublethe
radius,thecircumferenceis2 timestheradius(i.e.,
2 ).One
radianisthemeasureoftheanglemadefromwrappingtheradiusofa
circlealongthecirclesexterior.
r
1 rad
MeasureofanArc
OneofthesimplestandmostbasicformulasinTrigonometryprovidesthemeasureofanarcinterms
oftheradiusofthecircle, ,andthearcscentralangle,expressedinradians.Theformulaiseasily
derivedfromtheportionofthecircumferencesubtendedby.
Sincethereare2 radiansinonefullrotationaroundthecircle,themeasure
ofanarcwithcentralangle,expressedinradians,is:
so
Version 2.0
Page 7 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
AngleDefinitions
BasicDefinitions
AfewdefinitionsrelatingtoanglesareusefulwhenbeginningthestudyofTrigonometry.
Angle:Ameasureofthespacebetweenrayswithacommonendpoint.Anangleistypically
measuredbytheamountofrotationrequiredtogetfromitsinitial
sidetoitsterminalside.
InitialSide:Thesideofananglefromwhichitsrotational
measurebegins.
TerminalSide:Thesideofanangleatwhichitsrotational
measureends.
Vertex:Thevertexofanangleisthecommonendpointofthetworaysthatdefinetheangle.
DefinitionsintheCartesian(
)Plane
Whenanglesaregraphedonacoordinate
system(RectangularorPolar),anumberof
additionaltermsareuseful.
StandardPosition:Anangleisinstandard
positionifitsvertexistheorigin(i.e.,the
point 0, 0 )anditsinitialsideisthe
positive axis.
PolarAxis:ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.Itistheinitialsideofallanglesinstandardposition.
PolarAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itspolarangleistheanglemeasuredfromthepolar
axistoitsterminalside.Ifmeasuredinacounterclockwisedirection,thepolarangleispositive;if
measuredinaclockwisedirection,thepolarangleisnegative.
ReferenceAngle:Foranangleinstandardposition,itsreferenceangleistheanglebetween0and
90measuredfromthe axis(positiveornegative)toitsterminalside.Thereferenceanglecanbe
0;itcanbe90;itisnevernegative.
CoterminalAngle:Twoanglesarecoterminaliftheyareinstandardpositionandhavethesame
terminalside.Forexample,anglesofmeasure50and410arecoterminalbecause410isonefull
rotationaroundthecircle(i.e.,360),plus50,sotheyhavethesameterminalside.
QuadrantalAngle:Anangleinstandardpositionisaquadrantalangleifitsterminalsidelieson
eitherthe axisorthe axis.
Version 2.0
Page 8 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
TrigonometricFunctions
(onthe and axes)
(foranyangle)
sin cos
1
sec
1 tan
csc
cot
csc
sin
sin
cos
cos
sec
tan
tan
1
tan
cot
sin
cos
cot
cot
1
cot
tan
cos
sin
sec
sec
cos
csc
csc
sin
sin
sin
cos
KeyAngles
(
cos
30
60
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
Version 2.0
cos
90
cot

csc
sin
tan
sec
6
4
3
2
radians
radians
radians
radians
Page 9 of 109
0 radians
45
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI)
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
TheUnitCircle
TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany

pointontheunitcircle,the coordinateisequaltothecosineoftheangleandthe coordinateis
equaltothesineoftheangle.Usingthisdiagram,itiseasytoidentifythesinesandcosinesofangles
thatrecurfrequentlyinthestudyofTrigonometry.
Version 2.0
Page 10 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
sin
cos
tan
SpecialAngles
Radians
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles( )
Degrees
0
45
60
90
30
sin
undefined
Notethepatternsintheabovetable:Inthesinecolumn,thenumbers0to4occurinsequence
undertheradical!Thecosinecolumnisthesinecolumnreversed.Tangent sine cosine.
Version 2.0
Page 11 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureofthereferenceangle
fromthe axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin(fromthetableatright).
Examples:
inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
120,thereferenceangleis180
For
sin 60
,so:
120
60
inQuadrantIIICalculate:
180
For
cos 30 ,so:
180
30
inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360
For
tan 45
1,so:
Version 2.0
315
45
Page 12 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
ProblemsInvolvingTrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
AtypicalprobleminTrigonometryistofindthevalueofoneormoreTrigfunctionsbasedonasetof
constraints.Often,theconstraintsinvolvethevalueofanotherTrigfunctionandthesignofyeta
thirdTrigFunction.Thekeytosolvingthistypeofproblemistodrawthecorrecttriangleinthe
correctquadrant.
Acoupleofexampleswillillustratethisprocess.
Example1.1:sin
, tan
0.Findthevaluesofsec andcot .
0 , tan
Noticethatsin
0.Therefore, isin 3,sowedrawtheangleinthatquadrant.
In 3, isnegative; isalwayspositive.Sincesin
2,
,welet
3.
UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecalculatethelengthofthehorizontal
legofthetriangle: 3
5.Sincetheangleisin 3, is
5.
negative,sowemusthave
Then,sec
And,cot
Example1.2:cot
, cos
Noticethatcot
0.Findthevalueofcsc andcos .
0 , cos
0.Therefore, isin 2,sowedrawtheangleinthatquadrant.
In 2, isnegative,and ispositive.Sincecot
,welet
9,
4.
UsingthePythagoreanTheorem,wecancalculatethelengthofthe
9
hypotenuseofthetriangle:
Then,csc
And,cos
Version 2.0
97.
Page 13 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter1
ProblemsInvolvingAnglesofDepressionandInclination
AcommonprobleminTrigonometrydealswithanglesofdepressionorinclination.Anangleof
depressionisananglebelowthehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.An
angleofinclinationisanangleabovethehorizontalatwhichanobservermustlooktoseeanobject.
Example1.3:Abuilding185feettallcastsa60footlongshadow.Ifapersonlooksdownfromthe
topofthebuilding,whatisthemeasureoftheangleofdepression?Assumetheperson'seyesare5
feetabovethetopofthebuilding.
Thetotalheightfromwhichthepersonlooksdownupontheshadowis:185 5
beginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.
tan x
60
190
0.3158
0.3158
tan
190ft.We
17.5
Theangleofdepressionisthecomplementof .
90
17.5
72.5
Example1.4:Ashipis300metersfromaverticalcliff.Thenavigatorusesasextanttodeterminethe
angleofinclinationfromthedeckoftheshiptothetopoftheclifftobe62.4.Howfarabovethe
deckoftheshipisthetopofthecliff?Whatisthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff?
Webeginbydrawingthediagrambelow,thenconsiderthetrigonometryinvolved.
a) Tofindhowfarabovethedeckthetopofthecliffis( ):
tan 62.4
300
300 tan 62.4
573.8meters
b) Tofindthedistancefromthedecktothetopofthecliff( ):
300
cos 62.4
647.5meters
Version 2.0
Page 14 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofTrigFunctions
GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
sin
1
csc
and
csc
sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
cos
1
sec
and
sec
cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
tan
Version 2.0
1
cot
and
cot
Page 15 of 109
tan
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Itisinstructivetoviewtheparenttrigonometricfunctionsonthesameaxesastheirreciprocals.
Identifyingpatternsbetweenthetwofunctionscanbehelpfulingraphingthem.
Lookingatthesineandcosecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when
1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthe
cosecantfunctionoccurwhenthesine
functioniszero.
Lookingatthecosineandsecantfunctions,
weseethattheyintersectattheirmaximum
andminimumvalues(i.e.,when
1).The
verticalasymptotes(notshown)ofthesecant
functionoccurwhenthecosinefunctionis
zero.
Lookingatthetangentandcotangent
functions,weseethattheyintersectwhen
sin
cos (i.e.,at
, an
integer).Theverticalasymptotes(not
shown)oftheeachfunctionoccurwhenthe
otherfunctioniszero.
Version 2.0
Page 16 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
Alltrigonometricfunctionsareperiodic,meaningthattheyrepeatthepatternofthecurve(calleda
cycle)onaregularbasis.Thekeycharacteristicsofeachcurve,alongwithknowledgeoftheparent
curvesaresufficienttographmanytrigonometricfunctions.Letsconsiderthegeneralfunction:
A
whereA, B, CandDareconstantsand
tangent,cotangent,secant,cosecant).
isanyofthesixtrigonometricfunctions(sine,cosine,
Amplitude
Amplitudeisthemeasureofthedistanceofpeaksandtroughs
fromthemidline(i.e.,center)ofasineorcosinefunction;
amplitudeisalwayspositive.Theotherfourfunctionsdonot
havepeaksandtroughs,sotheydonothaveamplitudes.For
thegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,amplitude |A|.
Period
Periodisthehorizontalwidthofasinglecycleorwave,i.e.,thedistanceittravelsbeforeitrepeats.
Everytrigonometricfunctionhasaperiod.Theperiodsoftheparentfunctionsareasfollows:for
sine,cosine,secantandcosecant,period 2;fortangentandcotangent,period .
Forthegeneralfunction,
period
, definedabove,

Frequency
Frequencyismostusefulwhenusedwiththesineand
cosinefunctions.Itisthereciprocaloftheperiod,i.e.,
frequency
Frequencyistypicallydiscussedinrelationtothesineandcosinefunctionswhenconsidering
harmonicmotionorwaves.InPhysics,frequencyistypicallymeasuredinHertz,i.e.,cyclesper
second.1Hz 1cyclepersecond.
Forthegeneralsineorcosinefunction,
Version 2.0
, definedabove,frequency
Page 17 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
PhaseShift
Phaseshiftishowfarhasthefunctionbeenshiftedhorizontally
(leftorright)fromitsparentfunction.Forthegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,
phase shift
Apositivephaseshiftindicatesashifttotherightrelativetothe
graphoftheparentfunction;anegativephaseshiftindicatesashift
totheleftrelativetothegraphoftheparentfunction.
Atrickforcalculatingthephaseshiftistosettheargumentofthetrigonometricfunctionequalto
zero: B
C
0,andsolvefor .Theresultingvalueof isthephaseshiftofthefunction.
VerticalShift
Verticalshiftistheverticaldistancethatthemidlineofacurvelies
aboveorbelowthemidlineofitsparentfunction(i.e.,the axis).
Forthegeneralfunction,
, definedabove,vertical shift D.
ThevalueofDmaybepositive,indicatingashiftupward,or
negative,indicatingashiftdownwardrelativetothegraphofthe
parentfunction.
PuttingitAllTogether
Theillustrationbelowshowshowalloftheitemsdescribedabovecombineinasinglegraph.
Version 2.0
Page 18 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
SummaryofCharacteristicsandKeyPointsTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Sine
Function:
Cosine
Tangent
Cotangent
Secant
Cosecant
ParentFunction
sin
Domain
cos
tan
, except
none
,where
none
Range
1, 1
1, 1
Period
,where isanInteger
intercepts
(1)
OddorEvenFunction
OddFunction
,where
isodd
EvenFunction
, except
,where
, except ,
where isanInteger
isodd
, 1 1,
,where isan
Integer
, 1 1,
csc
where isodd
,where isan
Integer
isodd
sec
, except ,
where isanInteger
where isodd
VerticalAsymptotes
cot
midwaybetween
asymptotes
midwaybetween
asymptotes
none
none
OddFunction
OddFunction
EvenFunction
OddFunction
sin
GeneralForm
Amplitude/Stretch,Period,
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
when
(2)
cos
| |,
when
when
when
when
| |,
tan
| |,
Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e.
| |,
| |,
verticalasymptote
csc
| |,
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
.Anevenfunctionissymmetricaboutthe axis,i.e.,
Page 19 of 109
sec
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline
Version 2.0
cot
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
verticalasymptote
0).
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphofaGeneralSineFunction
GeneralForm

Thegeneralformofasinefunctionis:
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
| |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
Amplitude:
functionfromitsparentfunction:
sin .
Period:
.Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof
sin .
PhaseShift:
.Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
.So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift:
.Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
.
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation:
Example2.1:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Forthisexample:
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
Page 20 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphingaSineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthesinefunctionhasthreezeropoints(pointsonthexaxis)
atthebeginningoftheperiod,attheendoftheperiod,andhalfwayinbetween.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof
theOrigin.
Step2:Period:
.
,
Thepointis:
.Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe
wherethewavebegins.
waveendsatthepoint:
Step3:Thethirdzeropoint
islocatedhalfwaybetween
thefirsttwo.
The pointis:
Step4:The valueofthe
pointhalfwaybetweenthe
leftandcenterzeropointsis
" ".
The pointis:
centerandrightzeropoints
The pointis:
is .
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey
points.
Thiswillproducethegraph
ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Note:If
0,allpoints
onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.
Page 21 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphofaGeneralCosineFunction
GeneralForm

Thegeneralformofacosinefunctionis:
| |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
Amplitude:
functionfromitsparentfunction:
cos .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof
cos .
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example2.2:
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Forthisexample:
;
| |
Amplitude:
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
Page 22 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphingaCosineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthecosinefunctionhastwomaxima(orminimaif
0)
oneatthebeginningoftheperiodandoneattheendoftheperiodanda
minimum(ormaximumif
0)halfwayinbetween.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
thepoint , .
Step2:Period:
,
,
Thepointis:
.Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe
wherethewavebegins.
waveendsatthepoint:
pointhalfwaybetweenthose
inthetwostepsaboveis
"
".
Thepointis:
leftandcenterextremais
" ".
Thepointis:
centerandrightextremais
" ".
Thepointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey
points.
ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Page 23 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphofaGeneralTangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofatangentfunctionis:
Scalefactor:| |.Thetangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe

stretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction:
tan .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof
tan .
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example2.3:
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
Notethat,forthe
tangentcurve,we
typicallygraphhalf
oftheprincipal
cycleatthepoint
ofthephaseshift,
andthenfillinthe
otherhalfofthe
cycletotheleft
(seenextpage).
Version 2.0
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
| |
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Page 24 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphingaTangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthetangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin
between.Itflowsupwardtotherightif
0anddownwardtotherightif
Example:
0.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Thefirstcyclebeginsatthe
zeropoint unitstothe
rightoftheOrigin.
Step2:Period:
.
,
Thepointis:
Placeaverticalasymptote
beginningofthecycle.
Step3:Placeavertical
Theleftasymptoteisat:
unitstothe
leftofthebeginningofthe
cycle.
zeropointandtheright
asymptoteis" ".
The pointis:
leftasymptoteandthezero
pointis"
".
The pointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey
points,approachingthe
asymptotesoneachside.
ofonecycleofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethecycle
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Therightasymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
asymptote
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Page 25 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphofaGeneralCotangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacotangentfunctionis:
Scalefactor:| |.Thecotangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof

thestretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction:
cot .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof
cot .
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example2.4:
Notethat,forthe
cotangentcurve,
wetypicallygraph
theasymptotes
first,andthen
graphthecurve
betweenthem(see
nextpage).
Version 2.0
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Page 26 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphingaCotangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecotangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin
between.Itflowsdownwardtotherightif
0andupwardtotherightif
0.
Example:
.
Step1:PhaseShift:
Placeaverticalasymptote
unitstotherightofthe
axis.
Step2:Period:
.Theleft
asymptoteisat:
Placeanothervertical
asymptote unitstothe
rightofthefirstone.
Therightasymptoteisat:
Step3:Azeropointexists
halfwaybetweenthetwo
asymptotes.
Thepointis:
,
leftasymptoteandthezero
pointis" ".
The pointis:
zeropointandtheright
asymptoteis"
".
The pointis:
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey
points,approachingthe
totheleftandrightas
desired.
Version 2.0
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Page 27 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphofaGeneralSecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasecantfunctionis:
Scalefactor:| |.Thesecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe

stretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction:
sec .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof
sec .
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example2.5:
OnecycleofthesecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one
openingupandoneopeningdown.
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
Page 28 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphingaSecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthesecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingcosinefunctionbecausesec
Thecosinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthesecantfunction.
Maximaforthecosinefunctionproduceminimaforthesecantfunction.
Minimaforthecosinefunctionproducemaximaforthesecantfunction.
SecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown.
Theequationofthe
correspondingcosine
functionfortheexampleis:
Step1:Graphonewaveof
thecorrespondingcosine
function.
Example:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe
secantfunctionoccuratthe
zeropointsofthecosine
function.
Thezeropointsoccurat:
Step3:Eachmaximumof
thecosinefunction
representsaminimumfor
thesecantfunction.
Cosinemaximaand,
therefore,secantminimaare
Step4:Eachminimumof
thecosinefunction
representsamaximumfor
thesecantfunction.
Thecosineminimum and,
therefore,thesecant
Secantasymptotesare:
at:
and
, 4 and
maximumisat:
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach
keypoint,approachingthe
,4
, 4
totheleftandrightas
desired.Erasethecosine
functionifnecessary.
, 0
, 0 and
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Version 2.0
Page 29 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphofaGeneralCosecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosecantfunctionis:
Scalefactor:| |.Thecosecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof

thestretchorcompressionofthefunctionfromitsparentfunction:
csc .
Period:
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof
csc .
PhaseShift:
.So,
VerticalShift:
.
Example2.6:
OnecycleofthecosecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one
openingupandoneopeningdown.
Forthisexample:
;
ScaleFactor:| |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
Version 2.0
Page 30 of 109
| |
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
GraphingaCosecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecosecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingsinefunctionbecausecsc
Thesinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthecosecantfunction.
Maximaforthesinefunctionproduceminimaforthecosecantfunction.
Minimaforthesinefunctionproducemaximaforthecosecantfunction.
CosecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown.
Theequationofthe
correspondingsinefunction
fortheexampleis:
Step1:Graphonewaveof
thecorrespondingsine
function.
Example:
Step2:Asymptotesforthe
cosecantfunctionoccurat
thezeropointsofthesine
function.
Thezeropointsoccurat:
,0 ,
,0 ,
,0
Cosecantasymptotesare:
Step3:Eachmaximumof
thesinefunctionrepresents
aminimumforthecosecant
function.
Thesinemaximumand,
therefore,thecosecant
minimumisat: , 4
Step4:Eachminimumof
thesinefunctionrepresents
amaximumforthecosecant
function.
Thesineminimumand,
therefore,thecosecant
maximumisat:
Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach
keypoint,approachingthe
totheleftandrightas
desired.Erasethesine
functionifnecessary.
, 4
Note:If
0,allpoints
verticallyby units.
Version 2.0
Page 31 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter2
SimpleHarmonicMotion
InPhysics,SimpleHarmonicMotionisanoscillatingmotion(think:repeatingupanddownmotion)
wheretheforceappliedtoanobjectisproportionaltoandintheoppositedirectionofits
displacement.Acommonexampleistheactionofacoiledspring,whichoscillatesupanddown
whenreleased.Suchmotioncanbemodeledbythesineandcosinefunctions,usingthefollowing
equations(note: isthelowercaseGreekletteromega,nottheEnglishletterw):
cos
Harmonicmotionequations:
Period:
sin
or
Frequency:
or
with
Situationsinwhichanobjectstartsatrestatthecenterofitsoscillation,oratrest,usethesine
function(becausesin 0 0);situationsinwhichanobjectstartsinanupordownpositionpriortoits
releaseusethecosinefunction(becausecos 0 1).
Example2.7:Anobjectisattachedtoacoiledspring.Theobjectispulledupandthenreleased.If
theamplitudeis5cmandtheperiodis7seconds,writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobject
fromitsstartingpositionafter seconds.
Thespringwillstartata valueof 5(sinceitispulledup),andoscillatebetween 5and 5
(absentanyotherforce)overtime.Agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeacosinecurvewith
leadcoefficient
5.
Theperiodofthefunctionis7seconds.So,weget:
1
period
1
and
7
1
2
7
5 cos
Theresultingequation,then,is:
Example2.8:Anobjectinsimpleharmonicmotionhasafrequencyof1.5oscillationspersecondand
anamplitudeof13cm.Writeanequationforthedistanceoftheobjectfromitsrestpositionafter
seconds.
Assumingthatdistance 0attime
0,itmakessensetouseasinefunctionforthis
problem.Sincetheamplitudeis13cm,agoodrepresentationofthiswouldbeasinecurvewith
leadcoefficient
13.Notethataleadcoefficient
13wouldworkaswell.
Recallingthat
,with
1.5 weget:
Theresultingequations,then,are:
Version 2.0
13 sin 3
Page 32 of 109
2 1.5
or
3 .
13 sin 3
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Inversetrigonometricfunctionsareshownwitha" 1"exponentoranarcprefix.So,theinverse
sineof maybeshownassin
orarcsin .Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:
whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:
sin
0.5 askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin
arctan 1 askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan
0.5.
1.
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswertheabove
questions,sotheinversetrigonometricfunctionsarereferredtoas
multivaluedfunctions.Becauseofthis,mathematicianshavedefined
aprincipalsolutionforproblemsinvolvinginversetrigonometric
functions.Theanglewhichistheprincipalsolution(orprincipalvalue)
isdefinedtobethesolutionthatliesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthe
figureatright.Forexample:
sin
Thesolutionstotheequation
intervals
0.5areall valuesinthe
.Thatis,thesetofall
solutionstothisequationcontainsthetwosolutionsintheinterval
0, 2 ,aswellasallanglesthatareintegermultiplesof2 less
thanorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematicianshave
definedaprincipalvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.
Theprincipalvalueof forwhich
0.5liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis
sin
RangesofInverseTrigonometric
Functions
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Therangesofinversetrigonometricfunctions
aregenerallydefinedtobetherangesofthe
principalvaluesofthosefunctions.Atable
summarizingtheseisprovidedatright.
Function
AnglesinQ4areexpressedasnegativeangles.
sin
cos
tan
Range
2
0
2
Version 2.0
Page 33 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Principalvaluesareshowningreen.
Version 2.0
Page 34 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
Itistemptingtobelieve,forexample,thatsin sin
or
tan tan
.Thetwofunctionsare,afterallinverses.However,
thisisnotalwaysthecasebecausetheinversefunctionvaluedesired
istypicallyitsprincipalvalue,whichthestudentwillrecallisdefined
onlyincertainquadrants(seethetableatright).
Letslookatacoupleofproblemstoseehowtheyaresolved.
Example3.1:Calculatetheprincipalvalueoftan
tan
Beginbynoticingthattan andtanareinversefunctions,sothe
solutiontothisproblemisrelatedtotheanglegiven:
.This
angleisinQ2,buttheinversetangentfunctionisdefinedonlyin
Q1andQ4,ontheinterval
WeseektheangleinQ1orQ4thathasthesametangentvalueas
Sincethetangentfunctionhasperiod ,wecancalculate:
tan
tan
(inQ4)asoursolution.
Example3.2:Calculatetheprincipalvalueofsin
cos
Wearelookingfortheanglewhosesinevalueiscos
Method1:sin
cos
sin
Method2:Recall:sin
intheinterval
sincesinevaluesarenegativeinQ4.
cos .Then,cos
Then,sin
cos
sin
sin
becausecos
sin
sin
because
sin
sin
and
sin
sin
isintheinterval
becauseinversefunctionsworknicelyinquadrantsinwhichthe
principalvaluesoftheinversefunctionsaredefined.
Version 2.0
Page 35 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter3
Whentheinversetrigonometricfunctionistheinnerfunctioninacompositionoffunctions,itwill
usuallybenecessarytodrawatriangletosolvetheproblem.Inthesecases,drawthetriangle
definedbytheinner(inversetrig)function.Thenderivethevalueoftheouter(trig)function.
Example3.3:Calculatethevalueofcot sin
Recallthattheargumentofthesin function,
.Drawthetrianglebasedonthis.
Next,calculatethevalueofthetriangleshorizontalleg:
61
561
661.
Basedonthediagram,then,
cot sin
561
61
661
561
6

5
Example3.4:Calculatethevalueoftan cos
Recallthattheargumentofthecos function,
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:

2.
2
2
tan cos
2
2
Example3.5:Calculateanalgebraicexpressionforsin sec
Recallthattheargumentofthesec
function,
Next,calculatethevalueofthetrianglesverticalleg:
sin sec
Version 2.0
Page 36 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin
sin
sin cos cos sin

sin cos cos sin
tan
cos
cos
cos cos
cos cos
tan
cos 2

sin sin
sin sin
DoubleAngleFormulas
sin 2 2 sin cos

tan 2
cos
sin
1 2 sin
2 cos
1
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
sin
cos
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
ByQuadrant
tan
sin+
sin+
cos
cos+
tan
tan+
x
sin
sin
cos
cos+
tan+
tan
Version 2.0
Page 37 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulasExamples
Example4.1:Findtheexactvalueof:cos 175 cos 55

Recall:cos
cos cos
cos 175 cos 55
sin 175 sin 55 .
sin sin
sin 175 sin 55
cos 175
55
cos 120
cos 60 ConvertingtoanangleinQ1
Example4.2:Findtheexactvalueof:tan 255 Recall:tan

tan 255
tan 315
60

AnglesinQ4andQ1
ConvertingtoQ1angles
Example4.3:Findtheexactvalueof:sin 105 . Recall:sin

sin 105
sin 60
45
sin cos sin cos
Note:bothanglesareinQ1,whichmakesthingseasier.
sin 60 cos 45 sin 45 cos 60

3
or
Version 2.0
Page 38 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
Example4.4:sin
, liesinquadrantII,andcos
, liesinquadrantI.Findcos
Constructtrianglesforthetwoangles,beingcarefultoconsiderthesignsofthevaluesineach
quadrant:
Then,cos
cos
cos
sin
sin
Example4.5:Giventhediagramatright,find:tan 2
tan 2

7
2 24
7
1 24
7
12
527
576
Example4.6: tan
,and liesinquadrantIII. Find sin 2 , cos 2 , tan 2 .
Drawthetrianglebelow,thenapplytheappropriateformulas.

Version 2.0
sin 2
2 sin cos
15
17
cos 2
cos
8
17
tan 2
sin 2
cos 2
sin
Page 39 of 109
8
17
15
17
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
Example4.7:Findtheexactvalueof:cos
Notethat
cos
5
12
isinQ1,sothevalueof cos
5
6
cos
Recall:cos
5
ispositive.
12
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove
ConvertingtoanangleinQ1
2 3
4, liesinquadrantIV.Findsin .
Example4.8:csc
Recall:sin
Notethatif isinQ4,then isinQ2,sothevalueofsin ispositive.

2
sin
cos
sin
so,sin
sin
1 cos
15
Note:cosineispositiveinQ4
Usingthehalfangleformulaabove
8 215
Version 2.0
Page 40 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulas
sin
tan
cos

Version 2.0
Page 41 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter4
KeyAngleFormulas
KeyAngleFormulasExamples
Example4.9:Converttoasumformula:sin 8 cos 5
Use:
sin 8 cos 5
sin 8
sin 8
cos
Example4.10:Converttoasumformula:cos
Use:
cos
cos
cos
cos
Example4.11:Converttoaproductformula:sin 8
Use:
sin 8

sin 2
2 sin
sin 2
cos
Example4.12:Converttoaproductformula:cos 8
Use:
cos 8

cos 2
2 sin
cos 2
sin
Version 2.0
Page 42 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
IdentitiesandEquations
VerifyingIdentities
AsignificantportionofanytrigonometrycoursedealswithverifyingTrigonometricIdentities,i.e.,
statementsthatarealwaystrue(assumingthetrigonometricvaluesinvolvedexist).Thissection
dealswithhowthestudentmayapproachverificationofidentitiessuchas:
1
tan
sin
InverifyingaTrigonometricIdentity,thestudentisaskedtoworkwithonlyonesideoftheidentity
and,usingthestandardrulesofmathematicalmanipulation,derivetheotherside.Thestudentmay
workwitheithersideoftheidentity,sogenerallyitisbesttoworkonthesidethatismostcomplex.
Thestepsbelowpresentastrategythatmaybeusefulinverifyingidentities.
VerificationSteps
1. Identifywhichsideyouwanttoworkon.LetscallthisSideA.Letscallthesideyouarenot
workingonSideB.So,youwillbeworkingonSideAtomakeitlooklikeSideB.
a. Ifonesidehasamultipleofanangle(e.g.,tan 3 )andtheothersidedoesnot(e.g.,
cos ),workwiththesidethathasthemultipleofanangle.
b. Ifonesidehasonlysinesandcosinesandtheotherdoesnot,workwiththesidethat
doesnothaveonlysinesandcosines.
c. Ifyougetpartwaythroughtheexerciseandrealizeyoushouldhavestartedwiththe
otherside,startoverandworkwiththeotherside.
2. Ifnecessary,investigateSideBbyworkingonitalittle.Thisisnotaviolationoftherulesas
longas,inyourverification,youcompletelymanipulateSideAtolooklikeSideB.Ifyou
choosetoinvestigateSideB,moveyourworkoffalittletothesidesoitisclearyouare
investigatingandnotactuallyworkingsideB.
3. SimplifySideAasmuchaspossible,butremembertolookattheothersidetomakesureyou
aremovinginthatdirection.Dothisalsoateachstepalongtheway,aslongasitmakesSide
AlookmorelikeSideB.
a. UsethePythagoreanIdentitiestosimplify,e.g.,ifonesidecontains 1 sin
and
withcos .
theothersidecontainscosinesbutnotsines,replace 1 sin
b. Changeanymultiplesofangles,halfangles,etc.toexpressionswithsingleangles(e.g.,
replacesin 2 with2 sin cos ).
c. Lookfor1s.Oftenchanginga1intosin
cos (orviceversa)willbehelpful.
4. RewriteSideAintermsofsinesandcosines.
5. Factorwherepossible.
6. SeparateorcombinefractionstomakeSideAlookmorelikeSideB.
Thefollowingpagesillustrateanumberoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtoverifyidentities.
Version 2.0
Page 43 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
Technique:InvestigateOneorBothSides
Often,whenlookingatanidentity,itisnotimmediatelyobvioushowtoproceed.Inmanycases,
investigatingbothsideswillprovidethenecessaryhintstoproceed.
Example5.1:
1
1
sin
cos
1
1

sin
cos
cot
cot
Yuk!Thisidentitylooksdifficulttodealwiththerearelotsoffractions.Letsinvestigateitby
convertingtherightsidetosinesandcosines.Notethatontheright,wemovethenewfraction
offtothesidetoindicateweareinvestigatingonly.Wedothisbecausewemustverifyan
identitybyworkingononlyonesideuntilwegettheotherside.
1
1
sin cos

1
1

sin
cos
cot
cot
1

1
cos
cos
sin cos
cos
cos

sin
cos
Inmanipulatingtherightside,wechangedeach1inthegreenexpressionto
becausewe
wantsomethingthatlooksmoreliketheexpressionontheleft.
Noticethattheorangeexpressionlooksalotliketheexpressionontheleft,exceptthatevery
placewehavea1intheexpressionontheleftwehavecos intheorangeexpression.
Whatisournextstep?Weneedtochangeallthe1sintheexpressiononthelefttocos .We
candothisbymultiplyingtheexpressionontheleftby
,asfollows:
1
1
sin

cos
cos

1
1
cos

sin
cos

cot
cot

Noticethatthismatchestheorangeexpressionabove.
1

1
cot
cot
Version 2.0
Page 44 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:BreakaFractionintoPieces
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhentheresultingnumeratorhasthesamenumberof
termsasexistontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example5.2:

cos
cos cos
tan tan
withcos cos
First,itsagoodideatoreplacecos

sin sin :
cos cos
sin sin
cos cos
Next,breakthefractionintotwopieces:

cos cos
sin sin

cos cos
cos cos
Finally,simplifytheexpression:
1
sin
cos
sin
cos
tan tan
tan tan
Version 2.0
Page 45 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:GetaCommonDenominatoronOneSide
Ifitlookslikeyouwouldbenefitfromgettingacommondenominatorforthetwosidesofanidentity,
tryconvertingonesidesothatithasthatdenominator.Inmanycases,thiswillresultinan
expressionthatwillsimplifyintoamoreusefulform.
Example5.3:

cos

1 sin
sin
cos
Ifweweretosolvethislikeanequation,wemightcreateacommondenominator.Remember,
however,thatwecanonlyworkononeside,sowewillobtainthecommondenominatorononly
oneside.Inthisexample,thecommondenominatorwouldbe:cos 1 sin .

cos
cos

cos
1 sin
cos
cos 1
sin
Oncewehavemanipulatedonesideoftheidentitytohavethecommondenominator,therestof
theexpressionshouldsimplify.Tokeepthecos inthedenominatoroftheexpressiononthe
left,weneedtoworkwiththenumerator.Acommonsubstitutionistoconvertbetweensin
cos
1.
andcos usingthePythagoreanidentitysin

1 sin
cos 1 sin
Noticethatthenumeratorisadifferenceofsquares.Letsfactorit.
1
sin
1 sin
cos 1 sin
Finally,wesimplifybyeliminatingthecommonfactorinthenumeratoranddenominator.

sin

cos
sin
cos
Version 2.0
Page 46 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
SolvingTrigonometricEquations
Solvingtrigonometricequationsinvolvesmanyofthesameskillsassolvingequationsingeneral.
Somespecificthingstowatchforinsolvingtrigonometricequationsarethefollowing:
Arrangement.Itisoftenagoodideatogetarrangetheequationsothatalltermsareonone
sideoftheequalsign,andzeroisontheother.Forexample,tan sin
tan canbe
rearrangedtobecometan sin
tan
0.
Quadratics.Lookforquadraticequations.AnytimeanequationcontainsasingleTrig
functionwithmultipleexponents,theremaybeawaytofactoritlikeaquadraticequation.
Forexample,cos
2 cos
1
cos
1 .
Factoring.Lookforwaystofactortheequationandsolvetheindividualtermsseparately.For
example,tan sin
tan
tan
sin
1 .
TermswithNoSolution.Afterfactoring,sometermswillhavenosolutionandcanbe
discarded.Forexample,sin
2 0requiressin
2,whichhasnosolutionsincethe
sinefunctionnevertakesonavalueof2.
Replacement.HavingtermswithdifferentTrigfunctionsinthesameequationisnota
problemifyouareabletofactortheequationsothatthedifferentTrigfunctionsarein
differentfactors.Whenthisisnotpossible,lookforwaystoreplaceoneormoreTrig
functionswithothersthatarealsointheequation.ThePythagoreanIdentitiesare
particularlyusefulforthispurpose.Forexample,intheequationcos
sin
1 0,
cos canbereplacedby1 sin ,resultinginanequationcontainingonlyoneTrig
function.
ExtraneousSolutions.Checkeachsolutiontomakesureitworksintheoriginalequation.A
solutionofonefactorofanequationmayfailasasolutionoverallbecausetheoriginal
functiondoesnotexistatthatvalue.SeeExample5.6below.
InfiniteNumberofSolutions.Trigonometricequationsoftenhaveaninfinitenumberof
solutionsbecauseoftheirperiodicnature.Insuchcases,weappend 2 oranotherterm
tothesolutionstoindicatethis.SeeExample5.9below.
SolutionsinanInterval.Becarefulwhensolutionsaresoughtinaspecificinterval.Forthe
interval 0, 2 ,therearetypicallytwosolutionsforeachfactorcontainingaTrigfunctionas
longasthevariableinthefunctionhasleadcoefficientof1(e.g., or).Ifthelead
coefficientisotherthan1(e.g.,5 or5),thenumberofsolutionswilltypicallybetwo
multipliedbytheleadcoefficient(e.g.,10solutionsintheinterval 0, 2 foraterminvolving
5 ).SeeExample5.5below,whichhas8solutionsontheinterval 0, 2 .
Anumberofthesetechniquesareillustratedintheexamplesthatfollow.
Version 2.0
Page 47 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
SolvingTrigonometricEquationsExamples
Example5.4:Solvefor ontheinterval 0, 2
2 cos
:cos
Thetrickonthisproblemistorecognizetheexpressionasaquadraticequation.Replacethe
trigonometricfunction,inthiscase,cos ,withavariable,like ,thatwillmakeiteasiertosee
howtofactortheexpression.Ifyoucanseehowtofactortheexpressionwithoutthetrick,byall
meansproceedwithoutit.
Let
cos ,andourequationbecomes:
Thisequationfactorstoget:
Andfinally:
0.
cos
cos
Theonlysolutionforthisontheinterval 0, 2
Substitutingcos backinfor gives:
0 cos
is:
:sin 4
Whenworkingwithaproblemintheinterval 0, 2 thatinvolvesafunctionof
expandtheintervalto 0, 2
forthefirststepsofthesolution.
Inthisproblem,
4,sowewantallsolutionstosin
,itisusefulto
4 isanangleinthe
where
interval 0, 8 .Notethat,beyondthetwosolutionssuggestedbythediagram,additional
solutionsareobtainedbyaddingmultiplesof2 tothosetwosolutions.
Usingthediagramatleft,wegetthefollowingsolutions:
Then,dividingby4,weget:
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
,
,
,
,
,
,
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
2 7 8 13 14 19 20
,
,
,
,
,
,
3 3 3 3 3
3
3
3
Notethatthereare8solutions
becausetheusualnumberof
solutions(i.e.,2)isincreased
byafactorof
4.
Andsimplifying,weget:
,
Version 2.0
Page 48 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
sin
tan
tan
tan
sin
tan
or
:tan
sin
tan
0
0
0,
sin
sin
While
sin
1,tan isundefinedat
so isnotasolutiontothisequation.
isasolutiontotheequation
,
cos 1
2 sin
:cos
2 cos sin
:cos
cos
cos
0or
,
1
sin
2 sin
Use:cos
cos
cos cos
cos
cos cos
3
2 cos cos
cos cos
sin sin
sin sin cos cos

3
3
sin sin
3
2 cos
1
2
cos
Version 2.0
sin sin cos
Page 49 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter5
Example5.9:Solveforallsolutionsof :2 sin
2 sin
Thedrawingatleftillustratesthetwo
anglesin 0, 2
3

2
sin
forwhichsin
.To
getallsolutions,weneedtoaddall
integermultiplesof2 tothesesolutions.
So,
Example5.10:Solveforallsolutionsof :tan sec

tan sec
2 tan
tan sec
tan
0 or sec
0
sec
cos
Collectingthevarioussolutions,
sec
2 tan
2
or

Note:thesolutioninvolvingthetangentfunctionhastwoanswersintheinterval 0, 2 .
However,theyare radiansapart,asmostsolutionsinvolvingthetangentfunctionare.
Therefore,wecansimplifytheanswersbyshowingonlyonebaseanswerandadding ,instead
ofshowingtwobaseanswersthatare apart,andadding2 toeach.
Forexample,thefollowingtwosolutionsfortan
givenabove:
0
, 4 , 2 , 0, 2 , 4 ,
, 3 ,
, ,3 ,5
0aretelescopedintothesinglesolution
, 2 ,
, 0, , 2 ,
Version 2.0
Page 50 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe180).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.
GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.
GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.
Version 2.0
Page 51 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
LawsofSinesandCosines
A
c
Thetriangleabovecanbeorientedinanymanner.Itdoesnotmatterwhichangleis , or .
However,
Side isalwaysopposite(acrossfrom) .
LawofSines(seeaboveillustration)
LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)
cos
cos
cos
Thelawofcosinescanbedescribedinwordsasfollow:Thesquareofanysideisthesumof
thesquaresoftheothertwosidesminustwicetheproductofthosetwosidesandthecosine
oftheanglebetweenthem.
ItlooksalotlikethePythagoreanTheorem,withtheminustermappended.
Version 2.0
Page 52 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
LawsofSinesandCosinesExamples
38, B
Example6.1:Solvethetriangle,given:A
32, a
42.1.
Tosolve:findthethirdangle,andthenusetheLawofSines.
180
38
32
110
ThenusetheLawofSinestofindthelengthsofthetwo
remainingsides.
42.1
sin 38
42.1
sin 38
42.1 sin 32
sin 38
sin 32
42.1 sin 110

sin 38
sin 110
36.2
64.3
Example6.2:Solvethetriangle,given:a
6, c
12, B
124.
First,drawthetrianglefromtheinformationyouaregiven.Thiswillhelpyougetanideaof
whetherthevaluesyoucalculateinthisproblemarereasonable.
Next,findthelengthofthe3rdsideofthetriangleusingthe
LawofCosines: 2 cos
6
12
2 6 12 cos 124
236.52378
236.52378
16.14075 ~ 16.1
UsetheLawofSinestofindthemeasureofoneoftheremainingangles.

sin
sin
sin
6
sin
0.3082
16.14075
sin
sin 124
0.3082
18
ThemeasureoftheremaininganglecanbecalculatedeitherfromtheLawofSinesorfrom
knowledgethatthesumofthethreeanglesinsideatriangleis180.
180
124
18
38
Version 2.0
Page 53 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:
Therearethreecasesinwhich
Case1:
Producesnotrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
Case2:
Producesone(right)trianglebecause isexactlylongenoughtoreachthe
base. formsarightanglewiththebase,andistheheightofthetriangle.
Case3:
Producestwotrianglesbecause istherightsizetoreachthebaseintwo
places.Theanglefromwhich swingsfromitsapextomeetthebasecantaketwovalues.
Thereisonecaseinwhich
Case4:
location.
Producesonetrianglebecause istoolongtoreachthebaseinmorethanone
Version 2.0
Page 54 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatetheheightofthetriangle(inthisdevelopment,
).
Step2:Compare totheheightofthetriangle, :
If
If
,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
,then
90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
If
,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.ProceedtotheStep3todeterminewhich.
Step3:Compare to .
If
,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculate
usingtheLawofSines.Find
thetwoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 withthissinevalue;eachofthese sproducesa
separatetriangle.ProceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeach.
If
,thenwehaveCase4onetriangle.Find usingtheLawofSines.Proceedto
Step4.
Version 2.0
Page 55 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
SolvingtheAmbiguousCasecontd
Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles
and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachtriangle.
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows:
180
Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.

sin
or
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
Note:using and mayproducemoreaccurateresultssincebothofthesevaluesaregiven.
AmbiguousCaseFlowchart
Start Here
Compare
to
Compare to

Two triangles
Calculate , and then

(steps 4 and 5, above).
Version 2.0
Page 56 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
Example6.3:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle:
35, a 18.7, c 16.1.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.
Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.
Wedrawthissituationwith ontheleftand hangingdown,asshownbelow.
Step1:Calculate
18.7 sin 35
10.725
Step2:Compare to .
16.1
10.725.
Step3:Compare to .
16.1
18.7,sowehaveCase3twotriangles.
Calculatesin usingtheLawofSines:

sin
sin
18.7
sin

16.1
sin
sin 35
0.6662
Twoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 havethissinevalue.Letsfindthem:
sin
0.6662
42or
180
42
138
Sincewewillhavetwotriangles,wemustsolveeach.
Triangle2 Startwith:
Triangle1Startwith:
18.7,
16.1
35,
138
18.7,
16.1
35,
42
Step4:
Step4:
180
42
103
sin
180
35
138
Step5:
Step5:
35
sin
sin 103
16.1
sin 35
sin
sin 7
16.1
sin 35
3.4
27.4
sin
Version 2.0
Page 57 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
Example6.4:Determinewhetherthefollowingmeasurementsproduceonetriangle,twotriangles,
ornotriangle: B 88, b 2, a 23.Solveanytrianglesthatresult.
Sincewearegiventwosidesandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,thisistheambiguouscase.
Wedrawthissituationwith ontheleftand hangingdown,asshownbelow.
Step1:Calculate
Step2:Compare to .
23 sin 88
.
2
22.986
22.986.
Stop.WehaveCase1notriangle.
AlternativeMethod
Calculatethemeasureofangle usingtheLawofSines:

sin
sin
sin
23
sin

2
sin
sin 88
11.493
11.493
11.493isnotavalidsinevalue(recallthatsinevaluesrangefrom 1to1).Therefore,thegiven
valuesdonotdefineatriangle.
Note:TheAlternativeMethodfordealingwiththeambiguouscaseislaidoutindetailin
AppendixB.
Version 2.0
Page 58 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
Bearings
BearingsaredescribeddifferentlyfromotheranglesinTrigonometry.Abearingisaclockwiseor
counterclockwiseanglewhoseinitialsideiseitherduenorthorduesouth.Thestudentwillneedto
translatetheseintoreferenceanglesand/orpolaranglestosolveproblemsinvolvingbearings.
Somebearings,alongwiththekeyassociatedanglesareshownintheillustrationsbelow.Thebearing
angleisshownas ,thereferenceangleisshownas ,andthepolarangleisshownas .
Bearing:

50
BearingAngle:
ReferenceAngle:
ReferenceAngle:
PolarAngle:
Version 2.0
40
30
60
ReferenceAngle:
60
PolarAngle:
BearingAngle:
BearingAngle:
140
PolarAngle:
Bearing:
Bearing:
Bearing:
60
BearingAngle:
30
ReferenceAngle:
210
PolarAngle:
Page 59 of 109
70
20
340
January 1, 2016
Chapter6
BearingsExamples
Example6.5:Twotrackingstationsareontheequator127milesapart.Aweatherballoonislocated
onabearingofN 36 EfromthewesternstationandonabearingofN 13 Wfromtheeastern
station.Howfaristheballoonfromthewesternstation?
Thebearinganglesgivenarethoseshowninorangeinthe
diagramatright.Thefirststepistocalculatethereference
anglesshowninmagentainthediagram.
90
36
54
90
13
77
180
54
77
49
Then,usetheLawofSines,asfollows:
127
sin 49
sin 77
164.0 miles
Example6.6:TwosailboatsleaveaharborintheBahamasatthesametime.Thefirstsailsat25mph
inadirectionS 50 E.Thesecondsailsat30mphinadirectionS 70 W.Assumingthatbothboats
maintainspeedandheading,after4hours,howfarapartaretheboats?
Letsdrawadiagramtoillustratethissituation.Thelengthsoftwosidesofatrianglearebased
onthedistancestheboatstravelinfourhours.Thebearinganglesgivenareusedtocalculate
thereferenceshowninorangeinthediagrambelow.
Boat1travels:25 mph 4 hours 100 milesata
headingofS 50 E.Thisgivesareferenceangleof
90 50 40 belowthepositive axis.
Boat2travels:30 mph 4 hours 120 mi.ata
headingofS 70 W.Thisgivesareferenceangleof
90 70 20 belowthenegative axis.
UsingtheLawofCosines,wecancalculate:
100
120
2 100 120 cos 120
36,400
190.8 miles
Version 2.0
Page 60 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter7
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
Thereareanumberofformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformation
aboutthetriangleisavailable.
GeometryFormula:Thisformula,learnedinElementaryGeometry,isprobablymostfamiliar
tothestudent.Itcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofatriangleareeitherknownorcan
bedetermined.
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthelengthofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or
or
HeronsFormula:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhenthelengthsof
allofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,thoughlessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
where,
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
Note: iscalledthesemiperimeterofthetrianglebecauseitishalfofthetrianglesperimeter.
Version 2.0
Page 61 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter7
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle(contd)
ThefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecanbederivedfromtheGeometryformula,
,usingTrigonometry.Whichonetousedependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandoneside:
Twosidesandtheanglebetweenthem:
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
,
Letverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe:
areaofthetriangleis:
.Then,the
Example7.1:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:
Version 2.0
2
3
3
4
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1

1
1
| 2 3
2
1
1
1
4
6
3 1
3 1
1
3 |
3
3
2

1
1
27
2
Page 62 of 109
27

2
January 1, 2016
Chapter7
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangleExamples
Example7.2:Findtheareaofthetriangleif:C=120,a=4yards,b=5yards.

1

2
sin
1
4 5 sin 120
2
3
2
10
8.66yards2
10yards,
Example7.3:Findtheareaofthetriangleif:
11yards,
15yards.
Tosolvethisproblem,wewilluseHeronsformula:
1
2

1
10
2
Firstcalculate:
11
15
18
Then,
18 18
10 18
18 8 7 3
11 18
1221
15
54.99yards2
Example7.4:FindtheareaofthetriangleinthefigurebelowusingCoordinateGeometry:

1

2

1
1
1
1
1 1
1

5 1
2
1
| 1
2
1
1 1
1
1
7
2
6
7
6
1
1
1 29 |
1 1
1 1
5 1
1
7
6
1

5
1
24
2
12
Note:Itiseasytoseethatthistrianglehasabaseoflength6andaheightof4,sofrom
ElementaryGeometry,theareaofthetriangleis:
64
12(sameanswer).
Thestudentmaywishtotesttheothermethodsforcalculatingareathatarepresentedin
thischaptertoseeiftheyproducethesameresult.(Hint:theydo.)
Version 2.0
Page 63 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
PolarCoordinates
PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.
Letstakealookattherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates ,
coordinates , .
Themagnitude,r, isthedistanceofthepointfromtheorigin:
anditspolar
Theangle,,isthepolaranglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.Generally,thisangleis
expressedinradians,notdegrees:
tan
so
tan
,adjustedtobeintheappropriatequadrant.
Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
cos and
sin
Example8.1:Expresstherectangularform 4, 4 inpolar
coordinates:
Given:
4
4
4
tan
so
42
tan
tan
1 inQuadrantII,
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
Rectangularcoordinates:
4, 4
Example8.2:Expressthepolarform 42,
Given:
42
cos
42 cos
42
sin
42 sin
42
PolarCoordinates: 42,
inrectangularcoordinates:
4
4
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
PolarCoordinates: 42,
Version 2.0
Page 64 of 109
Rectangularcoordinates:
4, 4
January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.
Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesas
,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesas
cos
sin ,with 0, 2 .Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsfor are:
ConvertRectangulartoPolar
Magnitude:| |
tan
Angle:
ConvertPolartoRectangular
Since willgenerallyhavetwovalueson 0, 2
quadrantinwhich
resides.
xcoordinate:
cos
ycoordinate:
sin
,weneedtobecarefultoselecttheangleinthe
Around1740,LeonhardEulerprovedthat:
cos
complexnumberasanexponentialformof .Thatis:
cos
sin .Asaresult,wecanexpressany
sin
,thefollowingrulesregarding
Thinkingofeachcomplexnumberasbeingintheform
operationsoncomplexnumberscanbeeasilyderivedbasedonthepropertiesofexponents.
Let:
cos
Multiplication:
sin

cos
cos
sin
sin
.Then,
So,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheirangles.
Division:
cos
sin
So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.
Powers:
cos
sin
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthemultiplicationrule.
Roots:
cos
sin
also,seeDeMoivresTheorembelow
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthepowerruleiftheexponentisafraction.
Version 2.0
Page 65 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
OperationsonComplexNumbersExamples
Example8.3:Findtheproduct:
3 cos
sin
shorthandis:
3 cis
6 cos
sin
shorthandis:
6 cis
Tomultiplytwonumbersinpolarform,multiplythe valuesandaddtheangles.
7
4
3 6 cis
32 cis 4
32 cis 0
32 because cis 0
1.
Note:multiplicationmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsareadded
whenvalueswiththesamebasearemultiplied:
3
3 6
32
32
32
Example8.4:Findthequotient:
3 cos
sin
shorthandis:
3 cis
6 cos
sin
shorthandis:
6 cis
Todividetwonumbersinpolarform,dividethe valuesandsubtracttheangles.
3
6
1
2
cis
cis
7
4
4
2
cis
2
3
2
cis
2
2
3
2
because cis
2
2
i.
Note:divisionmaybeeasiertounderstandinexponentialform,sinceexponentsaresubtracted
whenvalueswiththesamebasearedivided:
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Version 2.0
Page 66 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
DeMoivresTheorem
AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhodevelopedaveryusefulTheorem
fordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
cos
Ifwelet
page:
sin
,DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
cos
Example8.5:Find
,wehave
3and
tan
And,
First,since
Then,
sin
4;
7.
4,096
138.590inQ2
831.542 ~ 111.542
6
So,
3
4,096 cis 111.542
1,504.0
4,096 cos 111.542
sin 111.542
3,809.9
Example8.6:Find
First,since
5and
,wehave
2
Then,
And,
tan
3;
2.
243
221.810inQ3
1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
5
243 cis 29.052

212.4
243 cos 29.052
sin 29.052
118.0
Version 2.0
Page 67 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter8
PolarCoordinates
DeMoivresTheoremforRoots
cos
Let
sin
.Then, has distinctcomplex throotsthatoccupypositions
equidistantfromeachotheronacircleofradius .Letscalltheroots: , , , ,
theserootscanbecalculatedasfollows
0, 1, 2, ,
1 :
2
cos
sin
.Then,
cis
Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2 replacedby360ifthishelpsinthecalculation.
Example8.7:Findthefifthrootsof
First,since
3
13;
tan
And,
2and
,wehave
2
Then,
.
3.
13 ~ 1.2924
56.310;
11.262inQ4
Theincrementalangleforsuccessiverootsis:360
5 roots
72.
Thencreateachartlikethis:

Fifthrootsof

Angle(
11.262
1.2675
0.2524
11.262
72
60.738
0.6317
1.1275
60.738
72
132.738
0.8771
0.9492
132.738
72
204.738
1.1738
0.5408
204.738
72
276.738
0.1516
1.2835
Noticethatifweaddanother72,weget348.738,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
11.262because 348.738 360
11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.
Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof
have
thesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesare72apartfromeachother,
theyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewithcenter 0, 0 and
radius
13 ~ 1.2924.
Version 2.0
Page 68 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
PolarGraphs
Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphpapersuchasthat
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).Note:afreePCappthatcanbeusedtodesignand
printyourownpolargraphpaperisavailableatwww.mathguy.us.
PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4,
ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).
ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.
TheLine:
isthepositive axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.
Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.
PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:
Symmetryabout:
SymmetryTest(1)
Opposite(IandIIIorIIandIV)
Replace with intheequation
axis
Lefthemisphere(IIandIII) or
righthemisphere(IandIV)
Replace with intheequation
axis
Upperhemisphere(IandII)or
lowerhemisphere(IIIandIV)
Replace ,
equation
Pole
(1)
QuadrantsContainingSymmetry
with
inthe
Ifperformingtheindicatedreplacementresultsinanequivalentequation,theequationpasses
thesymmetrytestandtheindicatedsymmetryexists.Iftheequationfailsthesymmetrytest,
symmetrymayormaynotexist.
Version 2.0
Page 69 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphsofPolarEquations
GraphingMethods
Method1:Pointplotting
Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa

twocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof thatcanbeusedtoplota
rectangularcoordinatesequation(e.g.,
4
3).
The valuesyouselectforpurposesofpointplottingshouldvarydependingontheequation
youareworkingwith(inparticular,thecoefficientof intheequation).However,asafebet
istostartwithmultiplesof 6(including
0).Ploteachpointonthepolargraphand
seewhatshapeemerges.Ifyouneedmoreorfewerpointstoseewhatcurveisemerging,
adjustasyougo.
Ifyouknowanythingaboutthecurve(typicalshape,symmetry,etc.),useittofacilitate
plottingpoints.
Connectthepointswithasmoothcurve.Admiretheresult;manyofthesecurvesare
aestheticallypleasing.
Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform
.UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
,youmay
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform
needtoentertwofunctions,
and
,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.
Version 2.0
Page 70 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphofPolarEquations
Circle
Equation:
sin
Equation:
cos
Location:
above axisif
below axisif
0
0
Location:
rightof axisif
leftof axisif
Radius: /2
Radius: /2
Symmetry: axis
Symmetry: axis
Equation:
0
0
Location:
CenteredonthePole
Radius:
Symmetry:Pole, axis,
axis
Rose
Characteristicsofroses:
Equation:
sin
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Equation:
cos
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e,
1).
Version 2.0
Page 71 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphsofPolarEquations
LimaonofPascal
sin
Equation:
Location:bulbabove axisif
bulbbelow axisif
Symmetry: axis
cos
Equation:
0
0
Location:bulbrightof axisif
bulbleftof axisif
Symmetry: axis
Cardioid
0
0
FourLimaonShapes
Innerloop
Dimple
Nodimple
FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)
sinefunction
sinefunction
cosinefunction cosinefunction
Version 2.0
Page 72 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphofPolarEquations
LemniscateofBernoulli
Thelemniscateisthesetofallpoints
forwhichtheproductofthe
distancesfromtwopoints(i.e.,foci)
whichare2 apartis .
Characteristicsoflemniscates:
Equation:
sin 2
o Symmetricabouttheline
Equation:
cos 2
Containedwithinacircleofradius
Spirals
HyperbolicSpiral
ArchimedesSpiralFermatsSpiral
Lituus
Characteristicsofspirals:
Equation:
,
0
o DistancefromthePoleincreaseswith
Equation:
o HyperbolicSpiral
o Lituus
0
1 :asymptotictotheline unitsfromthe axis
2 :asymptotictothe axis
Notcontainedwithinanycircle
Version 2.0
Page 73 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example9.1:

Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheforms
sin
and
cos
Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueof .
If isaneveninteger,therosewillhave2 petals.
If isanoddinteger,itwillhave petals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
/12
7/12
/6
3.464
2/3
3.464
/4
3/4
/3
3.464
5 /6
3.464
11 /12
5 /12
/2
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan
argumentof2 ,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin 0, 2
2
0, .Youcouldplotmore
points,butthisintervalissufficient
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
twopetalsrightofthe axis.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
othertwopetalswithout
calculatingmorepoints.
ThefourRoseforms:
Version 2.0
Page 74 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example9.2:
Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofform
sin with
.Theuseofthesinefunction
indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricaboutthe axis.The signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethe axis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
/6
7/6
/3
3.732
4/3
0.268
/2
3/2
2 /3
3.732
5 /3
0.268
5 /6
11 /6
Generally,youwanttolookat
valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
functionandthecoefficientof .
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethe axisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
from inQ1andQ2,
wherethesinefunctionis
positive.
Similarly,theportionof
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
thegraphbelowthexaxis
resultsfrom inQ3and
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
ThefourCardioidforms:
Version 2.0
Page 75 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for

Substitute for
3
Example9.3:Convert8
StartingEquation:
10
Factorout :
Divideby 8 cos
0toapolarequationoftheform
cos and
Substitute
3 sin
sin :
8 cos
8 cos
10
3 sin
10
3 sin
10
PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos
Substitute for cos
sin
Substitute for sin

Substitute
for
Example9.4:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.

StartingEquation:
, sin
Substitutecos
Multiplyby :
Completethesquare:
Substitute
Subtract8
:
9 :
r = 8 cos + 9 sin
8
8
8
8
9
8
Simplifytostandardformforacircle:
16
9
9
9
0
16
Version 2.0
Page 76 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
ParametricEquations
Onewaytodefineacurveisbymaking and (or and )functionsofathirdvariable,often (for
time).ThethirdvariableiscalledtheParameter,andfunctionsdefinedinthismanneraresaidtobe
inParametricForm.TheequationsthatdefinethedesiredfunctionarecalledParametricEquations.
InParametricEquations,theparameteristheindependentvariable.Eachoftheothertwo(ormore)
variablesisdependentonthevalueoftheparameter.Astheparameterchanges,theothervariables
change,generatingthepointsofthefunction.
Example9.5:Arelativelysimpleexampleisacircle,whichwecandefineasfollows:
Circle:
cos
sin
Asthevariable progressesfrom0to2 ,acircleofradius isborn.

Thecircleintheillustrationatrightcanbedefinedinseveralways:
Cartesianform:
Polarform:
16
4
4 cos
Parametricform:
4 sin
FamiliarCurves
Manycurveswithwhichthestudentmaybefamiliarhaveparametricforms.Amongthosearethe
following:
Curve
CartesianForm
Parabolawithhorizontal
directrix
PolarForm
Ellipsewithhorizontal
majoraxis
Hyperbolawithhorizontal
transverseaxis
1
0
1
sin
cos
ParametricForm
2
sin
1
cos
1
cos
sec
tan
Ascanbeseenfromthischart,sometimestheparametricformofafunctionisitssimplest.Infact,
parametricequationsoftenallowustographcurvesthatwouldbeverydifficulttographineither
PolarformorCartesianform.Someoftheseareillustratedonthenextpage.
Version 2.0
Page 77 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter9
PolarFunctions
SomeFunctionsDefinedbyParametricEquations
(StarWarsfans:arethesetheoidsyouarelookingfor?)
Thegraphsbelowareexamplesoffunctionsdefinedbyparametricequations.Theequationsanda
briefdescriptionofthecurveareprovidedforeachfunction.
Deltoid
Nephroid
Astroid
Parametricequations:
2 cos
cos 2
3 cos
cos 3
cos
2 sin
sin 2
3 sin
sin 3
sin
Thedeltoidisthepathofa
pointonthecircumference
ofacircleasitmakesthree
completerevolutionsonthe
insideofalargercircle.
Theastroidisthepathofa
ofacircleasitmakesfour
insideofalargercircle.
Thenephroidisthepathofa
ofacircleasitmakestwo
outsideofalargercircle.
Cycloid
sin
Version 2.0
cos
Thecycloidisthepathofapointonthecircumferenceofacircleasthe
circlerollsalongaflatsurface(think:thepathofapointontheoutside
ofabicycletireasyourideonthesidewalk).Thecycloidisbotha
brachistochroneandatautochrone(looktheseupifyouareinterested).
Page 78 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewind
blowingtowardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceofa10kg
weightbeingpulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthe
positiveaxesareveryuseful.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector
Direction
positive axis
positive axis
positive axis
Graphical
representationof
unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifa
vectorsinitialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is
, , ,thenthevectordisplaces
inthe direction,
inthe
direction,and
inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:
Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:

Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:

Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofaright
trianglewithsides and .
Version 2.0
Page 79 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorProperties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefuland
relativelysimple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If
cos sin (note:thisformulaisoften

Then,
usedinForcecalculations)
If
and
If
,then
Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat
zerovectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
cos and
,then
sin
,then
0).Note:the
, .Thisnotationis
Note:
canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation:
usefulincalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
PropertiesofVectors
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicativeIdentity
MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
CommutativeProperty
AdditiveInverse
AssociativeProperty
AdditiveIdentity
Also,notethat:
Version 2.0
| |
Page 80 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Example10.1:u=3i6j,v=6i+8j;Findu+v.
Analternativenotationforavectorintheform
is , .Usingthisalternative
notationmakesmanyvectoroperationsmucheasiertoworkwith.
Toaddvectors,simplylinethemup
verticallyandadd:
3, 6
6, 8
3 6, 6
3, 2
8
2
Example10.2:u=2i7jandv=4i21j;Find
4, 21
2, 7
Subtracting isthesameasadding
Toget ,simplychangethesignofeach
elementof .Ifyoufinditeasiertoadd
thantosubtract,youmaywanttoadopt
thisapproachtosubtractingvectors.
2, 14
200
100 2
14
102
Example10.3:Findtheunitvectorthathasthesamedirectionasthevectorv=5i12j.
Aunitvectorhasmagnitude1.Togetaunitvectorinthesamedirectionastheoriginal
vector,dividethevectorbyitsmagnitude.
Theunitvectoris:
Version 2.0
Page 81 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Example10.4:Writethevectorvintermsofiandjif =10anddirectionangle=120.
Ithelpstographthevectoridentifiedintheproblem.
Theunitvectorinthedirection
cos 120, sin 120
Multiplythisby
10
1
2
120is:
1 3
,
2 2
1
2
toget :
3
2
53
Version 2.0
Page 82 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorDotProduct
TheDotProductoftwovectors,
follows:
and
,isdefinedas
Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar(i.e.,anumber),notavector.Itdescribes
somethingabouttherelationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Auseful
approachtocalculatingthedotproductoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
,
alternative
vector
notation
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically.
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
General
,

Example
4, 3, 2
2, 2, 5
10
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
Moreproperties:
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother.
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
If
Ifthereisascalar suchthat
If istheanglebetween and ,thencos
Version 2.0
0and
and
,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).

,then and areparallel.
Page 83 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorDotProductExamples
Example10.5:u=5i+3j,v=5i6j,w=3i+12j;Finduw+vw.
Thealternatenotationforvectorscomesinespeciallyhandyindoingthesetypesof
problems.Also,notethat:(uw)+(vw)=(u+v) w.Letscalculate(u+v)w.
5, 3
5, 6
0, 3
3, 12
v w
Usingthedistributivepropertyfordot
productsresultsinaneasierproblem
withfewercalculations.
3 12
36
36
Example10.6:Findtheanglebetweenthegivenvectors:u=ij,v=4i+5j.
cos
180
1, 1
4, 5
14
1
5
cos
2
41
cos
1 5
96.3
82
Example10.7:Arethefollowingvectorsparallel,orthogonal,orneither?v=4i+3j,w=3i4j
Ifvectorsareparallel,oneisamultipleoftheother;also
Ifvectorsareperpendicular,theirdotproductiszero.
Calculatethedotproduct.

4, 3
3, 4
43
12
12
0So,thevectorsareorthogonal.
Version 2.0
Page 84 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorDotProductExamples
Example10.8:Arethevectorsareparallel,orthogonal,orneither.v=3i+4j,w=6i+8j
VectorMultipleApproach
Itisclearlyeasiertocheckwhetherone
vectorisamultipleoftheotherthanto
usethedotproductmethod.The
studentmayuseeither,unlessinstructed
touseaparticularmethod.
3, 4
6, 8
Clearly,
Thevectorsareparallel.
DotProductApproach
Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthedotproduct,wechecktoseeif:

3, 4
6, 8
18
10
32
50
5 10
50
CrossProductApproach(seeCrossProductbelow)
Todetermineiftwovectorsareparallelusingthecrossproduct,wechecktoseeif:
x
v
w
3
6
v
w
4

8
v w
38
46
v w
0
Version 2.0
Page 85 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
ApplicationsoftheVectorDotProduct
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector, ,ontoanothervector ,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.The
formulausedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:
proj
Noticethat
isascalar,andthatproj
Inthediagramatright,v1
proj
isavector.
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector(Decomposition)
Avector, ,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectors and ,asshowninthe
abovediagram.Theresultingvectorsare:

isparallelto
proj
and
isorthogonalto
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectovera
particulardistance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
bethevectorfrom to .
betheanglebetweenFand
Then,wedefineworkas:

cos
Magnitude
ofForce
Version 2.0
Distance
Traveled
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichonetouseinaparticular
situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
Anglebetween
Vectors
Page 86 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Example10.9:Themagnitudeanddirectionoftwoforcesactingonanobjectare60pounds,
N 40 E,and70pounds,N 40 W,respectively.Findthemagnitudeandthedirectionangleof
theresultantforce.
Thisproblemrequirestheadditionoftwovectors.Theapproachusedhereis:
1) Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents,callthem and ,
2) Addtheresulting and valuesforthetwovectors,and
3) Convertthesumtoitspolarform.
Keepadditionalaccuracythroughoutandroundattheend.Thiswillpreventerror
compoundingandwillpreservetherequiredaccuracyofyourfinalsolutions.
Step1:Converteachvectorintoits iandjcomponents
Let beaforceof60lbs.atbearing:N 40 E
Fromthediagramatright,
90
40
50
60 cos 50
38.5673
60 sin 50
45.9627
Let beaforceof70lbs.atbearing:N 40 W
Fromthediagramatright,
90
40
50
70 cos 50
70 sin 50
44.9951
53.6231
Step2:Addtheresultsforthetwovectors
38.5673, 45.9627
44.9951, 53.6231
6.4278, 99.5858
Step3:Convertthesumtoitspolarform
DirectionAngle
Magnitude
Version 2.0
tan
6.4278
.
.
93.7
99.5858
Page 87 of 109
99.79lbs.
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Example10.10:Oneropepullsabargedirectlyeastwithaforceof79newtons,andanother
ropepullsthebargedirectlynorthwithaforceof87newtons.Findthemagnitudeand
directionangleoftheresultingforceactingonthebarge.
Theprocessofaddingtwovectorswhoseheadingsarenorth,east,
westorsouth(NEWS)isverysimilartoconvertingasetofrectangular
coordinatestopolarcoordinates.So,ifthisprocessseemsfamiliar,
thatsbecauseitis.
79
Magnitude
DirectionAngle
87
tan
117.52 newtons

47.8
Example10.11:AforceisgivenbythevectorF=5i+2j.Theforcemovesanobjectalonga
straightlinefromthepoint(5,7)tothepoint(18,13).Findtheworkdoneifthedistanceis
measured
infeetandtheforceismeasuredinpounds.
Forthisproblemitissufficienttousetheworkformula,
5, 2.
Wearegiven
Wecancalculate
asthedifferencebetweenthetwogivenpoints.
18, 13
5, 7
13, 6

Then,calculate
5, 2
13, 6
Notethatthedifferencebetweentwopointsisavector.
5 13
26
77footpounds
Version 2.0
Page 88 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
Example10.12:Decompose intotwovectors and ,where isparalleltowand is
orthogonaltow. =i4j, =2i+j
Theformulasforthisare:
proj
Letsdothecalculations.
1, 4
2, 1
12
41
Then,

proj
2, 1
And,
1, 4
4 2
,
5 5
9 18

,
5 5
Version 2.0
Page 89 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorCrossProduct
CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
u
Let:
and
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
u
v
u
v
u
v
sin
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
Explanation:Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathird
vectorthatisorthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,
normaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthe
secondformulaabove, istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.
Itsorientation(direction)isdeterminedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
x
Usingyourrighthand:
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let:
Then, x
u and
u
v
u
v
v
u v
v
u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.
Thatis,vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
sin .
Version 2.0
Page 90 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
VectorCrossProduct
PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
, x
, x
, x
, x
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother
Reverseorientationorthogonality
Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
AnticommutativeProperty
x m
ScalarMultiplication
Moreproperties:
If x
If istheanglebetween and ,thensin
,then and areparallel.
AngleBetweenTwoVectors
Noticethesimilaritiesintheformulasfortheanglebetweentwovectorsusingthedotproduct
andthecrossproduct:

cos
Version 2.0
sin
Page 91 of 109
January 1, 2016
Chapter10
Vectors
ScalarTripleProduct
u
Let:
Thenthetripleproduct x givesascalarrepresentingthevolumeofaparallelepiped
(a3Dparallelogram)with , ,and asedges:
u
v
w
u
v
w
u
v
w
Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif
0.
OtherTripleProducts

x x
Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
x x
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts
Version 2.0
Page 92 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
SummaryofTrigonometricFormulas
Appendix A
( and axes)
(foranyangle)
sin cos
1
sec
1 tan
1
csc
cot
sin
sin
csc
cos
cos
sec
tan
tan
1
tan
cot
sin
cos
cot
cot
1
cot
tan
cos
sin
sec
sec
cos
csc
csc
sin
sin
sin
cos
KeyAngles
(
cos
30
45
60
Cofunctions(inQuadrantI)
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
Version 2.0
cos

cot

csc
sin
tan
sec
90
2
Page 93 of 109
)
0 radians
6
4
3
2
radians
radians
radians
radians
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)
SOHCAHTOA
sin
cos
tan
sin
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
LawsofSinesandCosines(ObliqueTriangle)
LawofSines(seeillustrationbelow)
Version 2.0
cos
cos
cos
LawofCosines(seeillustrationbelow)
Page 94 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
sin
sin
sin cos cos sin

sin cos cos sin
tan
cos
cos
cos cos
cos cos
tan
cos 2

sin sin
sin sin
DoubleAngleFormulas
sin 2 2 sin cos
tan 2

cos
sin
1 2 sin
2 cos
1
HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
sin
cos
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
ByQuadrant
tan
sin+
sin+
cos
cos+
tan
tan+
x
sin
sin
cos
cos+
tan+
tan
Version 2.0
Page 95 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
sin
cos
tan

Version 2.0
Page 96 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
TriangleAreaFormulas
Geometry
where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
HeronsFormula
where,
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
UsingBothLengthsandAngles

CoordinateGeometry
Letthreeverticesofatriangleinthecoordinateplanebe:

Version 2.0
Page 97 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
ComplexNumbersinPolarForm
cos
sin
cis
cos
sin
cis
Operations
Let:
cos
sin
cos
sin
Multiplication:
cos
sin
cos
sin
Division:
Powers:
cos
Roots:
sin
cos
variesfrom0to
sin
Note: has distinctcomplex throots: , , , ,
Version 2.0
Page 98 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
Vectors
, , aretheunitvectorsinthe , , directionsrespectively.
2dimensions
3dimensions
AdditiveIdentity
AdditiveInverse
Properties
AssociativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
MultiplicativeIdentity
MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
| |
CommutativeProperty
Version 2.0
Page 99 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
VectorDotProduct
Let:
and
Properties
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother.
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
cos
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
istheanglebetween and
VectorProjection
proj
proj
and
Work
Fistheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .

Version 2.0

cos
isanglebetweenFand
Page 100 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
VectorCrossProduct
2Dimensions
u
Let:
u and
u
v
u
v
Then, x
u v
u v
Areaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:

sin
3Dimensions
u
Let:
u
u
v
u
v
u
v
sin
and
u v
u v
v
u v
u v
u v
u v
istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectorswithorientation
determinedusingtherighthandrule.
Properties
x
, x

, x
, x
sin
, x
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother
Reverseorientationorthogonality
Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
AnticommutativeProperty
x m
ScalarMultiplication
Version 2.0
istheanglebetween and
Page 101 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixA
u
Let:
ScalarTripleProduct
u
v
w
u
v
w
u
v
w
OtherTripleProducts

x x
x x
NoAssociativeProperty
x x
x x
Version 2.0
Page 102 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixB
SolvingtheAmbiguousCaseAlternativeMethod
AppendixB
Howdoyousolveatriangle(ortwo)intheambiguouscase?Assumetheinformationgivenisthe
lengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angle ).
Step2:Considerthevalueof
If
If
1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
1,then
Step1:Use
sin
sin
90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
If
1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.
Step3:Compare and .
If
,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculatethevaluesofeachangle ,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.
If
,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
Version 2.0
Page 103 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixB
Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles

and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachangle.
180
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows:
Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.

sin
sin
sin
or
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
Note:using and mayproducemoreaccurateresultssincebothofthesevaluesaregiven.
AmbiguousCase(AlternativeMethod)Flowchart
Start Here
Value of
sin
Is
yes
no
Two triangles
Calculate , and then .

Steps 4 and 5, above
Version 2.0
Page 104 of 109
January 1, 2016
AppendixC
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
Appendix C
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
Coordinates
Form
Conversion
RectangularForm
PolarForm
cos
sin
Complex
Numbers
Form
tan
cos
Form
or
cos
sin
Vectors
sin

Conversion
tan
magnitude
directionangle
Conversion
cos
sin
tan
Version 2.0
Page 105 of 109
January 1, 2016
Index
Page
54,103
56,104
Subject
AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
17
8
37
14
14
Amplitude
Angle
AngleofDepression
AngleofDepression
ArcMeasure
AreaofaTriangle
GeometryFormula
Heron'sFormula
Astroid
61
61
62
62
78
72,75
17
71
9
65,105
65
65
79
65,105
64,105
76
105
11
11
11
8
90
78
Version 2.0
Cardioid
Circles
Cofunctions
ComplexNumbers
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
OperationsinPolarForm
PolarForm
ComponentsofVectors
ComplexNumbers
Coordinates
Equations
Vectors
CosecantFunction
CosineFunction
CotangentFunction
CoterminalAngle
CrossProduct
Cycloid
Page 106 of 109
January 1, 2016
Index
Page
Subject
11
9
DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
7
78
67
68
14
Degrees
Deltoid
DeMoivre'sTheorem
DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Depression,Angleof
83
37
77
DotProduct
DoubleAngleFormulas
Ellipse
Equations
SolvingTrigonometricEquations
76
47
17
15
75
30
22
26
34
72
69
74
28
20
24
19
Frequency
Graphs
BasicTrigFunctions
Cardioid
CosecantFunction
CosineFunction
CotangentFunction
LimaonofPascal
PolarFunctions
Rose
SecantFunction
SineFunction
TangentFunction
TrigFunctionCharacteristics(Table)
37
32
HalfAngleFormulas
HarmonicMotion
61
77
Heron'sFormula
Hyperbola
IdentitiesVerification
Steps
Techniques
43
44
Version 2.0
Page 107 of 109
January 1, 2016
Index
Page
Subject
14
8
Inclination,Angleof
InitialSideofanAngle
33
34
33
33
52
52
73
Definitions
Graphs
PrincipalValues
Ranges
LawofCosines
LawofSines
LemniscateofBernoulli
72
78
51
65
LimaonofPascal
Nephroid
ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
86
77
17
18
Parabola
Period
PhaseShift
8
8,69
64,105
65,105
PolarAngle
PolarAxis
PolarCoordinates
PolarFormofComplexNumbers
71
64,105
41
33
41
86
PolarGraphTypes
PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
80
9
8
7,9
64,80
Version 2.0
PropertiesofVectors
QuadrantalAngle
Radians
RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
Page 108 of 109
January 1, 2016
Index
Page
8
71,74
Subject
ReferenceAngle
Rose
11
32
11
9
11
SecantFunction
SimpleHarmonicMotion
SineFunction
SOHCAHTOA
73
8
41
11
Spirals
StandardPosition
TangentFunction
8
12
11
92
TerminalSideofanAngle
TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
TripleProducts
10
79
79
79
105
90
83
86
86
80
86
92
8
18
86
UnitCircle
UnitVectorsiandj
Vectors
Components
CrossProduct
DotProduct
Projection
Properties
SpecialUnitVectorsiandj
TripleProducts
VertexofanAngle
VerticalShift
Work
Version 2.0
Page 109 of 109
January 1, 2016

Trigonometry Handbook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Trigonometry Handbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MathHandbook

Thereare360degrees i.e.,360 inonerotationaroundacircle.Althoughtherearevarious

Thereare2 ~ 6.283 radiansinonerotationaroundacircle.The

TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany

0.Therefore, isin 3,sowedrawtheangleinthatquadrant.

0.Therefore, isin 2,sowedrawtheangleinthatquadrant.

300 tan 62.4

(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline

Scalefactor:| |.Thetangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe

Scalefactor:| |.Thecotangentfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof

Scalefactor:| |.Thesecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeofthe

Scalefactor:| |.Thecosecantfunctiondoesnothaveamplitude.| |isthemagnitudeof

sin cos cos sin

sin 2 2 sin cos

Example4.1:Findtheexactvalueof:cos 175 cos 55

cos 175 cos 55

sin 175 sin 55 .

sin 175 sin 55

Example4.2:Findtheexactvalueof:tan 255 Recall:tan

Example4.3:Findtheexactvalueof:sin 105 . Recall:sin

sin cos sin cos

sin 60 cos 45 sin 45 cos 60

,and liesinquadrantIII. Find sin 2 , cos 2 , tan 2 .

Notethatif isinQ4,then isinQ2,sothevalueofsin ispositive.

Substitutingcos backinfor gives:

sin sin cos cos

sin sin cos

Example5.10:Solveforallsolutionsof :tan sec

42.1 sin 110

Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.

Note:using and mayproducemoreaccurateresultssincebothofthesevaluesaregiven.

Calculate , and then

Twoanglesintheinterval 0, 180 havethissinevalue.Letsfindthem:

2 100 120 cos 120

4,096 cis 111.542

4,096 cos 111.542

243 cis 29.052

243 cos 29.052

.Then, has distinctcomplex throotsthatoccupypositions

Replace with intheequation

Replace with intheequation

Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa

Substitute for cos

Substitute for sin

Example9.4:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.

Asthevariable progressesfrom0to2 ,acircleofradius isborn.

cos sin (note:thisformulaisoften

If istheanglebetween and ,thencos

,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).

If istheanglebetween and ,thensin

,then and areparallel.

Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif

sin cos cos sin

sin 2 2 sin cos

Note: has distinctcomplex throots: , , , ,

Page 100 of 109

Areaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:

Page 101 of 109

Page 102 of 109

Page 103 of 109

Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles

Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.

Note:using and mayproducemoreaccurateresultssincebothofthesevaluesaregiven.

Calculate , and then .