The Metallurgy Of Carbon Steel

The best way to understand the metallurgy of carbon steel is to study the Iron Carbon
Diagram. The diagram shown below is based on the transformation that occurs as a result of
slow heating. Slow cooling will reduce the transformation temperatures; for example: the A1
point would be reduced from 723C to 690 C. However the fast heating and cooling rates
encountered in welding will have a significant influence on these temperatures, making the
accurate prediction of weld metallurgy using this diagram difficult.

Austenite This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high temperature. It has a
Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure which can contain up to 2% carbon in
solution.

Ferrite This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C) which can hold very
little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room temperature. It can exist as either: alpha or
delta ferrite.

Carbon A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into clusters of iron atoms. It
strengthens steel and gives it the ability to harden by heat treatment. It also causes
major problems for welding , particularly if it exceeds 0.25% as it creates a hard
microstructure that is susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Carbon forms compounds

with other elements called carbides. Iron Carbide, Chrome Carbide etc.

Cementite Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard intermetallic

compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the remainder iron, its chemical symbol is
Fe3C. Cementite is very hard, but when mixed with soft ferrite layers its average
hardness is reduced considerably. Slow cooling gives course perlite; soft easy to
machine but poor toughness. Faster cooling gives very fine layers of ferrite and
cementite; harder and tougher

Pearlite A mixture of alternate strips of ferrite and

cementite in a single grain. The distance between
the plates and their thickness is dependant on the
cooling rate of the material; fast cooling creates thin
plates that are close together and slow cooling
creates a much coarser structure possessing less
toughness. The name for this structure is derived
from its mother of pearl appearance under a
microscope. A fully pearlitic structure occurs at
0.8% Carbon. Further increases in carbon will
create cementite at the grain boundaries, which will
start to weaken the steel.

Cooling of a steel below 0.8% carbon When a steel solidifies it forms austenite.
When the temperature falls below the A3 point, grains of ferrite start to form. As
more grains of ferrite start to form the remaining austenite becomes richer in carbon.
At about 723C the remaining austenite, which now contains 0.8% carbon, changes to
pearlite. The resulting structure is a mixture consisting of white grains of ferrite
mixed with darker grains of pearlite. Heating is basically the same thing in reverse.

Martensite If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C structure rapidly
changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the carbon to form pearlite. This
results in a distorted structure that has the appearance of fine needles. There is no
partial transformation associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesnt.
However, only the parts of a section that cool fast enough will form martensite; in a
thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and if the shape is complex it may
only form in small pockets. The hardness of martensite is solely dependant on carbon
content, it is normally very high, unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.

Tempering The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation can be released by

heating the steel below the A1 transformation temperature. This release of carbon
from nucleated areas allows the structure to deform plastically and relive some of its

internal stresses. This reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also tends to
reduce tensile strength. The degree of tempering is dependant on temperature and
time; temperature having the greatest influence.

Annealing This term is often used to define a heat treatment process that produces
some softening of the structure. True annealing involves heating the steel to austenite
and holding for some time to create a stable structure. The steel is then cooled very
slowly to room temperature. This produces a very soft structure, but also creates very
large grains, which are seldom desirable because of poor toughness.

Normalising Returns the structure back to normal. The steel is heated until it just
starts to form austenite; it is then cooled in air. This moderately rapid transformation
creates relatively fine grains with uniform pearlite.

Welding If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted against the carbon
equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of transformation and heat treatments will be
observed.

Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration, in reality it will
be heavily distorted because of the rapid heating and cooling rates involved in the welding
process.

a) Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1, therefore

microstructure not significantly affected.
b) Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature available to
exceed the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains transform to Austenite. On
cooling, only the transformed grains will be normalised.
c) Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation. On cooling
all grains will be normalised
d) Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to grow. On
cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a course pearlite will
form inside the grains. A course grain structure is more readily hardened than
a finer one, therefore if the cooling rate between 800C to 500C is rapid, a
hard microstructure will be formed. This is why a brittle fracture is most
likely to propagate in this region.

Welds The metallurgy of a weld is very different from

the parent material. Welding filler metals are designed to
create strong and tough welds, they contain fine oxide
particles that permit the nucleation of fine grains. When a
weld solidifies, its grains grow from the course HAZ
grain structure, further refinement takes place within these
course grains creating the typical acicular ferrite
formation shown opposite.

Residual Stress

Magnitude Of Stresses- A Simple Analogy

Strain Age Embrittlement

This phenomenon applies to carbon and low alloy steel. It involves ferrite forming a compound with
nitrogen; iron-nitride (Fe4N). Temperatures around 250C, will cause a fine precipitation of this
compound to occur. It will tend to pin any dislocations in the structure that have been created by cold
work or plastic deformation.
Strain ageing increases tensile strength but significantly reduces ductility and toughness.
Modern steels tend to have low nitrogen content, but this is not necessarily true for welds. Sufficient
Nitrogen, approximately 1 to 2 ppm, can be easily picked up from the atmosphere during welding.
Weld root runs are particularly at risk because of high contraction stresses causing plastic deformation.
This is why impact test specimens taken from the root or first pass of a weld can give poor results.
Additions of Aluminium can tie up the Nitrogen as Aluminium Nitride, but weld-cooling rates are too
fast for this compound to form successfully. Stress relief at around 650 degrees C will resolve the
problem.

Alloying Elements
Manganese
Increases strength and hardness; forms a carbide; increases hardenability; lowers the transformation
temperature range. When in sufficient quantity produces an austenitic steel; always present in a steel to
some extent because it is used as a deoxidiser
Silicon
Strengthens ferrite and raises the transformation temperature temperatures; has a strong graphitising
tendency. Always present to some extent, because it is used with manganese as a deoxidiser
Chromium
Increases strength and hardness; forms hard and stable carbides. It raises the transformation
temperature significantly when its content exceeds 12%. Increases hardenability; amounts in excess of
12%, render steel stainless. Good creep strength at high temperature.
Nickel
Strengthens steel; lowers its transformation temperature range; increases hardenability, and improves
resistance to fatigue. Strong graphite forming tendency; stabilizes austenite when in sufficient quantity.
Creates fine grains and gives good toughness.
Nickel And Chromium
Used together for austenitic stainless steels; each element counteracts disadvantages of the other.
Tungsten
Forms hard and stable carbides; raises the transformation temperature range, and tempering
temperatures. Hardened tungsten steels resist tempering up to 6000C

Molybdenum
Strong carbide forming element, and also improves high temperature creep resistance; reduces temperbrittleness in Ni-Cr steels. Improves corrosion resistance and temper brittleness.
Vanadium
Strong carbide forming element; has a scavenging action and produces clean, inclusion free steels. Can
cause re-heat cracking when added to chrome molly steels.
Titanium
Strong carbide forming element. Not used on its own, but added as a carbide stabiliser to some
austenitic stainless steels.
Phosphorus
Increases strength and hardnability, reduces ductility and toughness. Increases machineability and
corrosion resistance
Sulphur
Reduces toughness and strength and also weldabilty.
Sulphur inclusions, which are normally present, are taken into solution near the fusion temperature of
the weld. On cooling sulphides and remaining sulphur precipitate out and tend to segregate to the grain
boundaries as liquid films, thus weakening them considerably. Such steel is referred to as burned.
Manganese breaks up these films into globules of maganese sulphide; maganese to sulphur ratio >
20:1, higher carbon and/or high heat input during welding > 30:1, to reduce extent of burning.

Austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels have high ductility, low yield stress and relatively high ultimate
tensile strength, when compare to a typical carbon steel.
A carbon steel on cooling transforms from Austenite to a mixture of ferrite and cementite.
With austenitic stainless steel, the high chrome and nickel content suppress this
transformation keeping the material fully austenite on cooling (The Nickel maintains the
austenite phase on cooling and the Chrome slows the transformation down so that a fully
austenitic structure can be achieved with only 8% Nickel).
Heat treatment and the thermal cycle caused by welding, have little influence on
mechanical properties. However strength and hardness can be increased by cold
working, which will also reduce ductility. A full solution anneal (heating to around
1045C followed by quenching or rapid cooling) will restore the material to its original
condition, removing alloy segregation, sensitisation, sigma phase and restoring ductility
after cold working. Unfortunately the rapid cooling will re-introduce residual stresses,
which could be as high as the yield point. Distortion can also occur if the object is not
properly supported during the annealing process.
Austenitic steels are not susceptible to hydrogen cracking, therefore pre-heating is seldom
required, except to reduce the risk of shrinkage stresses in thick sections. Post weld heat

treatment is seldom required as this material as a high resistance to brittle fracture;

occasionally stress relief is carried out to reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking,
however this is likely to cause sensitisation unless a stabilised grade is used (limited
stress relief can be achieved with a low temperature of around 450C ).
Austenitic steels have a F.C.C atomic structure which provides more planes for the flow
of dislocations, combined with the low level of interstitial elements (elements that lock
the dislocation chain), gives this material its good ductility. This also explains why this
material has no clearly defined yield point, which is why its yield stress is always
expressed as a proof stress. Austenitic steels have excellent toughness down to true
absolute (-273C), with no steep ductile to brittle transition.
This material has good corrosion resistance, but quite severe corrosion can occur in
certain environments. The right choice of welding consumable and welding technique can
be crucial as the weld metal can corrode more than the parent material.
Probably the biggest cause of failure in pressure plant made of stainless steel is stress
corrosion cracking (S.C.C). This type of corrosion forms deep cracks in the material and
is caused by the presence of chlorides in the process fluid or heating water/steam (Good
water treatment is essential ), at a temperature above 50C, when the material is subjected
to a tensile stress (this stress includes residual stress, which could be up to yield point in
magnitude). Significant increases in Nickel and also Molybdenum will reduce the risk.
Stainless steel has a very thin and stable oxide film rich in chrome. This film reforms
rapidly by reaction with the atmosphere if damaged. If stainless steel is not adequately
protected from the atmosphere during welding or is subject to very heavy grinding
operations, a very thick oxide layer will form. This thick oxide layer, distinguished by its
blue tint, will have a chrome depleted layer under it, which will impair corrosion
resistance. Both the oxide film and depleted layer must be removed, either mechanically
(grinding with a fine grit is recommended, wire brushing and shot blasting will have less
effect), or chemically (acid pickle with a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acid). Once
cleaned, the surface can be chemically passivated to enhance corrosion resistance,
(passivation reduces the anodic reaction involved in the corrosion process).
Carbon steel tools, also supports or even sparks from grinding carbon steel, can embed
fragments into the surface of the stainless steel. These fragments can then rust if
moistened. Therefore it is recommended that stainless steel fabrication be carried out in a
separate designated area and special stainless steel tools used where possible.
If any part of stainless-steel is heated in the range 500 degrees to 800 degrees for any
reasonable time there is a risk that the chrome will form chrome carbides (a compound
formed with carbon) with any carbon present in the steel. This reduces the chrome
available to provide the passive film and leads to preferential corrosion, which can be
severe. This is often referred to as sensitisation. Therefore it is advisable when welding
stainless steel to use low heat input and restrict the maximum interpass temperature to
around 175, although sensitisation of modern low carbon grades is unlikely unless

heated for prolonged periods. Small quantities of either titanium (321) or niobium (347)
added to stabilise the material will inhibit the formation of chrome carbides.

To resist oxidation and creep high carbon grades such as 304H or 316H are often used.
Their improved creep resistance relates to the presence of carbides and the slightly
coarser grain size associated with higher annealing temperatures. Because the higher
carbon content inevitably leads to sensitisation, there may be a risk of corrosion during
plant shut downs, for this reason stabilised grades may be preferred such as 347H.
The solidification strength of austenitic stainless steel can be seriously impaired by small
additions of impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous, this coupled with the materials
high coefficient of expansion can cause serious solidification cracking problems. Most
304 type alloys are designed to solidify initially as delta ferrite, which has a high
solubility for sulphur, transforming to austenite upon further cooling. This creates an
austenitic material containing tiny patches of residual delta ferrite, therefore not a true
austenitic in the strict sense of the word. Filler metal often contains further additions of
delta ferrite to ensure crack free welds.
The delta ferrite can transform to a very brittle phase called sigma, if heated above 550C
for very prolonged periods (Could take several thousand hours, depending on chrome
level. A duplex stainless steel can form sigma phase after only a few minutes at this
temperature)
The very high coefficient of expansion associated with this material means that welding
distortion can be quite savage. I have seen thick ring flanges on pressure vessel twist
after welding to such an extent that a fluid seal is impossible. Thermal stress is another
major problem associated with stainless steel; premature failure can occur on pressure

plant heated by a jacket or coils attached to a cold veesel. This material has poor thermal
conductivity, therefore lower welding current is required (typically 25% less than carbon
steel) and narrower joint preparations can be tolerated. All common welding processes
can be used successfully, however high deposition rates associated with SAW could cause
solidification cracking and possibly sensitisation, unless adequate precautions are taken.
To ensure good corrosion resistance of the weld root it must be protected from the
atmosphere by an inert gas shield during welding and subsequent cooling. The gas shield
should be contained around the root of the weld by a suitable dam, which must permit a
continuous gas flow through the area. Welding should not commence until sufficient
time has elapsed to allow the volume of purging gas flowing through the dam to equal at
least the 6 times the volume contained in the dam (EN1011 Part 3 Recommends 10).
Once purging is complete the purge flow rate should be reduced so that it only exerts a
small positive pressure, sufficient to exclude air. If good corrosion resistance of the root
is required the oxygen level in the dam should not exceed 0.1%(1000 ppm); for extreme
corrosion resistance this should be reduced to 0.015% (150 ppm). Backing gasses are
typically argon or helium; Nitrogen Is often used as an economic alternative where
corrosion resistance is not critical, Nitrogrn + 10% Helium is better. A wide variety of
proprietary pastes and backing materials are available than can be use to protect the root
instead of a gas shield. In some applications where corrosion and oxide coking of the
weld root is not important, such as large stainless steel ducting, no gas backing is used.
A pdf guide to weld purging
Huntingdon Fusion Techniques Limited
Carbon content:
304 L grade Low Carbon, typically 0.03% Max
304 grade Medium Carbon, typically 0.08% Max
304H grade High Carbon, typically Up to 0.1%
The higher the carbon content the greater the yield strength. (Hence the stength
advantage in using stabilised grades)
Typical Alloy Content
304
316
316 Ti
320
321
347
308
309

(18-20Cr, 8-12Ni)
(16-18Cr, 10-14Ni + 2-3Mo)
(316 with Titanium Added)
(Same as 316Ti)
(17-19Cr, 9-12Ni + Titanium)
(17-19Cr, 9-13Ni + Niobium)
(19-22Cr, 9-11Ni)
(22-24Cr, 12-15Ni)

304 + Molybdenum
304 + Moly + Titanium
304 + Titanium
304 + Niobium
304 + Extra 2%Cr
304 + Extra 4%Cr + 4% Ni

All the above stainless steel grades are basic variations of a 304. All are readily weldable
and all have matching consumables, except for a 304 which is welded with a 308 or 316,

321 is welded with a 347 (Titanium is not easily transferred across the arc) and a 316Ti is
normally welded with a 318.
Molybdenum has the same effect on the microstructure as chrome, except that it gives
better resistance to pitting corrosion. Therefore a 316 needs less chrome than a 304.

310

904L

(24-26Cr,19-22Ni) True Austenitic. This material does not transform to ferrite

on cooling and therefore does not contain delta ferrite. It
will not suffer sigma phase embrittlement but can be tricky
to weld.
(20Cr,25Ni,4.5Mo) Super Austenitic Or Nickel alloy. Superior corrosion
resistance providing they are welded carefully with low heat
input (less than 1 kJ/mm recommended) and fast travel
speeds with no weaving. Each run of weld should not be
started until the metal temperature falls below 100C. It is
unlikely that a uniform distribution of alloy will be achieved
throughout the weld (segregation), therefore this material
should either be welded with an over-alloyed consumable
such as a 625 or solution annealed after welding, if
maximum corrosion resistance is required.

Carbon Steel To Austenitic Steel

When a weld is made using a filler wire or consumable, there is a mixture in the weld
consisting of approximately 20% parent metal and 80% filler metal alloy ( percentage
depends on welding process, type of joint and welding parameters).
Any reduction in alloy content of 304 / 316 type austenitics is likely to cause the
formation of matensite on cooling. This could lead to cracking problems and poor
ductility. To avoid this problem an overalloyed filler metal is used, such as a 309, which
should still form austenite on cooling providing dilution is not excessive.
The Shaeffler diagram can be used to determine the type of microstructure that can be
expected when a filler metal and parent metal of differing compositions are mixed
together in a weld.
The Shaeffler Diagram

The Nickel and other elements that form Austenite, are plotted against Chrome and other
elements that form ferrite, using the following formula:Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn
Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb
Example, a typical 304L = 18.2%Cr, 10.1%Ni, 1.2%Mn, 0.4%Si, 0.02%C
Ni Equiv = 10.1 + 30 x 0.02 + 0.5 x 1.2 = 11.3
Cr Equiv = 18.2 + 0 + 1.5 x 0.4 + 0 = 18.8
A typical 309L welding consumable Ni Equiv = 14.35, Cr Equiv = 24.9
The main disadvantage with this diagram is that it does not represent Nitrogen, which is a
very strong Austenite former.
Ferrite Number
The ferrite number uses magnetic attraction as a means of measuring the proportion of
delta ferrite present. The ferrite number is plotted on a modified Shaeffler diagram, the
Delong Diagram. The Chrome and Nickel equivalent is the same as that used for
the Shaeffler diagram, except that the Nickel equivalent includes the addition of 30 times
the Nitrogen content.

Examples

The Shaeffler diagram above illustrates a carbon steel C.S , welded with 304L filler.
Point A represents the anticipated composition of the weld metal, if it consists of a
mixture of filler metal and 25% parent metal. This diluted weld, according to the
diagram, will contain martensite. This problem can be overcome if a higher alloyed filler
is used, such as a 309L, which has a higher nickel and chrome equivalent that will tend to
pull point A into the austenite region.

If the welds molten pool spans two different metals the process becomes more
complicated. First plot both parent metals on the shaeffler diagram and connect them
with a line. If both parent metals are diluted by the same amount, plot a false point B on
the diagram midway between them. (Point B represents the microstructure of the weld if
no filler metal was applied.)

Next, plot the consumable on the diagram, which for this example is a 309L. Draw a line
from this point to false point B and mark a point A along its length equivalent to the total
weld dilution. This point will give the approximate microstructure of the weld metal. The
diagram below illustrates 25% total weld dilution at point A, which predicts a good
microstructure of Austenite with a little ferrite.

The presence of martensite can be detected by subjecting a macro section to a hardness

survey, high hardness levels indicate martensite. Alternatively the weld can be subjected
to a bend test ( a side bend is required by the ASME code for corrosion resistant
overlays), any martensite present will tend to cause the test piece to break rather than
bend.
However the presence of martensite is unlikely to cause hydrogen cracking, as any
hydrogen evolved during the welding process will be absorbed by the austenitic filler
metal.

Evaluating Dilution

Causes Of High Dilution

High Travel Speed. Too much heat applied to parent metal instead of on filler
metal.
High welding Current. High current welding processes, such as Submerged Arc
Welding can cause high dilution.
Thin Material. Thin sheet TIG welded can give rise to high dilution levels.
Joint Preparation. Square preps generate very high dilution. This can be
reduced by carefully buttering the joint face with high alloy filler metal.
http://www.avestapolarit.com/upload/steel_properties/Schaeffler_large.jpg

HOW TO AVOID PWHT

The above picture is of a new pressure vessel that failed during its hydraulic test. The
vessel had been stress relieved, but some parts of it did not reach the required temperature
and consequently did not experience adequate tempering. This coupled with a small
hydrogen crack, was sufficient to cause catastrophic failure under test conditions. It is
therefore important when considering PWHT or its avoidance, to ensure that all possible
failure modes and their consequences are carefully considered before any action is taken.
The post weld heat treatment of welded steel fabrications is normally carried out to reduce
the risk of brittle fracture by:

Reducing residual Stresses. These stresses are created when a weld cools and its
contraction is restricted by the bulk of the material surrounding it. Weld distortion
occurs when these stresses exceed the yield point. Finite element modelling of
residual stresses is now possible, so that the complete welding sequence of a joint
or repair can be modelled to predict and minimise these stresses.

Tempering the weld and HAZ microstructure. The microstructure, particularly in

the HAZ, can be hardened by rapid cooling of the weld. This is a major problem
for low and medium alloy steels containing chrome and any other constituent that
slow the austenite/ferrite transformation down, as this will result in hardening of
the micro structure, even at slow cooling rates.

The risk of brittle fracture can be assessed by fracture mechanics. Assuming worst-case
scenarios for all the relevant variables. It is then possible to predict if PWHT is required to
make the fabrication safe. However, the analysis requires accurate measurement of HAZ
toughness, which is not easy because of the HAZs small size and varying properties.
Some approximation is possible from impact tests, providing the notch is taken from the

point of lowest toughness.

If PWHT is to be avoided, stress concentration effects such as: - backing bars, partial
penetration welds, and internal defects in the weld and poor surface profile, should be
avoided. Good surface and volumetric NDT is essential. Preheat may still be required to
avoid hydrogen cracking and a post weld hydrogen release may also be beneficial in this
respect (holding the fabrication at a temperature of around 250C for at least 2 hours,
immediately after welding).
Nickel based consumables can often reduce or remove the need for preheat, but their effect
on the parent metal HAZ will be no different from that created by any other consumable,
except that the HAZ may be slightly narrower. However, nickel based welds, like most
austenitic steels, can make ultrasonic inspection very difficult.
Further reduction in the risk of brittle fracture can be achieved by refining the HAZ
microstructure using special temper bead welding techniques.

Duplex stainless steels

Typically twice the yield of austenitic stainless steels. Minimum Specified UTS typically
680 to 750N/mm2 (98.6 to 108ksi). Elongation typically > 25%.
Superior corrosion resistance than a 316. Good Resistance to stress corrosion cracking in a
chloride environment.
Duplex materials have improved over the last decade; further additions of Nitrogen have
been made improving weldability.
Because of the complex nature of this material it is important that it is sourced from good
quality steel mills and is properly solution annealed. Castings and possibly thick sections
may not cool fast when annealed causing sigma and other deleterious phases to form.
The material work hardens if cold formed; even the strain produced from welding can
work harden the material particularly in multi pass welding. Therefore a full solution
anneal is advantageous, particularly if low service temperatures are foreseen.
The high strength of this material can make joint fit up difficult.
Usable temperature range restricted to, -50 to 280C
Used in Oil & Natural Gas production, chemical plants etc.
Standard Duplex
S31803 22Cr 5Ni 2.8Mo 0.15N PREn = 32-33

Super Duplex: Stronger and more corrosion resistant than standard duplex.
S32760(Zeron 100) 25Cr 7.5Ni 3.5Mo 0.23N PREn = 40

Micro Of Standard Duplex

Dark Areas:- Ferrite
Light Areas:- Austenite

Duplex solidifies initially as ferrite, then transforms on further cooling to a matrix of ferrite
and austenite. In modern raw material the balance should be 50/50 for optimum corrosion
resistance, particularly resistance to stress corrosion cracking. However the materials
strength is not significantly effected by the ferrite / austenite phase balance.

The main problem with Duplex is that it very easily forms brittle intermetalic phases, such
as Sigma, Chi and Alpha Prime. These phases can form rapidly, typically 100 seconds at
900C. However shorter exposure has been known to cause a drop in toughness, this has
been attribute to the formation of sigma on a microscopic scale.
Prolonged heating in the range 350 to 550C can cause 475C temper embrittlement.

For this reason the maximum recommended service temperature for duplex is about 280C.
Sigma (55Fe 45Cr) can be a major problem when welding thin walled small bore pipe
made of super duplex, although it can occur in thicker sections. It tends to be found in the
bulk of the material rather than at the surface, therefore it probably has more effect on
toughness than corrosion resistance. Sigma can also occur in thick sections, such as
castings that have not been properly solution annealed (Not cooled fast enough).
However most standards accept that deleterious phases, such as sigma, chi and laves, may
be tolerated if the strength and corrosion resistance are satisfactory.
Nitrogen is a strong austenite former and largely responsible for the balance between
ferrite and austenite phases and the materials superior corrosion resistance. Nitrogen cant
be added to filler metal, as it does not transfer across the arc. It can also be lost from
molten parent metal during welding. Its loss can lead to high ferrite and reduced corrosion
resistance. Nitrogen can be added to the shielding gas and backing gas, Up to about 10%;
however this makes welding difficult as it can cause porosity and contamination of the
Tungsten electrode unless the correct welding technique is used. Too much Nitrogen will
form a layer of Austenite on the weld surface. In my experience most duplex and super
duplex are TIG welded using pure argon.
Backing / purge gas should contain less than 25ppm Oxygen for optimum corrosion
resistance.
Fast cooling from molten will promote the formation of ferrite, slow cooling will promote
austenite. During welding fast cooling is most likely, therefore welding consumables
usually contain up to 2 - 4% extra Nickel to promote austenite formation in the weld.
Duplex should never be welded without filler metal, as this will promote excessive ferrite,
unless the welded component is solution annealed. Acceptable phase balance is usually 30
70% Ferrite
Duplex welding consumables are suitable for joining duplex to austenitic stainless steel or
carbon steel; they can also be used for corrosion resistant overlays. Nickel based welding
consumables can be used but the weld strength will not be as good as the parent metal,
particularly on super duplex.

Low levels of austenite: - Poor toughness and general corrosion resistance.

High levels of austenite: - Some Reduction in strength and reduced resistance to

stress corrosion cracking.

Good impact test results are a good indication that the material has been successfully
welded. The parent metal usually exceeds 200J. The ductile to brittle transition
temperature is about 50C. The transition is not as steep as that of carbon steel and
depends on the welding process used. Flux protected processes, such as MMA; tend to

have a steeper transition curve and lower toughness. Multi run welds tend to promote
austenite and thus exhibit higher toughness
Tight controls and the use of arc monitors are recommended during welding and automatic
or mechanised welding is preferred. Repair welding can seriously affect corrosion
resistance and toughness; therefore any repairs should follow specially developed
procedures. See BS4515 Part 2 for details.
Production control test plates are recommended for all critical poduction welds.
Welding procedures should be supplemented by additional tests, depending on the
application and the requirements of any application code:

A ferrite count using a Ferro scope is probably the most popular. For best accuracy
the ferrite count should be performed manually and include a check for deleterious
phases.

Good impact test results are also a good indication of a successful welding
procedure and are mandatory in BS4515 Part 2.

A corrosion test, such as the G48 test, is highly recommended. The test may not
model the exact service corrosion environment, but gives a good qualative
assessment of the welds general corrosion resistance; this gives a good indication
that the welding method is satisfactory. G48 test temperature for standard duplex is
typically 22C, for super duplex 35C

Typical Welding Procedure For Zeron 100 (Super Duplex)

Pipe 60mm Od x 4mm Thick
Maximum Interpass 100C

Position 6G
Temperature at the end of welding < 250C

1.6mm Filler Wire

85 amps 2 weld runs (Root and Cap)

Arc energy 1 to 1,5 KJ/mm

Travel speed 0.75 to 1 mm/sec

Recommended Testing
1. Ferric Chloride Pitting Test To ASTM G48 : Method A
2. Chemical analysis of root
3. Ferrite count